Dan Berkenstock: The world is one big dataset. Now, how to photograph it ...

61,793 views ใƒป 2014-02-04

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Boaz Hovav ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:12
Five years ago, I was a Ph.D. student
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ืœืคื ื™ 5 ืฉื ื™ื, ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ ืœื“ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจื˜
00:15
living two lives.
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ืฉืžื ื”ืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ื›ืคื•ืœื™ื.
00:16
In one, I used NASA supercomputers
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ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื, ื”ืฉืชืžืฉืชื™ ื‘ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ ื”ืขืœ ืฉืœ NASA
00:19
to design next-generation spacecraft,
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ืœืฉื ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื”ื“ื•ืจ ื”ื‘ื ืฉืœ ืจื›ื‘ื™ ื”ื—ืœืœ,
00:21
and in the other I was a data scientist
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ื•ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื, ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžื“ืขืŸ ื ืชื•ื ื™ื
00:24
looking for potential smugglers
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ืฉืžื ืกื” ืœืืชืจ ืžื‘ืจื™ื—ื™ื
00:26
of sensitive nuclear technologies.
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ืฉืœ ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ืช.
00:30
As a data scientist, I did a lot of analyses,
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ื›ืžื“ืขืŸ ื ืชื•ื ื™ื, ื‘ื™ืฆืขืชื™ ื”ืžื•ืŸ ื ื™ืชื•ื—ื™ ืžื™ื“ืข,
00:32
mostly of facilities,
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ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืฉืœ ืžืชืงื ื™ื,
00:34
industrial facilities around the world.
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ืžืชืงื ื™ื ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืชื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื.
00:36
And I was always looking for a better canvas
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ื•ื›ืœ ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ ื—ื™ืคืฉืชื™ ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”
00:39
to tie these all together.
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ืฉืชืงืฉืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ืœ ืคืจื˜ื™ ื”ืžื™ื“ืข.
00:41
And one day, I was thinking about how
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ื•ื™ื•ื ืื—ื“, ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืขืœ ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื”
00:43
all data has a location,
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ืฉืœื›ืœ ื”ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ื™ืฉ ืžื™ืงื•ื ืคื™ื–ื™,
00:45
and I realized that the answer
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ื•ื”ื‘ื ืชื™ ืฉื”ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืœื‘ืขื™ื”
00:47
had been staring me in the face.
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ื ื™ืฆื‘ ืžืžืฉ ืžื•ืœื™.
00:48
Although I was a satellite engineer,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžื”ื ื“ืก ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื,
00:51
I hadn't thought about using satellite imagery
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ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื
00:54
in my work.
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ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื™.
00:56
Now, like most of us, I'd been online,
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ื›ืžื• ืจื‘ื™ื ืžืื™ืชื ื•, ื›ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื‘ืจืฉืช ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜,
00:58
I'd see my house, so I thought,
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ืจืื™ืชื™ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื ืจืื” ื‘ื™ืชื™ ืžื”ื—ืœืœ, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™,
01:00
I'll hop in there and I'll start looking up
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ืœืžื” ืฉืœื ืื›ื ืก ืœืจืฉืช ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜ ื•ืื‘ื™ื˜
01:02
some of these facilities.
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ื‘ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืžืชืงื ื™ื ื”ืœืœื•.
01:03
And what I found really surprised me.
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ื•ืžื” ืฉื’ื™ืœื™ืชื™ ืžืžืฉ ื”ืคืชื™ืข ืื•ืชื™.
01:05
The pictures that I was finding
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ื”ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืžืฆืืชื™
01:07
were years out of date,
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ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื ื•ืช ื›ืžื” ืฉื ื™ื,
01:09
and because of that,
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ื•ืžืฉื•ื ื›ืš,
01:10
it had relatively little relevance
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ื”ืŸ ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืจืœื•ื•ื ื˜ื™ื•ืช
01:12
to the work that I was doing today.
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ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉืื•ืชื” ื‘ื™ืฆืขืชื™ ื‘ืื•ืชื ื™ืžื™ื.
01:14
But I was intrigued.
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ื–ื” ืขื•ืจืจ ืืช ืกืงืจื ื•ืชื™.
01:16
I mean, satellite imagery is pretty amazing stuff.
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ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืŸ ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ืืžืช.
01:19
There are millions and millions of sensors
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ื™ืฉื ื ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ืฉื ื™ื
01:21
surrounding us today,
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ืฉืžืงื™ืคื™ื ืื•ืชื ื• ื›ื™ื•ื,
01:22
but there's still so much we don't know on a daily basis.
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ืื‘ืœ ืงื™ื™ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉื—ืกืจ ืœื ื• ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ื™ื•ืžื™ื•ืžื™.
01:25
How much oil is stored in all of China?
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ื›ืžื” ื ืคื˜ ืžืื•ื—ืกืŸ ื‘ื›ืœ ืกื™ืŸ?
01:29
How much corn is being produced?
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ื›ืžื” ืชื™ืจืก ืžื™ื•ืฆืจ?
01:32
How many ships are in all of our world's ports?
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ื›ืžื” ืกืคื™ื ื•ืช ื ืžืฆืื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื ืžืœื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื?
01:36
Now, in theory, all of these questions
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืชืื•ืจื˜ื™, ื›ืœ ื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•
01:39
could be answered by imagery,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ืคืชืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ,
01:41
but not if it's old.
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื ืื ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื™ืฉื ื•ืช.
01:43
And if this data was so valuable,
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ื•ืื ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ืžื™ื“ืข ื‘ืขืœ ืขืจืš ืจื‘,
01:45
then how come I couldn't get my hands
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ืœืžื” ืื ื™ ืœื ืžืฆืœื™ื—
01:47
on more recent pictures?
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ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืขื“ื›ื ื™ื•ืช?
01:50
So the story begins over 50 years ago
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ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืžืชื—ื™ืœ ืœืคื ื™ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž- 50 ืฉื ื”
01:53
with the launch of the first generation
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ืขื ื”ืฉื™ื’ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ
01:55
of U.S. government photo reconnaissance satellites.
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ืฉืœ ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ ืกื™ื•ืจ ื•ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืžืฉืœ ื”ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™.
01:58
And today, there's a handful
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ื•ื›ื™ื•ื, ื™ืฉ ืžืกืคืจ ืจื‘
02:00
of the great, great grandchildren
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ืฉืœ ื ื™ื ื™-ื”ื ื™ื ื™ื
02:02
of these early Cold War machines
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ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืžื™ืžื™ ื”ืžืœื—ืžื” ื”ืงืจื”
02:04
which are now operated by private companies
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ืฉืžื•ืคืขืœื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืคืจื˜ื™ื•ืช
02:06
and from which the vast majority of satellite imagery
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ื•ืžื”ื ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืจื•ื‘ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืœื•ื™ื™ืŸ
02:09
that you and I see on a daily basis comes.
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ืฉืืชื ื•ืื ื™ ืจื•ืื™ื ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ื™ื•ืžื™ื•ืžื™.
02:11
During this period, launching things into space,
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ืฉื ื™ื, ืฉื™ื’ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื—ืคืฆื™ื ืœื—ืœืœ,
02:14
just the rocket to get the satellite up there,
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ืจืง ื”ื˜ื™ืœื™ื ืฉืžืขืœื™ื ืืช ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืœื—ืœืœ,
02:17
has cost hundreds of millions of dollars each,
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ืขืœื• ืžืื•ืช ืžืœื™ื•ื ื™ ื“ื•ืœืจื™ื ื›ืœ ืื—ื“,
02:22
and that's created tremendous pressure
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ื›ืš ืฉื ื•ืฆืจ ืœื—ืฅ ืขืฆื•ื
02:23
to launch things infrequently
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ืœื‘ืฆืข ืคื—ื•ืช ืฉื™ื’ื•ืจื™ื
02:26
and to make sure that when you do,
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ื•ืœื•ื•ื“ื ืฉื‘ื›ืœ ืฉื™ื’ื•ืจ,
02:27
you cram as much functionality in there as possible.
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ืžืฉื•ื’ืจื™ื ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืขื ื›ืžื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ื›ื›ืœ ื”ืืคืฉืจ.
02:31
All of this has only made satellites
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ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืœื—ืฅ ื”ื–ื” ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื
02:32
bigger and bigger and bigger
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ื”ืœื›ื• ื•ื’ื“ืœื• ื•ื’ื“ืœื•
02:35
and more expensive,
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ื•ืžื—ื™ืจื ืขืœื”,
02:36
now nearly a billion, with a b, dollars per copy.
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ื›ืžืขื˜ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“, ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืœืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ.
02:41
Because they are so expensive,
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืžื—ื™ืจื ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื”,
02:43
there aren't very many of them.
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ืื™ืŸ ืžืกืคื™ืง ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื›ืืœื”.
02:44
Because there aren't very many of them,
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืื™ืŸ ืžืกืคื™ืง ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื,
02:46
the pictures that we see on a daily basis
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ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื™ื•ืžื™ื•ืžื™
02:48
tend to be old.
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ื”ื™ื ืชืžื•ื ื” ื™ืฉื ื” ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ.
02:50
I think a lot of people actually understand this anecdotally,
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ืจื‘ื” ืื ืฉื™ื ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืืช ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื”,
02:53
but in order to visualize just how sparsely
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ืื‘ืœ ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื•ื™ื–ื•ืืœื™ ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ืืงืจืื™ ื”ื•ื
02:56
our planet is collected,
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ืฆื™ืœื•ื ื”ืขื•ืœื ื›ื™ื•ื,
02:57
some friends and I put together a dataset
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ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื•ืื ื™ ื‘ื ื™ื ื• ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื ืชื•ื ื™ื
03:00
of the 30 million pictures that have been gathered
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ืฉืœ 30 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืฆื•ืœืžื•
03:02
by these satellites between 2000 and 2010.
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ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื ืช 2000 ืœืฉื ืช 2010.
03:06
As you can see in blue, huge areas of our world
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ื•ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ื›ื—ื•ืœ, ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ืขืฆื•ืžื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื
03:08
are barely seen, less than once a year,
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ืฉื‘ืงื•ืฉื™ ืžื•ืคื™ืขื™ื, ืžืฆื•ืœืžื™ื ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืคืขื ื‘ืฉื ื”,
03:11
and even the areas that are seen most frequently,
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืžืฆื•ืœืžื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืชื“ื™ืจ,
03:13
those in red, are seen at best once a quarter.
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ื”ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ื”ืื“ื•ืžื™ื, ืžืฆื•ืœืžื™ื ืœื›ืœ ื”ื™ื•ืชืจ ืคืขื ื‘ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื.
03:17
Now as aerospace engineering grad students,
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ื‘ืชื•ืจ ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ืชื•ืืจ ืฉื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื ื“ืกืช ืชืขื•ืคื” ื•ื—ืœืœ,
03:20
this chart cried out to us as a challenge.
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ื”ืชืจืฉื™ื ื ืจืื” ืœื ื• ื›ืืชื’ืจ ืžื“ื”ื™ื.
03:23
Why do these things have to be so expensive?
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ืœืžื” ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื™ืงืจื™ื?
03:27
Does a single satellite really have to cost
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ื”ืื ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ ืื—ื“ ื‘ืืžืช ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืขืœื•ืช
03:30
the equivalent of three 747 jumbo jets?
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ื›ืžื• ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืžื˜ื•ืกื™ ื’'ืžื‘ื•?
03:34
Wasn't there a way to build a smaller,
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ื”ืื ืื™ืŸ ื“ืจืš ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ,
03:37
simpler, new satellite design that could enable
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ืคืฉื•ื˜ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืขื ืขื™ืฆื•ื‘ ื—ื“ื™ืฉ ืฉื™ืืคืฉืจื•
03:40
more timely imaging?
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ืœืฆืœื ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ืœืขืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ?
03:42
I realize that it does sound a little bit crazy
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ื”ื‘ื ืชื™ ืฉื–ื” ื ืฉืžืข ืžืขื˜ ืžืฉื•ื’ืข
03:45
that we were going to go out and just
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื ื ืกื” ื‘ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ืขืฆืžื ื•
03:47
begin designing satellites,
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ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื,
03:49
but fortunately we had help.
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืžื–ืœื ื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื ื• ืขื–ืจื”.
03:51
In the late 1990s, a couple of professors
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ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืฉื ื•ืช ื”- 90, ืฉื ื™ ืคืจื•ืคืกื•ืจื™ื
03:53
proposed a concept for radically reducing the price
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ื”ืฆื™ืขื• ื’ื™ืฉื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืฉืชืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืคื—ื™ืช ืžืื“ ืืช ื”ืžื—ื™ืจ
03:57
of putting things in space.
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ืฉืœ ืฉื™ื’ื•ืจ ืขืฆืžื™ื ืœื—ืœืœ.
03:59
This was hitchhiking small satellites
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ื”ื ื”ืฆื™ืขื• ืœืฆืจืฃ ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื›ื˜ืจืžืคื™ืกื˜ื™ื
04:01
alongside much larger satellites.
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ืœืฉื™ื’ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื”.
04:04
This dropped the cost of putting objects up there
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ื”ื”ืฆืขื” ืชืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื•ืจื™ื“ ืืช ื”ืžื—ื™ืจ ืฉืœ ืฉื™ื’ื•ืจ ืขืฆืžื™ื ืœื—ืœืœ
04:07
by over a factor of 100,
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ืคื™ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž- 100,
04:09
and suddenly we could afford to experiment,
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ื•ืœืคืชืข ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœื”ืจืฉื•ืช ืœืขืฆืžื ื• ืœื‘ืฆืข ื ื™ืกื•ื™,
04:12
to take a little bit of risk,
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ืœืงื—ืช ืกื™ื›ื•ืŸ ืžืกื•ื™ื,
04:13
and to realize a lot of innovation.
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ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื™ื™ืฉื ื—ื“ืฉื ื•ืช ืขืฆื•ืžื”.
04:16
And a new generation of engineers and scientists,
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ื•ื“ื•ืจ ื—ื“ืฉ ืฉืœ ืžื”ื ื“ืกื™ื ื•ืžื“ืขื ื™ื,
04:19
mostly out of universities,
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ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืžื”ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืื•ืช,
04:20
began launching these very small,
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ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื• ืœืฉื’ืจ ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื˜ื ื™ื,
04:23
breadbox-sized satellites called CubeSats.
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ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ืงื•ืคืกืช ืœื—ื, ืฉืžื›ื•ื ื™ื ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™-ืงื•ื‘ื™ื™ื”.
04:25
And these were built with electronics obtained
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ื”ื ื ื‘ื ื• ืžื—ืœืงื™ ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ืงื” ืฉื ืจื›ืฉื•
04:28
from RadioShack instead of Lockheed Martin.
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ื‘ื—ื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืจื’ื™ืœื•ืช ื›ืžื• RadioShack, ื•ืœื ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื ื™ ืžื˜ื•ืกื™ื ื›ืžื• ืœื•ืงื”ื™ื“ ืžืจื˜ื™ืŸ.
04:32
Now it was using the lessons learned from these early missions
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ื‘ื”ืชื‘ืกืก ืขืœ ื”ื™ื“ืข ืฉื ืจื›ืฉ ืžื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืงื•ื“ืžื™ื
04:34
that my friends and I began a series of sketches
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ื”ืชื—ืœื ื•, ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื•ืื ื™, ืœืฉืจื˜ื˜ ืชืจืฉื™ืžื™ื
04:37
of our own satellite design.
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ืฉืœ ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืจืฆื™ื ื• ืœื‘ื ื•ืช.
04:39
And I can't remember a specific day
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ื•ืงืฉื” ืœื–ื›ื•ืจ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžืชื™
04:42
where we made a conscious decision
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ื”ื’ืขื ื• ืœื”ื—ืœื˜ื”
04:43
that we were actually going to go out and build these things,
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ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ื‘ืืžืช ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ ื›ื–ื”,
04:46
but once we got that idea in our minds
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉืขืœื” ื‘ืจืืฉื ื• ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ
04:48
of the world as a dataset,
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ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืก ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื,
04:51
of being able to capture millions of data points
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ืœืฆืœื ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ื ืชื•ื ื™ื
04:53
on a daily basis describing the global economy,
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื™ื•ืžื™ื•ืžื™ ืฉื™ืฆื™ื’ื• ืืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช,
04:56
of being able to unearth billions of connections
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ืœื—ืฉื•ืฃ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ ืงืฉืจื™ื
04:59
between them that had never before been found,
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืฉืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ืงื•ืฉืจื• ื–ื” ืœื–ื”,
05:02
it just seemed boring
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ื ืจืื” ืœื ื• ืฉื›ืœ ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืื—ืจืช
05:03
to go work on anything else.
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ื”ื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืžืฉืขืžืžืช ืœื”ื—ืจื™ื“.
05:06
And so we moved into a cramped,
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ืื– ืขื‘ืจื ื• ืœืžืฉืจื“ ืงื˜ืŸ,
05:09
windowless office in Palo Alto,
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ื ื˜ื•ืœ ื—ืœื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืคืืœื• ืืœื˜ื•,
05:12
and began working to take our design
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ื•ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืขืœ ื”ืคื™ื›ืช ื”ืชืจืฉื™ืžื™ื ืฉืœื ื•
05:14
from the drawing board into the lab.
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ืžืฉื•ืœื—ืŸ ื”ืฉืจื˜ื•ื˜ ืœื“ื’ื ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ื”.
05:17
The first major question we had to tackle
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ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืขืžื“ื” ืžื•ืœื ื•
05:20
was just how big to build this thing.
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื’ื•ื“ืœ ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ?
05:22
In space, size drives cost,
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ื‘ื—ืœืœ, ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืžืขืœื” ืืช ื”ืžื—ื™ืจ,
05:25
and we had worked with these very small,
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ื•ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืขื ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื,
05:27
breadbox-sized satellites in school,
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ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ืชื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœื—ื ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ื”,
05:30
but as we began to better understand the laws of physics,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืช ื—ื•ืงื™ ื”ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื”,
05:32
we found that the quality of pictures
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ื•ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ืฉืื™ื›ื•ืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื”
05:34
those satellites could take was very limited,
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ืฉื™ื›ืœื• ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืœืฆืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœืช ืžืื“,
05:37
because the laws of physics dictate
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ื›ื™ ื—ื•ืงื™ ื”ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื” ืžื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื
05:39
that the best picture you can take through a telescope
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ืฉื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืื™ื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืฆืœื ื“ืจืš ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค
05:42
is a function of the diameter of that telescope,
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ืงืฉื•ืจื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื™ืฉื™ืจ ื‘ืงื•ื˜ืจ ืขื“ืฉืช ื”ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค,
05:44
and these satellites had a very small,
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ื•ื‘ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ื™ืฉ ื ืคื— ืงื˜ืŸ,
05:46
very constrained volume.
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ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœ ืžืื“.
05:48
And we found that the best picture we would
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ื•ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ืฉื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืื™ื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
05:50
have been able to get looked something like this.
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ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฆืœื ืชื™ืจืื” ื‘ืขืจืš ื›ื›ื”.
05:52
Although this was the low-cost option,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ืื•ืคืฆื™ื” ื”ื–ื•ืœื”,
05:54
quite frankly it was just too blurry
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ืฉื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ืžื˜ื•ืฉื˜ืฉืช
05:56
to see the things that make satellite imagery valuable.
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ื•ืœื ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืื‘ื—ื ื” ื‘ืคืจื˜ื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ืขืจืš.
05:59
So about three or four weeks later,
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ืื—ืจื™ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืื• ืืจื‘ืขื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช,
06:02
we met a group of engineers randomly
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ื ืคื’ืฉื ื• ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืขื ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ืžื”ื ื“ืกื™ื
06:04
who had worked on the first
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ืฉืขื‘ื“ื• ืขืœ ื”ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ
06:06
private imaging satellite ever developed,
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ืฉืœ ืคื™ืชื•ื— ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืžืกื—ืจื™,
06:09
and they told us that back in the 1970s,
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ื•ื”ื ืกื™ืคืจื• ืœื ื• ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”- 70,
06:11
the U.S. government had found a powerful
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ื”ืžืžืฉืœ ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ื’ื™ืœื”
06:13
optimal tradeoff --
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ืื™ื–ื•ืŸ ืื•ืคื˜ื™ืžืœื™ ืจื‘ ืขืฆืžื” --
06:14
that in taking pictures at right about one meter resolution,
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ื”ื ื’ื™ืœื• ืฉื›ืฉืžืฆืœืžื™ื ืชืžื•ื ื” ื‘ื”ืคืจื“ื” ืฉืœ ืžื˜ืจ ืื—ื“,
06:18
being able to see objects one meter in size,
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœืจืื•ืช ืขืฆืžื™ื ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ืžื˜ืจ ืื—ื“,
06:20
they had found that they could not just get very high-quality images,
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ื”ื ื’ื™ืœื• ืฉืœื ืจืง ืฉื”ื ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื• ืœืงื‘ืœ ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืื™ื›ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ืžืื“,
06:23
but get a lot of them at an affordable price.
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ืืœื ืœืงื‘ืœ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืžื—ื™ืจ ื ืžื•ืš.
06:26
From our own computer simulations,
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ื‘ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืžื•ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉืขืจื›ื ื•,
06:28
we quickly found that one meter really was
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ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื”ืคืจื“ื” ืฉืœ ืžื˜ืจ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื•ื•ื”
06:30
the minimum viable product
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ืืช ื”ืžื•ืฆืจ ื”ืžื ื™ืžืืœื™
06:32
to be able to see the drivers of our global economy,
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ืฉืžืกื•ื’ืœ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ื”ืžื ื™ืขื™ื ืืช ื’ืœื’ืœื™ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช,
06:35
for the first time, being able to count
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ื•ื‘ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ืœืืคืฉืจ ืืช ืกืคื™ืจื”
06:36
the ships and cars and shipping containers and trucks
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ืฉืœ ืกืคื™ื ื•ืช ื•ืžื›ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื•ืžื›ื•ืœื•ืช ื•ืžืฉืื™ื•ืช
06:39
that move around our world on a daily basis,
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ืฉื ืขื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ื™ื•ืžื™ื•ืžื™,
06:42
while conveniently still not being able to see individuals.
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ื•ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ, ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืฉื”ืชืื™ื ืœื ื• ืžืื“, ืœื ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœืฆืคื•ืช ื‘ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื.
06:46
We had found our compromise.
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ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ืืช ื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ื”ืชืคืฉืจื•ืช.
06:47
We would have to build something larger
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ
06:49
than the original breadbox,
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ืžื’ื•ื“ืœ ืงื•ืคืกืช ื”ืœื—ื ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™,
06:51
now more like a mini-fridge,
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ื™ื•ืชืจ ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ืžืงืจืจ ืžืฉืจื“ื™,
06:52
but we still wouldn't have to build a pickup truck.
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ืื‘ืœ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ื˜ื ื“ืจ.
06:55
So now we had our constraint.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื”ื‘ื ื• ืืช ืžื’ื‘ืœืช ื”ื’ื•ื“ืœ.
06:58
The laws of physics dictated
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ื—ื•ืงื™ ื”ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื” ืงื‘ืขื•
06:59
the absolute minimum-sized telescope that we could build.
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ืืช ื”ื’ื•ื“ืœ ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืžืœื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœื‘ื ื•ืช.
07:03
What came next was making the rest of the satellite
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ื•ื ืฉืืจ ืœื ื• ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืืช ืฉืืจ ื—ืœืงื™ ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ
07:06
as small and as simple as possible,
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ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื•ืคืฉื•ื˜ื™ื ื›ื›ืœ ื”ืืคืฉืจ,
07:07
basically a flying telescope with four walls
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื’ื™ื“ ืฉื‘ื ื™ื ื• ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค ืžืขื•ืคืฃ ืขื ืืจื‘ืขื” ืงื™ืจื•ืช
07:10
and a set of electronics smaller than a phone book
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ื•ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ืงื” ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ืžืกืคืจ ื˜ืœืคื•ื ื™ื
07:13
that used less power than a 100 watt lightbulb.
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ืฉืฆื•ืจื›ื•ืช ืคื—ื•ืช ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืžื ื•ืจื” ืฉืœ 100 ื•ืื˜.
07:16
The big challenge became actually taking
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ื”ืืชื’ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื”ืชื’ืœื” ื‘ืฉืœื‘
07:18
the pictures through that telescope.
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ืฉืœ ืฆื™ืœื•ื ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื“ืจืš ื”ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค.
07:21
Traditional imaging satellites use a line scanner,
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ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ื™ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืžืฆืœืžืช ืฉื•ืจื”,
07:24
similar to a Xerox machine,
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ื‘ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืžืฆืœืžื” ื‘ืžื›ื•ื ื•ืช ืฆื™ืœื•ื,
07:25
and as they traverse the Earth, they take pictures,
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ื•ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื”ื ื—ื•ืœืคื™ื ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ, ื”ื ืžืฆืœืžื™ื ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช,
07:28
scanning row by row by row
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ืกื•ืจืงื™ื ืฉื•ืจื” ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื•ืจื” ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื•ืจื”
07:30
to build the complete image.
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ืฉื™ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ื™ื—ื“ ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืžืœืื”.
07:32
Now people use these because they get a lot of light,
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ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ืช ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืžืฆืœืžื•ืช ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ื™ื ืฉื”ืŸ ืงื•ืœื˜ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืื•ืจ,
07:35
which means less of the noise you see
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ืžื” ืฉืžืืคืฉืจ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืขื ืคื—ื•ืช ืขื™ื•ื•ืชื™ื
07:37
in a low-cost cell phone image.
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ืžืžื” ืฉื ืงื‘ืœ ื‘ืžืฆืœืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื˜ืœืคื•ื ื™ื ืกืœื•ืœืจื™ื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ื™ื.
07:39
The problem with them is they require
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ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ืขื ืžืฆืœืžื•ืช ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ื™ื ืฉื”ืŸ ื“ื•ืจืฉื•ืช
07:42
very sophisticated pointing.
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ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื›ื•ื•ื ื•ืŸ ืžืชื•ื—ื›ืžื•ืช ืžืื“.
07:44
You have to stay focused on a 50-centimeter target
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœ ืžื™ืงื•ื“ ืขืœ ืžื˜ืจื” ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ 50 ืกื ื˜ื™ืžื˜ืจ
07:46
from over 600 miles away
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ืžืžืจื—ืง ืฉืœ 1,000 ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจ
07:48
while moving at more than seven kilometers a second,
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ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ืชื ื•ืขื” ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ 7 ืง"ืž ื‘ืฉื ื™ื™ื”,
07:50
which requires an awesome degree of complexity.
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ื›ืš ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ื“ืจื’ืช ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ืžืื“.
07:53
So instead, we turned to a new generation of video sensors,
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื–ืืช, ื‘ื—ืจื ื• ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื“ื•ืจ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ืฉื ื™ ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•,
07:57
originally created for use in night vision goggles.
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ืฉื ื•ืฆืจื• ื‘ืžืงื•ืจ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžืฉืงืคื•ืช ืœืจืื™ื™ืช ืœื™ืœื”.
08:00
Instead of taking a single, high quality image,
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœืฆืœื ืชืžื•ื ื” ื‘ื•ื“ื“ืช, ื‘ืื™ื›ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื”,
08:03
we could take a videostream
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœืฆืœื ืกืจื˜ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ืจืฆื™ืฃ
08:04
of individually noisier frames,
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ืฉืœ ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืขื ืขื™ื•ื•ืชื™ื,
08:07
but then we could recombine
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœืฉืœื‘
08:09
all of those frames together
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ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื™ื—ื“
08:10
into very high-quality images
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ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœืงื‘ืœ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืื—ืช ื‘ืื™ื›ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ืžืื“
08:12
using sophisticated pixel processing techniques
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ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืขื™ื‘ื•ื“ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืžืชื•ื—ื›ืžื•ืช
08:15
here on the ground,
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ื‘ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ืขืœ ื”ืงืจืงืข,
08:16
at a cost of one one hundredth a traditional system.
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ื‘ืขืœื•ืช ืฉื ืžื•ื›ื” ืคื™ 100 ืžืขืœื•ืช ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ืœื•ื ื”ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ื•ืช.
08:19
And we applied this technique
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ื•ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื ื• ื‘ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื” ื”ื–ื•
08:20
to many of the other systems on the satellite as well,
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ืœืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช ื‘ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ,
08:23
and day by day, our design evolved
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ื•ื™ื•ื ืื—ืจ ื™ื•ื, ื”ืขื™ืฆื•ื‘ ื”ืฉืชืคืจ
08:26
from CAD to prototypes
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ืžืชื›ื ื™ื•ืช ืžื—ืฉื‘ ืœืื‘ ื˜ื™ืคื•ืก
08:30
to production units.
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ืœื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื.
08:33
A few short weeks ago,
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ืœืคื ื™ ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช,
08:34
we packed up SkySat 1,
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ืืจื–ื ื• ืืช ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ SkySat 1,
08:36
put our signatures on it,
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ื—ืชืžื ื• ืืช ืฉืžื•ืชื™ื ื• ืขืœื™ื•
08:38
and waved goodbye for the last time on Earth.
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ื•ื ืคืจื“ื ื• ืžืžื ื• ืœืฉืœื•ื ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื™ืขื–ื•ื‘ ืืช ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
08:40
Today, it's sitting in its final launch configuration
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ื”ื™ื•ื, ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืŸ ืžื—ื›ื” ืœืฉื™ื’ื•ืจ
08:44
ready to blast off in a few short weeks.
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ืžื•ื›ืŸ ืœื”ืชืจื•ืžื ืœื—ืœืœ ืชื•ืš ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช.
08:47
And soon, we'll turn our attention to launching
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ื•ื‘ืงืจื•ื‘, ื ืชืžืงื“ ื‘ืฉื™ื’ื•ืจ
08:49
a constellation of 24 or more of these satellites
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ืฉืœ ืžืขืจื›ืช ื‘ืช 24 ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืื• ื™ื•ืชืจ
08:52
and beginning to build the scalable analytics
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ื•ื ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืืช ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื ื™ืชื•ื— ื‘ืจืช ื”ื”ืจื—ื‘ื”
08:55
that will allow us to unearth the insights
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ืฉืชืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืœื—ืฉื•ืฃ ืืช ื”ืชื•ื‘ื ื•ืช
08:57
in the petabytes of data we will collect.
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ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ื”ืขืฆื•ืžื•ืช ืฉื™ื™ืืกืคื•.
09:00
So why do all of this? Why build these satellites?
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ืื– ืœืžื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื›ืœ ื–ื”? ืœืžื” ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื?
09:04
Well, it turns out imaging satellites
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืžืชื‘ืจืจ ืฉืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ ืฆื™ืœื•ื
09:07
have a unique ability to provide global transparency,
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ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœืกืคืง ืฉืงื™ืคื•ืช ื‘ื™ื "ืœ,
09:10
and providing that transparency on a timely basis
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ื•ืžืชืŸ ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉืงื•ืฃ ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ืงื‘ื•ืข
09:13
is simply an idea whose time has come.
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ื”ื•ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื‘ืฉื™ืœ.
09:16
We see ourselves as pioneers of a new frontier,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื ื• ื›ืขืœ ืžื’ืœื™ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ื‘ืคื ื™ ืขื•ืœื ื—ื“ืฉ,
09:20
and beyond economic data,
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ื•ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืžื™ื“ืข ื›ืœื›ืœื™,
09:22
unlocking the human story, moment by moment.
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ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืกืคืจ ืืช ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ืžื™ืŸ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™, ืจื’ืข ืื—ืจื™ ืจื’ืข.
09:25
For a data scientist
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื“ืขืŸ ื ืชื•ื ื™ื
09:27
that just happened to go to space camp as a kid,
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ืฉื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ืœืš ืœืงื™ื™ื˜ื ืช ื—ืœืœ ื‘ืชื•ืจ ื™ืœื“,
09:30
it just doesn't get much better than that.
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ื–ื• ืœื ื ืขืฉื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื˜ื•ื‘ ืžื–ื”.
09:32
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืœื›ื.
09:35
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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