How do we heal medicine? | Atul Gawande

495,406 views ใƒป 2012-04-16

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Shlomo Adam ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:15
I got my start
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ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื“ืจื›ื™,
00:18
in writing and research
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ื›ืกื•ืคืจ ื•ื›ื—ื•ืงืจ,
00:20
as a surgical trainee,
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ื”ื™ืชื” ื›ื›ื™ืจื•ืจื’ ืžืชืžื—ื”,
00:23
as someone who was a long ways away
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ื•ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืจื—ื•ืง ืžืจื—ืง ืจื‘
00:25
from becoming any kind of an expert at anything.
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ืžืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœืžื•ืžื—ื” ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื›ืœืฉื”ื•.
00:28
So the natural question you ask then at that point
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ืื– ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ืฉื‘ืฉืœื‘ ื–ื” ืชืฉืืœื•,
00:31
is, how do I get good at what I'm trying to do?
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ืื™ืš ื ืขืฉื™ืชื™ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืขื•ืฉื”.
00:33
And it became a question of,
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ื•ื–ื• ื”ืคื›ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ืฉืืœื”:
00:35
how do we all get good
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ืื™ืš ื›ื•ืœื ื• ื ืขืฉื™ื ื• ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื
00:37
at what we're trying to do?
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ื‘ืžื” ืฉืื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช?
00:40
It's hard enough to learn to get the skills,
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ืžืกืคื™ืง ืงืฉื” ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช,
00:44
try to learn all the material you have to absorb
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ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ืฉืฆืจื™ืš ืœืงืœื•ื˜
00:47
at any task you're taking on.
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืฉื™ืžื” ืฉืื“ื ืœื•ืงื— ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื•.
00:49
I had to think about how I sew and how I cut,
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ื”ื™ื” ืขืœื™ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืื™ืš ืื ื™ ืชื•ืคืจ ื•ื—ื•ืชืš,
00:52
but then also how I pick the right person
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ืืš ื’ื ืื™ืš ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืื“ื ื”ื ื›ื•ืŸ
00:54
to come to an operating room.
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ืœื”ืชืœื•ื•ืช ืืœื™ื• ืœื—ื“ืจ ื”ื ื™ืชื•ื—.
00:56
And then in the midst of all this
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ื•ื‘ืชื•ืš ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”
00:58
came this new context
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ื ื›ื ืก ื’ื ื”ื”ืงืฉืจ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ
01:00
for thinking about what it meant to be good.
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ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืขืœ ืžื” ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘.
01:02
In the last few years
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ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช
01:04
we realized we were in the deepest crisis
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ืชืคืกื ื• ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ืงืฉื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
01:07
of medicine's existence
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ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™-ื™ืžื™ ื”ืจืคื•ืื”
01:09
due to something you don't normally think about
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ืขืงื‘ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืœื ื ื”ื•ื’ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœื™ื•
01:11
when you're a doctor
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ื‘ืชื•ืจ ืจื•ืคื,
01:13
concerned with how you do good for people,
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ืฉื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื• ืœื”ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ ืขื ืื ืฉื™ื,
01:16
which is the cost
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ืžื—ื™ืจ
01:18
of health care.
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ืฉืœ ืฉื™ืจื•ืชื™ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช.
01:20
There's not a country in the world
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ืื™ืŸ ืืคื™ืœื• ืืจืฅ ืื—ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื
01:23
that now is not asking
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ืฉืœื ืฉื•ืืœืช ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ืืœื”
01:25
whether we can afford what doctors do.
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ืื ื”ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ืจืฉื•ืช ืœืขืฆืžื” ืืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื”ืจื•ืคืื™ื.
01:28
The political fight that we've developed
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ื”ืžืื‘ืง ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ืฉื‘ื• ืคืชื—ื ื•
01:31
has become one around
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ื”ืคืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ืฉืืœื”
01:33
whether it's the government that's the problem
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ื”ืื ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ื™ื ื”ื‘ืขื™ื”
01:36
or is it insurance companies that are the problem.
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ืื• ื”ืื ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื— ื”ืŸ ื”ื‘ืขื™ื”.
01:41
And the answer is yes and no;
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ื•ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื 'ื›ืŸ' ื•'ืœื':
01:45
it's deeper than all of that.
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ื–ื” ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื›ืš.
01:47
The cause of our troubles
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ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœืฆืจื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•
01:49
is actually the complexity that science has given us.
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ื”ื™ื ื‘ืขืฆื ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช ืฉื”ืžื“ืข ื”ืขื ื™ืง ืœื ื•.
01:52
And in order to understand this,
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ื•ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื–ืืช
01:54
I'm going to take you back a couple of generations.
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ืืงื— ืืชื›ื ื›ืžื” ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ืœืื—ื•ืจ
01:58
I want to take you back
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ื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื™ ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืืชื›ื ืœืชืงื•ืคื”
02:00
to a time when Lewis Thomas was writing in his book, "The Youngest Science."
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ืฉื‘ื” ืœื•ืื™ืก ืชื•ืžืก ื›ืชื‘ ืืช ืกืคืจื• "ื”ืžื“ืข ื”ื›ื™ ื”ืฆืขื™ืจ".
02:03
Lewis Thomas was a physician-writer,
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ืœื•ืื™ืก ืชื•ืžืก ื”ื™ื” ืจื•ืคื-ืกื•ืคืจ,
02:05
one of my favorite writers.
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ืื—ื“ ื”ืกื•ืคืจื™ื ื”ืื”ื•ื‘ื™ื ืขืœื™.
02:07
And he wrote this book to explain, among other things,
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ื”ื•ื ื›ืชื‘ ืืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ, ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืชืจ,
02:10
what it was like to be a medical intern
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ืื™ืš ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืจื•ืคื ืžืชืžื—ื”
02:13
at the Boston City Hospital
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ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื”ืขื™ืจื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื‘ื•ืกื˜ื•ืŸ
02:15
in the pre-penicillin year
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ื‘ืฉื ื” ืฉืœืคื ื™ ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ื”ืคื ื™ืฆื™ืœื™ืŸ
02:17
of 1937.
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1937.
02:20
It was a time when medicine was cheap
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ื”ืจืคื•ืื” ืื– ื”ื™ืชื” ื–ื•ืœื”
02:24
and very ineffective.
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ื•ืžืื“ ืœื ื™ืขื™ืœื”.
02:28
If you were in a hospital, he said,
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ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื—ื•ืœื™ื, ื›ืš ืืžืจ,
02:31
it was going to do you good
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ื–ื” ืขืฉื•ื™ ื”ื™ื” ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœืš
02:34
only because it offered you
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ืจืง ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ืžืงื•ื ื”ืฆื™ืข ืœืš
02:36
some warmth, some food, shelter,
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ืงืฆืช ื—ื™ืžื•ื, ืžืขื˜ ืžื–ื•ืŸ, ืžื—ืกื”,
02:40
and maybe the caring attention
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื’ื ืชืฉื•ืžืช-ืœื‘ ื•ื“ืื’ื”
02:42
of a nurse.
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ืžืฆื“ ื”ืื—ื•ืช.
02:44
Doctors and medicine
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ืœืจื•ืคืื™ื ื•ืœืจืคื•ืื”
02:48
made no difference at all.
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ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ืฉื•ื ื”ืฉืคืขื”.
02:50
That didn't seem to prevent the doctors
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ืœื ื ืจืื” ืฉื–ื” ืžื ืข ืžื”ืจื•ืคืื™ื
02:52
from being frantically busy in their days,
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ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื˜ืจื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ื˜ื™ืจื•ืฃ ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื•ื,
02:54
as he explained.
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ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ.
02:56
What they were trying to do
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ืžื” ืฉื”ื ื ื™ืกื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช
02:58
was figure out whether you might have one of the diagnoses
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ื”ื™ื” ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืื ืืชื” ืกื•ื‘ืœ ืžืื—ืช ื”ื“ื™ืื’ื ื•ื–ื•ืช
03:01
for which they could do something.
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ืฉื‘ืขื ื™ื™ื ืŸ ื”ื ื›ืŸ ื™ื›ืœื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžืฉื”ื•.
03:04
And there were a few.
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ื•ื›ืืœื” ื”ื™ื• ืžื•ืขื˜ื•ืช.
03:06
You might have a lobar pneumonia, for example,
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ืื ื”ื™ืชื” ืœืš ืœืžืฉืœ ื“ืœืงืช-ืจื™ืื•ืช,
03:09
and they could give you an antiserum,
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ื”ื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœืชืช ืœืš ื ืกื™ื•ื‘-ื ื’ื“,
03:11
an injection of rabid antibodies
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ื–ืจื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื ื•ื’ื“ื ื™ ื›ืœื‘ืช
03:15
to the bacterium streptococcus,
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ื ื’ื“ ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ ื”ืกื˜ืจืคื˜ื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก,
03:18
if the intern sub-typed it correctly.
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ืื ื”ืžืชืžื—ื” ืกื™ื•ื•ื’ ื–ืืช ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
03:22
If you had an acute congestive heart failure,
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ืื ืกื‘ืœืช ืžืื™-ืกืคื™ืงืช-ืœื‘ ื—ืžื•ืจื”,
03:25
they could bleed a pint of blood from you
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ื”ื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœื”ืงื™ื– ืžืžืš ื›ื—ืฆื™-ืœื™ื˜ืจ ื“ื
03:28
by opening up an arm vein,
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ืข"ื™ ืคืชื™ื—ืช ื•ืจื™ื“ ื‘ื–ืจื•ืข,
03:31
giving you a crude leaf preparation of digitalis
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ืœืชืช ืœืš ื—ืœื™ื˜ื” ื’ืกื” ืฉืœ ืขืœื™ ืืฆื‘ืขื•ื ื™ืช
03:34
and then giving you oxygen by tent.
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ื•ืื– ืœื›ืกื•ืช ืื•ืชืš ื‘ืื•ื”ืœ ื—ืžืฆืŸ.
03:39
If you had early signs of paralysis
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ืื ื”ื—ื•ืœื” ื”ืคื’ื™ืŸ ืกื™ืžื ื™ ืฉื™ืชื•ืง ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื,
03:41
and you were really good at asking personal questions,
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ื•ื™ื“ืขืช ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืฉืืœื•ืช ืื™ืฉื™ื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืžืื“,
03:44
you might figure out
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ื”ื™ื™ืช ืื•ืœื™ ืžื•ืฆื
03:46
that this paralysis someone has is from syphilis,
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ืฉื”ืฉื™ืชื•ืง ื”ื–ื” ืžืงื•ืจื• ื‘ืขื’ื‘ืช,
03:49
in which case you could give this nice concoction
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ื•ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื–ื” ื”ื™ื™ืช ื ื•ืชืŸ ืืช ื”ืžืจืงื—ืช ื”ื ื—ืžื“ื” ื”ื–ื•
03:52
of mercury and arsenic --
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ืฉืœ ื›ืกืคื™ืช ื•ื–ืจื ื™ืš --
03:56
as long as you didn't overdose them and kill them.
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ื›ืœ ืขื•ื“ ืœื ื ืชืช ืžื™ื ื•ืŸ-ื™ืชืจ ื•ื”ืจื’ืช ืื•ืชื•.
04:01
Beyond these sorts of things,
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ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืขื™ืŸ ืืœื”,
04:03
a medical doctor didn't have a lot that they could do.
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ื”ืจื•ืคื ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ.
04:08
This was when the core structure of medicine
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ื”ื™ื• ืืœื” ื”ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ื”ื ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืœื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืจืคื•ืื”
04:10
was created --
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ื”ืœืš ื•ื ื•ืฆืจ --
04:12
what it meant to be good at what we did
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ื”ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ืžื” ืฉืื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื
04:15
and how we wanted to build medicine to be.
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ื•ืื™ืš ืจืฆื™ื ื• ืœืขืฆื‘ ืืช ื”ืจืคื•ืื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขืชื™ื“.
04:17
It was at a time
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ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืชืงื•ืคื”
04:19
when what was known you could know,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื“ืขืช ืืช ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื” ื™ื“ื•ืข,
04:21
you could hold it all in your head, and you could do it all.
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ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืืช ื›ืœ ื–ื” ื‘ืจืืฉืš, ื•ื’ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื”ื›ืœ.
04:24
If you had a prescription pad,
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ืื ื”ื™ื” ืœืš ืคื ืงืก ืžืจืฉืžื™ื,
04:26
if you had a nurse,
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ืื ื”ื™ืชื” ืœืš ืื—ื•ืช,
04:28
if you had a hospital
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ืื ื”ื™ื” ืœืš ื‘ื™ืช ื—ื•ืœื™ื
04:30
that would give you a place to convalesce, maybe some basic tools,
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ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ื—ืœื™ื ื‘ื•, ืื•ืœื™ ื›ืžื” ื›ืœื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื™ื,
04:33
you really could do it all.
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ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜ ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื”ื›ืœ.
04:35
You set the fracture, you drew the blood,
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ืงื™ื‘ืขืช ืฉื‘ืจื™ื, ื ื™ืงื–ืช ื“ื,
04:38
you spun the blood,
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ืกื™ื—ืจืจืช ืืช ื”ื“ื,
04:40
looked at it under the microscope,
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ื‘ื—ื ืช ืื•ืชื• ืžืชื—ืช ืœืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืค,
04:42
you plated the culture, you injected the antiserum.
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ื”ื ื—ืช ืืช ื”ืชืจื‘ื™ืช ื‘ืฆืœื•ื—ื™ืช, ื”ื–ืจืงืช ืืช ื”ื ืกื™ื•ื‘,
04:45
This was a life as a craftsman.
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ืืœื• ื”ื™ื• ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื•ืžืŸ.
04:50
As a result, we built it around
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ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื›ืš ื‘ื ื™ื ื• ืื•ืชื ืกื‘ื™ื‘
04:53
a culture and set of values
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ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื•ืžืขืจื›ืช ืขืจื›ื™ื
04:55
that said what you were good at
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ืฉืื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ื”ื ืืชื” ื˜ื•ื‘
04:58
was being daring,
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ื”ื ืœื”ืขื™ื–,
05:00
at being courageous,
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ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืื•ืžืฅ,
05:02
at being independent and self-sufficient.
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ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืขืฆืžืื™ ื•ืขื•ืžื“ ื‘ืจืฉื•ืช ืขืฆืžื•.
05:06
Autonomy was our highest value.
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ื”ืื•ื˜ื•ื ื•ืžื™ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืขืจืš ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื•.
05:12
Go a couple generations forward
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ืืš ืื ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื›ืžื” ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ืงื“ื™ืžื”,
05:14
to where we are, though,
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ืœืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ืื ื• ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื,
05:16
and it looks like a completely different world.
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ื–ื” ื ืจืื” ื›ืžื• ืขื•ืœื ืฉื•ื ื” ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ.
05:18
We have now found treatments
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ื”ื™ื•ื ื›ื‘ืจ ืžืฆืื ื• ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœื™ื
05:21
for nearly all of the tens of thousands of conditions
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ื›ืžืขื˜ ืœื›ืœ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืืœืคื™ ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืช
05:25
that a human being can have.
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ืฉืื“ื ืขืœื•ืœ ืœืœืงื•ืช ื‘ื”ืŸ.
05:27
We can't cure it all.
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ืื™ื ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืคื ืืช ื›ื•ืœืŸ,
05:29
We can't guarantee that everybody will live a long and healthy life.
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ื•ืœื ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืฉื›ื•ืœื ื™ื—ื™ื• ื—ื™ื™ื ืืจื•ื›ื™ื ื•ื‘ืจื™ืื™ื.
05:32
But we can make it possible
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ืืš ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืืคืฉืจ ื–ืืช
05:34
for most.
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืจื•ื‘.
05:37
But what does it take?
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ืืš ืžื” ื–ื” ื“ื•ืจืฉ?
05:39
Well, we've now discovered
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืขื“ ื›ื” ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื•
05:41
4,000 medical and surgical procedures.
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4,000 ื ื”ืœื™ื ืจืคื•ืื™ื™ื ื•ื›ื™ืจื•ืจื’ื™ื™ื.
05:45
We've discovered 6,000 drugs
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ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• 6,000 ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช
05:48
that I'm now licensed to prescribe.
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ืฉืื ื™ ืžื•ืจืฉื” ื›ื™ื•ื ืœืจืฉื•ื.
05:51
And we're trying to deploy this capability,
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ื•ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ืœืคืจื•ืก ืืช ื”ื›ื•ื— ื”ื–ื”,
05:53
town by town,
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ื‘ืขื™ืจ ืื—ืจ ืขื™ืจ,
05:55
to every person alive --
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ื•ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื›ืœ ืื“ื ืขืœื™-ืื“ืžื•ืช --
05:59
in our own country,
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ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ืชื ื•,
06:01
let alone around the world.
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ืฉืœื ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื›ื•ืœื•.
06:03
And we've reached the point where we've realized,
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ื”ื’ืขื ื• ืœื ืงื•ื“ื” ื‘ื” ืื ื• ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื,
06:06
as doctors,
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ื›ืจื•ืคืื™ื,
06:08
we can't know it all.
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ืฉืื™ื ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื“ืขืช ื”ื›ืœ.
06:10
We can't do it all
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ื•ืื™ื ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื”ื›ืœ
06:13
by ourselves.
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ื‘ืขืฆืžื ื•.
06:15
There was a study where they looked
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ื ืขืจืš ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉื‘ื“ืง
06:17
at how many clinicians it took to take care of you
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ื›ืžื” ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื ืงืœื™ื ื™ื™ื ื“ืจื•ืฉื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื›ื
06:19
if you came into a hospital,
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ื›ืฉืืชื ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืœื‘ื™ืช ื—ื•ืœื™ื,
06:21
as it changed over time.
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ืฉืชื ื” ืขื ื”ืฉื ื™ื.
06:23
And in the year 1970,
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ื‘ืฉื ืช 1970,
06:25
it took just over two full-time equivalents of clinicians.
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ื ื“ืจืฉ ืžืขื˜ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ืžืŸ ืฉืœ 2 ืงืœื™ื ืื™ื ื‘ืžืฉืจื” ืžืœืื”.
06:28
That is to say,
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ื‘ืžืœื™ื ืื—ืจื•ืช,
06:30
it took basically the nursing time
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ื‘ืขืฆื ื ื“ืจืฉ ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืื™ืฉืคื•ื–
06:33
and then just a little bit of time for a doctor
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ื•ืขื•ื“ ืงืฆืช ืžื–ืžื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจื•ืคื
06:35
who more or less checked in on you
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ืฉืคื—ื•ืช ืื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื™ืงืจ ืืชื›ื
06:37
once a day.
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ืคืขื ื‘ื™ื•ื.
06:39
By the end of the 20th century,
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ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20,
06:42
it had become more than 15 clinicians
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ื–ื” ื”ื’ื™ืข ื›ื‘ืจ ืœื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-15 ืงืœื™ื ืื™ื
06:45
for the same typical hospital patient --
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืื•ืชื• ืžืื•ืฉืคื– ื˜ื™ืคื•ืกื™ --
06:48
specialists, physical therapists,
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ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื, ืคื™ื–ื™ื•ืชืจืคื™ืกื˜ื™ื,
06:51
the nurses.
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ืื—ื™ื•ืช,
06:54
We're all specialists now,
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ื”ื™ื•ื ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื,
06:56
even the primary care physicians.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ืจื•ืคื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™.
06:58
Everyone just has
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ืœื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ื™ืฉ ืจืง
07:00
a piece of the care.
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ืคื™ืกื” ืื—ืช ืžืŸ ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ.
07:03
But holding onto that structure we built
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ืืš ื”ื”ื™ืฆืžื“ื•ืช ืœืžื‘ื ื” ืฉื”ืงืžื ื•
07:05
around the daring, independence,
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ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ืจื•ืคื ื”ื ื•ืขื–, ื”ืขืฆืžืื™,
07:07
self-sufficiency
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ื”ืขื•ืžื“ ื‘ืจืฉื•ืช ืขืฆืžื•,
07:09
of each of those people
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ื›ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
07:12
has become a disaster.
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ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืืกื•ืŸ.
07:14
We have trained, hired and rewarded people
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ื”ื›ืฉืจื ื•, ืฉื›ืจื ื• ื•ืชื’ืžืœื ื• ืื ืฉื™ื
07:18
to be cowboys.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืงืื•ื‘ื•ื™ื–.
07:21
But it's pit crews that we need,
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื” ืฉื ื—ื•ืฅ ืœื ื• ื”ื ืฆื•ื•ืชื™-ืงืจืงืข,
07:24
pit crews for patients.
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ืฆื•ื•ืชื™-ืงืจืงืข ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื.
07:26
There's evidence all around us:
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ื™ืฉ ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืจืื™ื•ืช ืœื›ืš:
07:28
40 percent of our coronary artery disease patients
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40 ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ืžื—ื•ืœื™ ืžื—ืœืช ื”ืœื‘ ื”ื›ืœื™ืœื™ืช
07:31
in our communities
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ื‘ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•
07:33
receive incomplete or inappropriate care.
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ื–ื•ื›ื™ื ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื—ืœืงื™ ืื• ืœื ืžืชืื™ื.
07:37
60 percent
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60 ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื
07:39
of our asthma, stroke patients
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ืžื—ื•ืœื™ ื”ืงืฆืจืช ื•ื”ืฉื‘ืฅ ืฉืœื ื•
07:42
receive incomplete or inappropriate care.
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ื–ื•ื›ื™ื ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื—ืœืงื™ ืื• ืœื ืžืชืื™ื.
07:46
Two million people come into hospitals
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ืฉื ื™ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื ื™-ืื“ื ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืœื‘ืชื™ ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื
07:49
and pick up an infection
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ื•ื ื“ื‘ืงื™ื ื‘ืื™ื–ื” ื–ื™ื”ื•ื
07:51
they didn't have
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ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ
07:53
because someone failed to follow
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ื›ื™ ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืœื ื”ืงืคื™ื“
07:56
the basic practices of hygiene.
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ืขืœ ื”ื™ื’ื™ื™ื ื” ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช.
07:59
Our experience
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ืžื ืกื™ื•ื ื ื•,
08:01
as people who get sick,
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ื›ื‘ื ื™-ืื“ื ืฉื ืขืฉื™ื ื—ื•ืœื™ื,
08:03
need help from other people,
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ื•ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœืขื–ืจืช ื‘ื ื™-ืื“ื ืื—ืจื™ื,
08:05
is that we have amazing clinicians
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืงืœื™ื ืื™ื ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื™ื
08:08
that we can turn to --
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ืฉื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ื• ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื”ื --
08:10
hardworking, incredibly well-trained and very smart --
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ื—ืจื•ืฆื™ื, ืžื•ื›ืฉืจื™ื ืœื”ืคืœื™ื ื•ื—ื›ืžื™ื ืžืื“ --
08:13
that we have access to incredible technologies
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื’ื™ืฉื” ืœื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื•ืช
08:16
that give us great hope,
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ืฉืžืขื ื™ืงื•ืช ืœื ื• ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืชืงื•ื•ื”,
08:18
but little sense
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ืื‘ืœ ืชื—ื•ืฉื” ืžืขื˜ื” ืžืื“
08:20
that it consistently all comes together for you
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ืฉื”ื›ืœ ืคื•ืขืœ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื™ื•ืช ื•ื‘ืชื™ืื•ื ืขื‘ื•ืจื ื•
08:24
from start to finish
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ืžื”ื”ืชื—ืœื” ื•ืขื“ ื”ืกื•ืฃ
08:27
in a successful way.
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื•ืฆืœื—.
08:30
There's another sign
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ื™ืฉ ืกื™ืžืŸ ื ื•ืกืฃ
08:32
that we need pit crews,
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ืœื›ืš ืฉืื ื• ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœืฆื•ื•ืชื™-ืงืจืงืข,
08:34
and that's the unmanageable cost
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ืžื—ื™ืจ ื”ื‘ืœืชื™-ืืคืฉืจื™
08:37
of our care.
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ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืฉืœื ื•.
08:40
Now we in medicine, I think,
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ืœื“ืขืชื™, ืื ื—ื ื•, ื‘ืจืคื•ืื”,
08:42
are baffled by this question of cost.
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ืžื–ื•ืขื–ืขื™ื ืžื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ื”ืžื—ื™ืจ ื”ื–ื”.
08:44
We want to say, "This is just the way it is.
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ืื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื•ืžืจ, "ื›ื›ื” ื–ื”,
08:48
This is just what medicine requires."
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ื–ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืžื” ืฉื”ืจืคื•ืื” ืžื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช."
08:50
When you go from a world
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ื›ืฉืขื•ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืขื•ืœื
08:52
where you treated arthritis with aspirin,
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ืฉื‘ื• ื˜ื™ืคืœื• ื‘ื“ืœืงืช ืคืจืงื™ื ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืืกืคื™ืจื™ืŸ,
08:55
that mostly didn't do the job,
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ืฉื‘ื“"ื› ืœื ืขื–ืจ,
08:58
to one where, if it gets bad enough,
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ืœืขื•ืœื ืฉื‘ื•, ืื ื”ืžืฆื‘ ืžื—ืžื™ืจ,
09:00
we can do a hip replacement, a knee replacement
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ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื—ืœื™ืฃ ืืช ืžื™ืคืจืง ื”ื™ืจืš ืื• ื”ื‘ืจืš
09:02
that gives you years, maybe decades,
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ื•ื–ื” ื ื•ืชืŸ ืœื›ื ืฉื ื™ื, ืื• ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื,
09:05
without disability,
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ืœืœื ื ื›ื•ืช,
09:07
a dramatic change,
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ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื“ืจืžื˜ื™,
09:09
well is it any surprise
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ืื– ืžื” ื”ืคืœื
09:11
that that $40,000 hip replacement
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ืฉื ื™ืชื•ื— ื”ื—ืœืคืช ืžื™ืคืจืง-ื™ืจืš ื‘-40,000 ื“ื•ืœืจ
09:14
replacing the 10-cent aspirin
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื”ืืกืคื™ืจื™ืŸ ื‘-10 ืกื ื˜
09:16
is more expensive?
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ื”ื•ื ื™ืงืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ?
09:18
It's just the way it is.
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ื›ื›ื” ื–ื”.
09:21
But I think we're ignoring certain facts
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ืืš ืœื“ืขืชื™ ืื ื• ืžืชืขืœืžื™ื ืžืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช
09:23
that tell us something about what we can do.
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ืฉืื•ืžืจื•ืช ืœื ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ืขืœ ืžื” ืฉื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช.
09:28
As we've looked at the data
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ื›ืฉื‘ื“ืงื ื• ืืช ื”ื ืชื•ื ื™ื
09:30
about the results that have come
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ืฉืœ ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช
09:33
as the complexity has increased,
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ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช ื’ื“ืœื”,
09:35
we found
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ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื•
09:37
that the most expensive care
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ืฉื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื”ื›ื™ ื™ืงืจ
09:39
is not necessarily the best care.
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ืื™ื ื• ื‘ื”ื›ืจื— ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื”ื›ื™ ื˜ื•ื‘.
09:42
And vice versa,
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ื•ืœื”ื™ืคืš,
09:44
the best care
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ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื”ื›ื™ ื˜ื•ื‘
09:46
often turns out to be the least expensive --
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ืžืชื‘ืจืจ ืœืขืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ื›ื–ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ --
09:49
has fewer complications,
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ื”ื•ื ื’ื•ืจืจ ืคื—ื•ืช ืกื™ื‘ื•ื›ื™ื,
09:52
the people get more efficient at what they do.
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ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื ืขืฉื™ื ื™ืขื™ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื.
09:55
And what that means
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ื•ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ,
09:57
is there's hope.
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืชืงื•ื•ื”.
10:00
Because [if] to have the best results,
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ื›ื™ ืื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืืช ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ,
10:03
you really needed the most expensive care
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื‘ืืžืช ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื”ื™ืงืจ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
10:06
in the country, or in the world,
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ื‘ืืจืฅ, ืื• ื‘ืขื•ืœื,
10:08
well then we really would be talking about rationing
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ืื– ืื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื“ื‘ืจ ื‘ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช ืขืœ ืงื™ืฆื•ื‘
10:11
who we're going to cut off from Medicare.
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ืื• ืขืœ ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืข ืงื™ืฆื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื”ืจืคื•ืื™.
10:15
That would be really our only choice.
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ื•ืืœื” ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืืžืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
10:19
But when we look at the positive deviants --
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ืืš ื›ืฉืื ื• ื‘ื•ื“ืงื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ืจื™ื’ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช --
10:21
the ones who are getting the best results
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ืืœื” ืฉืžืฉื™ื’ื•ืช ืืช ืžื™ื˜ื‘ ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช
10:24
at the lowest costs --
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ื‘ืขืœื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื ืžื•ื›ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ --
10:26
we find the ones that look the most like systems
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ืื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืฉืืœื” ืฉื”ื›ื™ ืžื–ื›ื™ืจื•ืช ืžืขืจื›ืช
10:29
are the most successful.
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ื”ืŸ ื”ืžื•ืฆืœื—ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
10:31
That is to say, they found ways
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื”ืŸ ื’ื™ืœื• ืื™ืš
10:34
to get all of the different pieces,
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ืœืฆืจืฃ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื—ืœืงื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
10:36
all of the different components,
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ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ื ืคืจื“ื™ื,
10:38
to come together into a whole.
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ืœืฉืœื ืื—ื“.
10:41
Having great components is not enough,
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ืœื ืžืกืคื™ืง ืฉื”ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ืžืขื•ืœื™ื,
10:44
and yet we've been obsessed in medicine with components.
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ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืคื•ืื” ืื ื• ืื•ื‘ืกืกื™ื‘ื™ื™ื ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื.
10:48
We want the best drugs, the best technologies,
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ืื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืืช ืžื™ื˜ื‘ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช, ืืช ืžื™ื˜ื‘ ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช,
10:51
the best specialists,
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ืืช ืžื™ื˜ื‘ ื”ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื,
10:54
but we don't think too much
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ืืš ืื™ื ื ื• ืžืงื“ื™ืฉื™ื ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ืจื‘ื”
10:56
about how it all comes together.
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ืœืฉืืœื” ืื™ืš ื”ื›ืœ ืžืฆื˜ืจืฃ ื™ื—ื“.
10:59
It's a terrible design strategy actually.
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ื–ื• ืœืžืขืฉื” ืืกื˜ืจื˜ื’ื™ื” ืชื›ื ื•ื ื™ืช ืื™ื•ืžื”.
11:03
There's a famous thought experiment
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ื™ืฉ ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ืžื—ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืžืคื•ืจืกื
11:06
that touches exactly on this
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ืฉืžืชื™ื™ื—ืก ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืœื›ืš
11:08
that said, what if you built a car
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ืฉืฉื•ืืœ, ืžื” ืื ืืชื ื‘ื•ื ื™ื ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช
11:10
from the very best car parts?
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ืžื”ื—ืœืงื™ื ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ?
11:13
Well it would lead you to put in Porsche brakes,
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ื–ื” ื™ืชื‘ื˜ื ื‘ื›ืš ืฉืชืจื›ื™ื‘ื• ื‘ืœืžื™ื ืฉืœ ืคื•ืจืฉื”,
11:16
a Ferrari engine,
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ืžื ื•ืข ืฉืœ ืคืจืืจื™,
11:18
a Volvo body, a BMW chassis.
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ื’ื•ืฃ ืฉืœ ื•ื•ืœื•ื•, ืฉื™ืœื“ื” ืฉืœ ื‘-ืž-ื•ื•,
11:21
And you put it all together and what do you get?
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ื•ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื”ืจื›ื‘ืชื ื”ื›ืœ, ืžื” ืชืงื‘ืœื•?
11:24
A very expensive pile of junk that does not go anywhere.
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ืขืจื™ืžื” ื–ื‘ืœ ื™ืงืจื” ืžืื“ ืฉืœื ื ื•ืกืขืช ืœืฉื•ื ืžืงื•ื.
11:28
And that is what medicine can feel like sometimes.
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ื•ื–ื• ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื”ื”ืจื’ืฉื” ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืจืคื•ืื”.
11:33
It's not a system.
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ื–ื• ืื™ื ื” ืžืขืจื›ืช.
11:36
Now a system, however,
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ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช, ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช,
11:38
when things start to come together,
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ื›ืฉื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชื—ื‘ืจ,
11:41
you realize it has certain skills
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ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื ื›ื•ืœืœืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช
11:44
for acting and looking that way.
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ืฉื’ื•ืจืžื•ืช ืœื” ืœืคืขื•ืœ ื•ืœื”ื™ืจืื•ืช ื›ืš.
11:47
Skill number one
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ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืžืก' 1
11:49
is the ability to recognize success
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ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื–ื”ื•ืช ื”ืฆืœื—ื”
11:51
and the ability to recognize failure.
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ื•ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื–ื”ื•ืช ื›ืฉืœื•ืŸ.
11:54
When you are a specialist,
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ื‘ืชื•ืจ ืžื•ืžื—ื”,
11:56
you can't see the end result very well.
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ืื™ื ืš ืžื™ื˜ื™ื‘ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ื”ืกื•ืคื™ืช.
11:59
You have to become really interested in data,
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ืขืœื™ืš ืœื”ืชืขืžืง ืžืื“ ื‘ื ืชื•ื ื™ื,
12:02
unsexy as that sounds.
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ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื–ื” ื ืฉืžืข ืœื-ืกืงืกื™.
12:04
One of my colleagues is a surgeon in Cedar Rapids, Iowa,
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ืื—ื“ ืžืขืžื™ืชื™ ื”ื•ื ืžื ืชื— ื‘ืกื™ื“ืจ ืจืคื™ื“ืก ืฉื‘ืื™ื•ื•ื”,
12:07
and he got interested in the question of,
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื—ืœ ืœื”ืชืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉืืœื”,
12:11
well how many CT scans did they do
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ื›ืžื” ืกืจื™ืงื•ืช ื˜ื•ืžื•ื’ืจืคื™ื” ืžืžื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ื”ื ืขืฉื•
12:13
for their community in Cedar Rapids?
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ืขืœ ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ืฉืœื”ื ื‘ืกื™ื“ืจ ืจืคื™ื“ืก.
12:15
He got interested in this
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื—ืœ ืœื”ืชืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื›ืš
12:17
because there had been government reports,
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ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื• ื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ื™ื ืžืžืฉืœืชื™ื™ื
12:19
newspaper reports, journal articles
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ื›ืชื‘ื•ืช ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•ืช, ืžืืžืจื™ื ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™-ืขืช
12:21
saying that there had been too many CT scans done.
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ืฉืืžืจื• ืฉืขื•ืฉื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ ืกืจื™ืงื•ืช ื˜ื•ืžื•ื’ืจืคื™ื”.
12:24
He didn't see it in his own patients.
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ืœื“ืขืชื• ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื›ืš ืืฆืœ ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืฉืœื•.
12:28
And so he asked the question, "How many did we do?"
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ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืฉืืœ, "ื›ืžื” ืกืจื™ืงื•ืช ืขืฉื™ื ื•?"
12:30
and he wanted to get the data.
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ื•ืจืฆื” ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืืช ื”ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื”.
12:32
It took him three months.
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ื ื“ืจืฉื• ืœื• ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื.
12:34
No one had asked this question in his community before.
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ืื™ืฉ ื‘ืงื”ื™ืœื” ืฉืœื• ืœื ื”ืขืœื” ืœืคื ื™-ื›ืŸ ืืช ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื–ืืช.
12:37
And what he found was that,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืžืฆื
12:39
for the 300,000 people in their community,
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ืœื’ื‘ื™ 300,000 ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ืฉืœื”ื,
12:41
in the previous year
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ืฉื‘ืฉื ื” ื”ืงื•ื“ืžืช
12:43
they had done 52,000 CT scans.
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ื”ื ืขื‘ืจื• 52,000 ืกืจื™ืงื•ืช ื˜ื•ืžื•ื’ืจืคื™ื”.
12:48
They had found a problem.
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ื”ื ื’ื™ืœื• ื‘ืขื™ื”,
12:51
Which brings us to skill number two a system has.
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ืžื” ืฉืžื‘ื™ื ืื•ืชื ื• ืœื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืžืก' 2 ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืžืขืจื›ืช.
12:56
Skill one, find where your failures are.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืžืก' 1: ืžืฆื ืืช ื”ื›ืฉืœื™ื ืฉืœืš,
12:59
Skill two is devise solutions.
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ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืžืก' 2 - ื”ืžืฆื ืคืชืจื•ื ื•ืช.
13:03
I got interested in this
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ื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืœื”ืชืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื›ืš
13:05
when the World Health Organization came to my team
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ื›ืฉืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ืคื ื” ืืœ ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืœื™
13:07
asking if we could help with a project
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ื•ืฉืืœ ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ื‘ืžื™ื–ื
13:09
to reduce deaths in surgery.
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ืฉื ื•ืขื“ ืœื”ืคื—ื™ืช ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ืชื” ื‘ื ื™ืชื•ื—ื™ื.
13:11
The volume of surgery had spread
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ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื”ื ื™ืชื•ื—ื™ื ื’ื“ืœ
13:13
around the world,
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ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื.
13:15
but the safety of surgery
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ืืš ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื—ื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ืจื•ืจื’ื™ืช
13:17
had not.
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ืœื ื’ื“ืœื”.
13:19
Now our usual tactics for tackling problems like these
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ื•ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื”ืจื’ื™ืœื” ืฉืœื ื• ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื›ืืœื”
13:22
are to do more training,
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ื”ื™ื ืœืชืช ืขื•ื“ ื”ื›ืฉืจื”,
13:24
give people more specialization
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ืœืชืช ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืขื•ื“ ื”ืชืžื—ื•ืช,
13:27
or bring in more technology.
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ืื• ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืขื•ื“ ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”.
13:30
Well in surgery, you couldn't have people who are more specialized
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ืื‘ืœ ืื™ืŸ ืื ืฉื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื ืžื”ืžื ืชื—ื™ื
13:33
and you couldn't have people who are better trained.
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ื•ืื™ืŸ ืื ืฉื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื•ื›ืฉืจื™ื ืžื”ื.
13:36
And yet we see unconscionable levels
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ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืจืžื•ืช ืœื-ืžื•ืกืจื™ื•ืช
13:39
of death, disability
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ืฉืœ ืชืžื•ืชื”, ืฉืœ ื ื›ื•ืช,
13:43
that could be avoided.
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ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืœืžื ื•ืข.
13:45
And so we looked at what other high-risk industries do.
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ืื– ื‘ื“ืงื ื• ืžื” ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ืชืขืฉื™ื•ืช ืขืชื™ืจื•ืช-ืกื™ื›ื•ืŸ ืื—ืจื•ืช.
13:47
We looked at skyscraper construction,
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ื›ืžื• ื‘ื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ื’ื•ืจื“ื™-ืฉื—ืงื™ื,
13:49
we looked at the aviation world,
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ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ืชืขื•ืคื”,
13:52
and we found
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ื•ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื•
13:54
that they have technology, they have training,
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ืฉืืžื ื ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื”ื›ืฉืจื”,
13:56
and then they have one other thing:
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื“ื‘ืจ ื ื•ืกืฃ:
13:59
They have checklists.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืจืฉื™ืžื•ืช ืชื™ื•ื’.
14:02
I did not expect
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ืœื ืฆื™ืคื™ืชื™
14:04
to be spending a significant part
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ืฉืืงื“ื™ืฉ ื—ืœืง ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ ืžื–ืžื ื™,
14:06
of my time as a Harvard surgeon
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ื›ืžื ืชื— ื‘ื”ืจื•ื•ืืจื“,
14:08
worrying about checklists.
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ืœื“ืื’ื” ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืจืฉื™ืžื•ืช ืชื™ื•ื’.
14:11
And yet, what we found
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ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ื–ืืช, ืžื” ืฉื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ื”ื•ื
14:13
were that these were tools
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ืฉืืœื” ื”ื ื›ืœื™ื
14:16
to help make experts better.
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ืฉื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื ืœื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ.
14:19
We got the lead safety engineer for Boeing to help us.
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ื’ื™ื™ืกื ื• ืœืขื–ืจืชื ื• ืืช ืžื ื”ืœ ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื—ื•ืช ื”ืจืืฉื™ ืฉืœ "ื‘ื•ืื™ื ื’".
14:23
Could we design a checklist for surgery?
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ื”ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ืจืฉื™ืžืช ืชื™ื•ื’ ื›ื™ืจื•ืจื’ื™ืช?
14:26
Not for the lowest people on the totem pole,
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ืœื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื ืžื•ื›ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืกื•ืœื ื”ื“ืจื’ื•ืช,
14:28
but for the folks
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ืืœื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื›ืœ ื”ื—ื‘ืจ'ื”
14:30
who were all the way around the chain,
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ืฉื ืžืฆืื™ื ืื™-ืฉื ืœืžืขืœื”,
14:32
the entire team including the surgeons.
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ื›ื•ืœื•, ื›ื•ืœืœ ื”ืžื ืชื—ื™ื.
14:34
And what they taught us
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ื•ื”ื ืฉื”ื ืœื™ืžื“ื• ืื•ืชื ื•
14:36
was that designing a checklist
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ื”ื™ื” ืฉืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืจืฉื™ืžืช ืชื™ื•ื’
14:38
to help people handle complexity
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืกื™ื™ืข ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช
14:40
actually involves more difficulty than I had understood.
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ื›ืจื•ืš ื‘ืขืฆื ื‘ืงื•ืฉื™ ืจื‘ ืžื›ืคื™ ืฉื—ืฉื‘ืชื™.
14:43
You have to think about things
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื
14:45
like pause points.
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ื›ืžื• ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ืขืฆื™ืจื”.
14:47
You need to identify the moments in a process
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ืœื–ื”ื•ืช ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืืช ื”ืจื’ืขื™ื
14:50
when you can actually catch a problem before it's a danger
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ื‘ื”ื ื™ืฉ ืœืชืคื•ืก ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ื˜ืจื ืชื”ืคื•ืš ืœืกื™ื›ื•ืŸ
14:52
and do something about it.
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ื•ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžืฉื”ื• ืœื’ื‘ื™ื”.
14:54
You have to identify
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
14:56
that this is a before-takeoff checklist.
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ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ืจืฉื™ืžืช ืชื™ื•ื’ ืฉืœืคื ื™ ื”ื”ืžืจืื”,
14:59
And then you need to focus on the killer items.
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ื•ืœื”ืชืžืงื“ ื‘ืคืจื˜ื™ื ื”ืงืจื™ื˜ื™ื™ื.
15:02
An aviation checklist,
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ืจืฉื™ืžืช ืชื™ื•ื’ ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืชืขื•ืคื”,
15:04
like this one for a single-engine plane,
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ื›ืžื• ื–ื•, ืฉืžื™ื•ืขื“ืช ืœืžื˜ื•ืก ื—ื“-ืžื ื•ืขื™,
15:06
isn't a recipe for how to fly a plane,
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ืื™ื ื ื” ืžืชื›ื•ืŸ ืื™ืš ืœื”ื˜ื™ืก ืžื˜ื•ืก,
15:08
it's a reminder of the key things
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ืืœื ืชื–ื›ื•ืจืช ืฉืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื™ื
15:10
that get forgotten or missed
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ืฉืื•ืชื ืฉื•ื›ื—ื™ื ืื• ืžื—ืžื™ืฆื™ื
15:13
if they're not checked.
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ืื ืœื ื‘ื•ื“ืงื™ื ืื•ืชื.
15:15
So we did this.
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ืื– ืขืฉื™ื ื• ืืช ื–ื”.
15:17
We created a 19-item two-minute checklist
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ื™ืฆืจื ื• ืจืฉื™ืžืช ืชื™ื•ื’ ืฉืœ 2 ื“ืงื•ืช ื•-19 ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื
15:20
for surgical teams.
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฆื•ื•ืชื™ื ื›ื™ืจื•ืจื’ื™ื™ื.
15:22
We had the pause points
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ื”ื›ื ืกื ื• ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ืขืฆื™ืจื”
15:24
immediately before anesthesia is given,
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ืžืžืฉ ืœืคื ื™ ืžืชืŸ ื”ื”ืจื“ืžื”,
15:27
immediately before the knife hits the skin,
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ืžืžืฉ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ืกื›ื™ืŸ ื ื•ื’ืข ื‘ืขื•ืจ,
15:30
immediately before the patient leaves the room.
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ืžืžืฉ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื—ื•ืœื” ืขื•ื–ื‘ ืืช ื”ื—ื“ืจ.
15:33
And we had a mix of dumb stuff on there --
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ื•ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื ื• ืฉื ืชืขืจื•ื‘ืช ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžื˜ื•ืคืฉื™ื --
15:36
making sure an antibiotic is given in the right time frame
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ืœื•ื•ื“ื ืฉื ื•ืชื ื™ื ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื” ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื ื›ื•ื ื”
15:39
because that cuts the infection rate by half --
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ื›ื™ ื–ื” ืžืงืฆืจ ื‘ื—ืฆื™ ืืช ืงืฆื‘ ื”ื–ื™ื”ื•ื --
15:41
and then interesting stuff,
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ื•ื’ื ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื,
15:43
because you can't make a recipe for something as complicated as surgery.
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ื›ื™ ืื™-ืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžืชื›ื•ืŸ ืœืžืฉื”ื• ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ื›ืžื• ื ื™ืชื•ื—,
15:46
Instead, you can make a recipe
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ืืœื ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืžืชื›ื•ืŸ
15:48
for how to have a team that's prepared for the unexpected.
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ืฉืžื›ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืœื‘ืœืชื™-ืฆืคื•ื™.
15:51
And we had items like making sure everyone in the room
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ื”ื™ื• ืฉื ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืœื•ื•ื“ื ืฉื›ืœ ืžื™ ืฉื ืžืฆื ื‘ื—ื“ืจ
15:54
had introduced themselves by name at the start of the day,
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ื”ืฆื™ื’ ืืช ืขืฆืžื• ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ื™ื•ื,
15:57
because you get half a dozen people or more
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ื›ื™ ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื—ืฆื™-ืชืจื™ืกืจ ืื ืฉื™ื ืื• ื™ื•ืชืจ
15:59
who are sometimes coming together as a team
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ื ื›ื ืกื™ื ื‘ื™ื—ื“ ื›ืฆื•ื•ืช
16:02
for the very first time that day that you're coming in.
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ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœืš ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”.
16:05
We implemented this checklist
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ื™ื™ืฉืžื ื• ืืช ืจืฉื™ืžืช ื”ืชื™ื•ื’ ื”ื–ื•
16:07
in eight hospitals around the world,
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ื‘ืฉืžื•ื ื” ื‘ืชื™ ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื,
16:10
deliberately in places from rural Tanzania
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ื‘ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืชื—ื™ืœื”, ื”ื—ืœ ืžืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื›ืžื• ื˜ื ื–ื ื™ื” ื”ื›ืคืจื™ืช
16:12
to the University of Washington in Seattle.
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ื•ืขื“ ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ื•ื•ืฉื™ื ื’ื˜ื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ืกื™ืื˜ืœ.
16:15
We found that after they adopted it
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ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ืฉืื—ืจื™ ืฉื”ื ืื™ืžืฆื• ืืช ื”ืจืฉื™ืžื”
16:18
the complication rates fell
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ื›ืžื•ืช ื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ื›ื™ื ื™ืจื“ื”
16:20
35 percent.
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ื‘-35 ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื.
16:22
It fell in every hospital it went into.
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ื•ื–ื” ืงืจื” ื‘ื›ืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืฉื‘ื• ื™ื™ืฉืžื• ืื•ืชื”.
16:25
The death rates fell
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ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ื”ืชืžื•ืชื” ื™ืจื“ื•
16:27
47 percent.
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ื‘-47 ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื.
16:30
This was bigger than a drug.
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื›ืœ ืชืจื•ืคื”.
16:32
(Applause)
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[ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื]
16:38
And that brings us
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื‘ื™ื ืื•ืชื ื•
16:40
to skill number three,
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ืœื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืžืก' 3,
16:43
the ability to implement this,
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ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื™ื™ืฉื ื–ืืช,
16:45
to get colleagues across the entire chain
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ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืื ืฉื™ ื”ืžืงืฆื•ืข ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืชื—ื•ื
16:48
to actually do these things.
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ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ืืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”.
16:51
And it's been slow to spread.
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ื ืจืื” ืฉื–ื” ืžืชืคืฉื˜ ืœืื˜.
16:53
This is not yet our norm in surgery --
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ื–ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื”ื ื•ืจืžื” ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ื›ื™ืจื•ืจื’ื™ื” --
16:57
let alone making checklists
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ืฉืœื ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื›ื ืช ืจืฉื™ืžื•ืช ืชื™ื•ื’
16:59
to go onto childbirth and other areas.
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ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืœื™ื“ื” ื•ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื.
17:02
There's a deep resistance
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ื™ืฉ ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ืขืžื•ืงื”
17:04
because using these tools
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ื›ื™ ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื›ืœื™ื ื”ืืœื”
17:06
forces us to confront
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ืžืืœืฅ ืื•ืชื ื• ืœื”ืชืขืžืช
17:08
that we're not a system,
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ืขื ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉืื ื• ืื™ื ื ื• ืžืขืจื›ืช,
17:10
forces us to behave with a different set of values.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžืืœืฅ ืื•ืชื ื• ืœื”ืชื ื”ื’ ืœืคื™ ืขืจื›ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื.
17:13
Just using a checklist
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ืขืฆื ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืจืฉื™ืžืช ืชื™ื•ื’
17:15
requires you to embrace different values from the ones we've had,
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ืžื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช ืื•ืชืš ืœืืžืฅ ืขืจื›ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืžืืœื” ืฉื”ื™ื• ืœืš,
17:18
like humility,
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ื›ืžื• ืขื ื•ื•ื”,
17:22
discipline,
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ืžืฉืžืขืช,
17:25
teamwork.
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ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช-ืฆื•ื•ืช.
17:27
This is the opposite of what we were built on:
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ื–ื” ื”ื”ื™ืคืš ื”ื’ืžื•ืจ ืžื”ืขืจื›ื™ื ืฉืขื™ืฆื‘ื• ืื•ืชื ื•:
17:30
independence, self-sufficiency,
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ืื™-ืชืœื•ืช, ืขืฆืžืื•ืช,
17:32
autonomy.
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ืื•ื˜ื•ื ื•ืžื™ื”.
17:35
I met an actual cowboy, by the way.
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ืื’ื‘, ืคื’ืฉืชื™ ืงืื•ื‘ื•ื™ ืืžื™ืชื™.
17:38
I asked him, what was it like
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ืฉืืœืชื™ ืื•ืชื•, "ืื™ืš ื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช
17:41
to actually herd a thousand cattle
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ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืขื“ืจ ืฉืœ ืืœืฃ ืจืืฉื™-ื‘ืงืจ
17:43
across hundreds of miles?
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ืœืžืจื—ืง ืžืื•ืช ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจื™ื.
17:45
How did you do that?
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ืื™ืš ืืชื” ืขื•ืฉื” ืืช ื–ื”?"
17:47
And he said, "We have the cowboys stationed at distinct places all around."
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ื”ื•ื ืขื ื”, "ืื ื• ืžืฆื™ื‘ื™ื ืงืื•ื‘ื•ื™ื– ื‘ืขืžื“ื•ืช ืžื•ื’ื“ืจื•ืช.
17:50
They communicate electronically constantly,
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ื”ื ืžื ื”ืœื™ื ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ืช ืจืฆื•ืคื”,
17:53
and they have protocols and checklists
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืคืจื•ื˜ื•ืงื•ืœื™ื ื•ืจืฉื™ืžื•ืช-ืชื™ื•ื’
17:55
for how they handle everything --
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ืื™ืš ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื•ื“ื‘ืจ --
17:57
(Laughter)
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[ืฆื—ื•ืง]
17:59
-- from bad weather
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-- ื”ื—ืœ ืžืžื–ื’-ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ื’ืจื•ืข
18:01
to emergencies or inoculations for the cattle.
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ื•ืขื“ ืžืฆื‘ื™ ื—ื™ืจื•ื ืื• ืžืชืŸ ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื ืœื‘ืงืจ."
18:04
Even the cowboys are pit crews now.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ืงืื•ื‘ื•ื™ื– ื”ื ื”ื™ื•ื ืฆื•ื•ืชื™ ืงืจืงืข.
18:08
And it seemed like time
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ื•ื ืจืื” ืฉื”ื’ื™ืข ื”ื–ืžืŸ
18:10
that we become that way ourselves.
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ืฉื ื”ื™ื” ื›ืืœื” ื‘ืขืฆืžื ื•.
18:12
Making systems work
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ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืœืคืขื•ืœ
18:14
is the great task of my generation
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ื”ื™ื ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”
18:17
of physicians and scientists.
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ืฉืœ ื”ืจื•ืคืื™ื ื•ื”ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื‘ื ื™ ื“ื•ืจื™.
18:19
But I would go further and say
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ืืš ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžืจื—ื™ืง ืœื›ื ื•ืื•ืžืจ
18:21
that making systems work,
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ืฉืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืœืคืขื•ืœ
18:23
whether in health care, education,
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ื‘ืฉื™ืจื•ืชื™ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช, ื‘ื—ื™ื ื•ืš,
18:25
climate change,
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ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ื”ืืงืœื™ื,
18:27
making a pathway out of poverty,
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ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื“ืจื›ื™ ืžืคืœื˜ ืžืŸ ื”ืขื•ื ื™,
18:29
is the great task of our generation as a whole.
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ื”ื™ื ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ื“ื•ืจ ืฉืœื™ ื›ื•ืœื•.
18:33
In every field, knowledge has exploded,
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืชื—ื•ื ื•ืชื—ื•ื ื™ืฉ ื”ืชืคื•ืฆืฆื•ืช ืฉืœ ื™ื“ืข,
18:36
but it has brought complexity,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื•ื ื”ื‘ื™ื ืขื™ืžื• ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช,
18:38
it has brought specialization.
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื‘ื™ื ืขื™ืžื• ื”ืชืžื—ื•ืช.
18:41
And we've come to a place where we have no choice
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ื•ื”ื’ืขื ื• ืœื ืงื•ื“ื” ืฉื‘ื” ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ืจื™ืจื”
18:43
but to recognize,
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ืืœื ืœื”ื›ื™ืจ ื‘ืขื•ื‘ื“ื”,
18:45
as individualistic as we want to be,
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ืฉื›ื›ืœ ืฉืื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื™ื ื“ื™ื‘ื™ื“ื•ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ื,
18:48
complexity requires
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ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช ื“ื•ืจืฉืช
18:51
group success.
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ื”ืฆืœื—ื” ืงื‘ื•ืฆืชื™ืช.
18:53
We all need to be pit crews now.
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ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืคื•ืš ื›ืขืช ืœืฆื•ื•ืชื™ ืงืจืงืข.
18:57
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืœื›ื.
18:59
(Applause)
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[ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื]
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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