Why mosquitoes bite some people more than others - Maria Elena De Obaldia

541,340 views ใƒป 2023-09-26

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: zeeva livshitz ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
00:07
Some swear theyโ€™re cursed to be hunted by mosquitoes
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ื™ืฉ ื›ืืœื” ืฉื ืฉื‘ืขื™ื ืฉื”ื ืžืงื•ืœืœื™ื ืฉื”ื ื ืจื“ืคื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื
00:10
while their close-by companions are regularly left unscathed.
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉื—ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ื ืฉืืจื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืข ืœืœื ืคื’ืข.
00:14
But is this an illusion?
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืื ื–ื• ืืฉืœื™ื”?
00:16
If it's not, what's going on? And what can we do about it?
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ืื ืœื, ืžื” ืงื•ืจื”? ื•ืžื” ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื‘ื ื™ื“ื•ืŸ?
00:19
It all comes down to howโ€” and whyโ€” mosquitoes find us.
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ื”ื›ืœ ืชืœื•ื™ ื‘ืื™ืš - ื•ืœืžื” - ื”ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืื•ืชื ื•.
00:23
While male mosquitoes stick to nectar for sustenance,
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ื–ื›ืจื™ื ื ื“ื‘ืงื™ื ืœืฆื•ืฃ ืœืžื—ื™ื”,
00:26
females also seek out blood to provide the nutrients they need for their eggs.
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ื ืงื‘ื•ืช ืžื—ืคืฉื•ืช ื’ื ื“ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืกืคืง ืืช ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื”ืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืฆื™ื ืฉืœื”ืŸ.
00:31
Different mosquito species evolved to feed on different animals.
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ืžื™ื ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ืœืื›ื•ืœ ืžื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื.
00:34
And, probably within the last 10,000 years,
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ื•ื›ื ืจืื” ื‘10,000 ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช,
00:37
multiple mosquito lineages independently evolved a predilection for people.
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ืฉื•ืฉืœื•ืช ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ืžืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ืคื™ืชื—ื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืขืฆืžืื™ ื ื˜ื™ื™ื” ืœื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื.
00:42
As human settlements became more permanent,
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ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืงื‘ื•ืขื” ื™ื•ืชืจ
00:44
they provided plenty of standing water, even through intense dry seasons,
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ื”ื™ื ืกื™ืคืงื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื™ื ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื, ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืขื•ื ื•ืช ื™ื‘ืฉื•ืช ืื™ื ื˜ื ืกื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช,
00:48
which supported mosquito reproduction year-round.
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ืฉืชืžื›ื• ื‘ืจื‘ื™ื™ืช ื”ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื ื”.
00:51
Female mosquitoes are equipped with antennae covered in hair-like appendages
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ื ืงื‘ื•ืช ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ืžืฆื•ื™ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื˜ื ื•ืช ืžื›ื•ืกื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืกืคื•ืช ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื™ืขืจ
00:55
that contain odor-sensing receptors and neurons.
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ื”ืžื›ื™ืœื•ืช ืงื•ืœื˜ื ื™ื ื•ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื ืœื—ื™ืฉืช ืจื™ื—.
00:58
These pick up on the signals of their preferred hosts,
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ืืœื• ืงื•ืœื˜ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืื•ืชื•ืช ืžื”ืžืืจื—ื™ื ื”ืžื•ืขื“ืคื™ื ืขืœื™ื”ื,
01:01
And over thousands of years,
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ื•ืœืื•ืจืš ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื,
01:03
the mosquitoes that target humans have gotten extremely good at tracking us down.
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ื”ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ืฉืคื•ื’ืขื™ื ื‘ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื ืขืฉื• ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ืžืขืงื‘ ืื—ืจื™ื ื•.
01:07
They also target parts of our bodies where weโ€™re less likely to notice them.
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ื”ื ื’ื ืžื›ื•ื•ื ื™ื ืœื—ืœืงื™ื ื‘ื’ื•ืคื ื• ืฉื‘ื”ื ื™ืฉ ืคื—ื•ืช ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ืฉื ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ ื‘ื”ื.
01:11
And theyโ€™re sensitive to visual cues and changes in airflow,
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ื•ื”ื ืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื ืœืจืžื–ื™ื ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ื™ื ื•ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ื–ืจื™ืžืช ื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจ
01:15
so when we try to defend ourselves, they can make swift escapes.
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ืื– ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื ื•, ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ืจื•ื— ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช.
01:19
They even learn to avoid particularly defensive people altogether.
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ื”ื ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ืœื”ื™ืžื ืข ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ ืžืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื’ื ืชื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“.
01:23
But before these close encounters happen,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ืžืคื’ืฉื™ื ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืงื•ืจื™ื,
01:25
several factors alert mosquitoes to people's presence.
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ืžืกืคืจ ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืžืชืจื™ืขื™ื ื‘ืคื ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ืขืœ ื ื•ื›ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื.
01:28
Female mosquitoes can pick up on the carbon dioxide humans constantly exhale
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ื ืงื‘ื•ืช ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœืงืœื•ื˜ ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืฉื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื ื•ืฉืคื™ื ืœืœื ื”ืจืฃ
01:32
from about 10 meters away.
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ืžืžืจื—ืง ืฉืœ ื›-10 ืžื˜ืจื™ื.
01:34
Once theyโ€™ve gotten the CO2 cue,
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ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื”ืŸ ืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืืช ืจืžื– ื”-CO2,
01:36
they become especially interested in dark, high-contrast objects
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ื”ืŸ ืžืชืขื ื™ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื ื›ื”ื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ื™ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื”
01:40
and the hues found in human skin.
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ื•ื”ื’ื•ื•ื ื™ื ื”ืžืฆื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืจ ื”ืื“ื.
01:42
As they follow the carbon dioxide plume to its source,
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ื›ืฉื”ืŸ ืขื•ืงื‘ื•ืช ืื—ืจ ืคืœื•ืžืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืœืžืงื•ืจ ืฉืœื•,
01:45
they eventually sense body heat and odors.
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ื”ืŸ ื—ืฉื•ืช ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื—ื•ื ื’ื•ืฃ ื•ืจื™ื—ื•ืช.
01:48
These smells are generated by the many microorganisms that live on our skin.
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ืจื™ื—ื•ืช ืืœื” ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื™ืงืจื•ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืฉื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืขื•ืจ ืฉืœื ื•.
01:52
They break down the secretions our bodies produce, like sweat and sebum.
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ื”ื ืžืคืจืงื™ื ืืช ื”ื”ืคืจืฉื•ืช ืฉื’ื•ืคื ื• ืžื™ื™ืฆืจ, ื›ืžื• ื–ื™ืขื” ื•ื—ืœื‘.
01:56
In doing so, our skin microbes create smaller organic compounds
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ื‘ื›ืš ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ ื”ืขื•ืจ ืฉืœื ื• ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืชืจื›ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ
02:00
that can vaporize and get picked up as smellsโ€”
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ืชืื“ื•ืช ื•ืœื”ื™ืงืœื˜ ื›ืจื™ื—ื•ืช --
02:03
smells that human-homing mosquitoes are especially attuned to.
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ืจื™ื—ื•ืช ืฉื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ืžื•ื›ื•ื•ื ื™ ืื ืฉื™ื ืžื›ื•ื•ื ื™ื ืืœื™ื”ื ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“.
02:07
Getting extra sweaty can temporarily make people more attractive to mosquitoesโ€”
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ื”ื–ืขื” ืžื•ื’ื‘ืจืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ื–ืžื ื™ืช ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืื ืฉื™ื ืœืื˜ืจืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื
02:12
as can ingesting alcohol or being pregnant.
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ื›ืžื• ื’ื ืฉืชื™ื™ืช ืืœื›ื•ื”ื•ืœ ืื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืจื™ื•ืŸ.
02:15
And the Plasmodium parasite that causes malaria
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ื•ื˜ืคื™ืœ ื”ืคืœืกืžื•ื“ื™ื•ื ืฉื’ื•ืจื ืœืžืœืจื™ื”
02:18
makes the people it infects more appealing to mosquitoes by increasing
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ื”ื•ืคืš ืืช ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื“ื‘ื™ืง ืœืžื•ืฉื›ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื’ื“ืœืช
02:21
the amounts of certain fruit-smelling aldehyde compounds on their skin.
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ื”ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืชืจื›ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืืœื“ื”ื™ื“ ื‘ืจื™ื— ืคื™ืจื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืขื•ืจ ืฉืœื”ื.
02:25
This is extremely helpful to the parasite
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ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžื•ืขื™ืœ ืœื˜ืคื™ืœ
02:28
because it depends on both humans and mosquitoes to reproduce.
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ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืชืœื•ื™ ื”ืŸ ื‘ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื ื•ื‘ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ืœื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช.
02:31
But in addition to these temporary factors,
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ื–ืžื ื™ื™ื ืืœื”,
02:34
about 20% of people are thought to be naturally high attractors,
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ื›20% ืžื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื ื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ืœืžื•ืฉื›ื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื˜ื‘ืขื™
02:37
or mosquito magnets,
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ืื• ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ื ืœื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื,
02:39
who are disproportionately targeted year after year.
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ืฉืžืžื•ืงื“ื™ื ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืœื ืคืจื•ืคื•ืจืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ืช ืฉื ื” ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื ื”.
02:42
If youโ€™re one of them, youโ€™re probably well aware.
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ืื ืืชื ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื, ืืชื ื›ื ืจืื” ืžื•ื“ืขื™ื ื”ื™ื˜ื‘.
02:45
Sorry about that.
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ืžืฆื˜ืขืจืช ืขืœ ื–ื”.
02:47
Why this is seems to come down to some skin-specific characteristics.
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ื ืจืื” ืฉื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœื–ื” ืžืกืชื›ืžืช ื‘ื›ืžื” ืžืืคื™ื™ื ื™ื ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™ื™ื ืœืขื•ืจ.
02:51
While carbon dioxide exhalations and body heat consistently signal the presence
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉืคืœื™ื˜ื•ืช ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื•ื—ื•ื ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ืžืื•ืชืชื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืขืงื‘ื™ ืขืœ ื ื•ื›ื—ื•ืชื
02:56
of warm-blooded animals,
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ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื•ืช ืขื ื“ื ื—ื,
02:58
human body odor is more distinctive.
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ืจื™ื— ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืื“ื ื‘ื•ืœื˜ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
03:00
And everyone hosts different microbial communities on their skin,
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ื•ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžืืจื— ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืขื•ืจ ืฉืœื”ื,
03:03
which contribute to unique body odors that likewise vary from person to person.
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ืฉืชื•ืจืžื™ื ืœืจื™ื—ื•ืช ื’ื•ืฃ ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื™ื ืฉื’ื ืžืฉืชื ื™ื ืžืื“ื ืœืื“ื.
03:08
Researchers reveal that the receptors mosquitoes use to detect acidic compounds
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ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืžื’ืœื™ื ื›ื™ ื”ืงื•ืœื˜ื ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื”ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื–ื”ื•ืช ืชืจื›ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื—ื•ืžืฆื™ื•ืช
03:12
are especially important in helping them navigate towards humans.
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ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœื”ื ืœื ื•ื•ื˜ ืœืขื‘ืจ ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื.
03:16
And, indeed, humans with more abundant skin acids
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ื•ืื›ืŸ, ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ืขื ืฉืคืข ืจื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืžืฆื•ืช ืขื•ืจ
03:19
prove to be consistently more attractive to mosquitoes.
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ืžื•ื›ื™ื—ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืขืงื‘ื™ ืฉื”ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื˜ืจืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื.
03:22
Because itโ€™s such a persistent trait, certain genes may play a role,
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื–ื• ืชื›ื•ื ื” ืขื™ืงืฉืช ื›ืœ ื›ืš, ื’ื ื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืœืฉื—ืง ืชืคืงื™ื“
03:26
perhaps by helping determine the skinโ€™s microbial composition.
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ืื•ืœื™ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืกื™ื•ืข ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ืืช ื”ืจื›ื‘ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืจ.
03:29
Scientists have observed that mosquitoes demonstrate similar levels of attraction
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ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื”ื‘ื—ื™ื ื• ืฉื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ืจืžื•ืช ืžืฉื™ื›ื” ื“ื•ืžื•ืช
03:33
among identical twins while responding more variably to fraternal twins,
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ื‘ืงืจื‘ ืชืื•ืžื™ื ื–ื”ื™ื ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืžืฉืชื ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืชืื•ืžื™ื ืœื ื–ื”ื™ื,
03:37
which supports that there may be some genetic basis at play.
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ืžื” ืฉืชื•ืžืš ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืก ื’ื ื˜ื™ ื›ืœืฉื”ื• ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ.
03:41
But beyond confirming that mosquitoes are, in fact,
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ืื‘ืœ ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืื™ืฉื•ืจ ืฉื”ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ืื›ืŸ
03:43
conspiring against some of us specifically,
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ื–ื•ืžืžื™ื ื ื’ื“ ื—ืœืงื ื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™,
03:46
understanding what makes people mosquito-magnets
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ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื” ื”ื•ืคืš ืื ืฉื™ื ืœืžื’ื ื˜ื™ื ืœื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื-
03:48
has serious, large-scale implications.
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ื™ืฉ ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ืจืฆื™ื ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ.
03:51
Every year, hundreds of thousands of people die from mosquito-borne diseases.
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ืžื“ื™ ืฉื ื”, ืžืื•ืช ืืœืคื™ ืื ืฉื™ื ืžืชื™ื ืžืžื—ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื•ืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื.
03:55
And resources arenโ€™t reaching those who need them most.
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ื•ื”ืžืฉืื‘ื™ื ืœื ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืœืืœื” ืฉื”ื›ื™ ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœื”ื.
03:57
This knowledge can help inspire solutions, like more effective insect repellents
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ื™ื“ืข ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืคืชืจื•ื ื•ืช, ื›ืžื• ื“ื•ื—ื™ ื—ืจืงื™ื ื™ืขื™ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ
04:02
that manipulate the skin's microbiome and odors.
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ืฉืžืฉื ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื•ื ื•ื”ืจื™ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืจ.
04:05
And knowing that some people are especially strong mosquito attractors
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ื•ืœื“ืขืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืžื•ืฉื›ื™ื ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื—ื–ืง ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“
04:08
could also help efforts to get them resources
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื’ื ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœืžืืžืฆื™ื ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืœื”ื ืžืฉืื‘ื™ื
04:11
like repellents, bed nets, vaccines, tests, and treatments.
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ื›ืžื• ืชื›ืฉื™ืจื™ื ื“ื•ื—ื™ื, ืจืฉืชื•ืช ืœืžื™ื˜ื”, ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื, ื‘ื“ื™ืงื•ืช ื•ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœื™ื.
04:15
The results could not only be less itchy,
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ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ืœื ืจืง ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืคื—ื•ืช ืžื’ืจื“ื•ืช,
04:17
they could break transmission cycles and save countless lives.
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ื”ืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœืฉื‘ื•ืจ ืžื—ื–ื•ืจื™ ื”ืขื‘ืจื” ื•ืœื”ืฆื™ืœ ืื™ื ืกืคื•ืจ ื—ื™ื™ื.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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