Do politics make us irrational? - Jay Van Bavel

531,335 views ใƒป 2020-02-04

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Sigal Tifferet
00:06
In 2013, a team of researchers held a math test.
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ื‘-2013, ืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืขืจืš ืžื‘ื—ืŸ ื‘ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงื”.
00:11
The exam was administered to over 1,100 American adults,
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ื”ืžื‘ื—ืŸ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-1,100 ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื ื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื,
00:15
and designed, in part, to test their ability to evaluate sets of data.
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ื•ืชื•ื›ื ืŸ, ื‘ื—ืœืงื•, ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืืช ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ืœื”ืขืจื™ืš ืžื‘ื ื™ ื ืชื•ื ื™ื.
00:21
Hidden among these math problems were two almost identical questions.
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ื—ื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงื” ื”ืืœื• ื”ื™ื• ืฉืชื™ ืฉืืœื•ืช ื›ืžืขื˜ ื–ื”ื•ืช.
00:26
Both problems used the same difficult data set,
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ืฉืชื™ ื”ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืžื‘ื ื” ื ืชื•ื ื™ื
00:29
and each had one objectively correct answer.
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ื•ืœื›ืœ ืื—ืช ืžื”ืŸ ื”ื™ืชื” ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืื—ืช ื ื›ื•ื ื” ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช.
00:33
The first asked about the correlation between rashes and a new skin cream.
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ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืขืกืงื” ื‘ืžืชืื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืคืจื™ื—ื” ืœืงืจื ืขื•ืจ ื—ื“ืฉ.
00:38
The second asked about the correlation between crime rates
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ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื” ืขืกืงื” ื‘ืžืชืื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืจืžื•ืช ืคืฉื™ืขื”
00:42
and gun control legislation.
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ืœื—ืงื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื‘ืงืจืช ื ืฉืง.
00:45
Participants with strong math skills
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ืœืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ืขื ื›ื™ืฉื•ืจื™ ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื
00:47
were much more likely to get the first question correct.
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ื”ื™ื” ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืœืขื ื•ืช ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”.
00:51
But despite being mathematically identical,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ื–ื”ื•ืช ื”ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืช,
00:54
the results for the second question looked totally different.
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ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ืœืฉืืœื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืฉื•ื ื” ืœื’ืžืจื™.
00:58
Here, math skills werenโ€™t the best predictor
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ื›ืืŸ, ื›ื™ืฉื•ืจื™ ื”ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงื” ืœื ื”ื™ื• ื”ืžื ื‘ื ื”ื›ื™ ื˜ื•ื‘
01:01
of which participants answered correctly.
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ืœืžื™ ื™ืขื ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
01:04
Instead, another variable the researchers had been tracking came into play:
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื–ืืช, ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืœืžืฉืชื ื” ืื—ืจ ืื•ืชื• ืžื“ื“ื• ื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื:
01:10
political identity.
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ื–ื”ื•ืช ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช.
01:12
Participants whose political beliefs
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ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ืฉื”ืืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื ื”ืชืื™ืžื•
01:14
aligned with a correct interpretation of the data
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ืœืคื™ืจื•ืฉ ื”ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ื“ืข
01:17
were far more likely to answer the problem right.
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ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืขืœื™ ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืœืขื ื•ืช ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืฉืืœื”.
01:20
Even the studyโ€™s top mathematicians
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ืืคื™ืœื• ืœืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงืื™ื ื”ื›ื™ ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ
01:23
were 45% more likely to get the second question wrong
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ื”ื™ื” ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘-45% ืœืฉื’ื•ืช ื‘ืฉืืœื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื”
01:28
when the correct answer challenged their political beliefs.
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ื›ืฉื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื ื›ื•ื ื” ืื™ืชื’ืจื” ืืช ื”ืืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
01:32
What is it about politics that inspires this kind of illogical error?
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ืžื” ื’ื•ืจื ืœื›ืš ืฉืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ืžืขื•ืจืจืช ืฉื’ื™ืื•ืช ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ื›ืืœื”?
01:38
Can someoneโ€™s political identity actually affect their ability
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ื”ืื ื”ื–ื”ื•ืช ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืื“ื ืžืฉืคื™ืขื” ืขืœ ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื• ืœืขื‘ื“ ืžื™ื“ืข?
01:41
to process information?
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01:43
The answer lies in a cognitive phenomenon
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ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื ืžืฆืืช ื‘ืชื•ืคืขื” ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช
01:46
that has become increasingly visible in public life: partisanship.
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ืฉื”ืคื›ื” ื‘ื•ืœื˜ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื™ื: ืžืคืœื’ืชื ื•ืช.
01:51
While itโ€™s often invoked in the context of politics,
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ืžืคืœื’ืชื ื•ืช ืืžื ื ืžื•ืคืขืœืช ื”ืจื‘ื” ื‘ื”ืงืฉืจ ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™,
01:55
partisanship is more broadly defined as a strong preference or bias
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื ืžื•ื’ื“ืจืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืจื—ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื›ื”ืขื“ืคื” ื—ื–ืงื” ืื• ื”ื˜ื™ื”
02:00
towards any particular group or idea.
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ื›ืœืคื™ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช ืื• ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ.
02:03
Our political, ethnic, religious, and national identities
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ื”ื–ื”ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช, ื”ืืชื ื™ื•ืช, ื”ื“ืชื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•,
02:07
are all different forms of partisanship.
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ื”ืŸ ื›ื•ืœืŸ ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืคืœื’ืชื ื•ืช.
02:10
Of course, identifying with social groups
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ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื”ื–ื“ื”ื•ืช ืขื ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช
02:13
is an essential and healthy part of human life.
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ื”ื™ื ื—ืœืง ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ ื•ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื.
02:16
Our sense of self is defined not only by who we are as individuals,
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ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ืขืฆืžื™ ืฉืœื ื• ืžื•ื’ื“ืจืช ืœื ืจืง ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื–ื”ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ื›ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื,
02:21
but also by the groups we belong to.
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ืืœื ื’ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืืœื™ื”ืŸ ืื ื—ื ื• ืฉื™ื™ื›ื™ื.
02:23
As a result, weโ€™re strongly motivated to defend our group identities,
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ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื›ืš, ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื—ื–ืง ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ื–ื”ื•ืช ื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆืชื™ืช ืฉืœื ื•,
02:28
protecting both our sense of self and our social communities.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืš ืœื”ื’ืŸ ื’ื ืขืœ ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ืขืฆืžื™ ื•ื’ื ืขืœ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
02:32
But this becomes a problem when the groupโ€™s beliefs
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื”ื•ืคืš ืœื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืฉื”ืืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆืชื™ื•ืช
02:35
are at odds with reality.
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ืกื•ืชืจื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช.
02:37
Imagine watching your favorite sports team commit a serious foul.
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ื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ืฉืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ื”ืกืคื•ืจื˜ ื”ืื”ื•ื“ื” ืขืœื™ื›ื ืžื‘ืฆืขืช ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ื—ืžื•ืจื”.
02:41
You know thatโ€™s against the rules,
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื–ื” ืœื ื—ื•ืงื™,
02:43
but your fellow fans think itโ€™s totally acceptable.
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ืื‘ืœ ืฉืืจ ื”ืื•ื”ื“ื™ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื–ื” ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื‘ืกื“ืจ.
02:46
The tension between these two incompatible thoughts
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ื”ืžืชื— ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืชื™ ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื”ืœื ืชื•ืืžื•ืช ื”ืืœื•
02:49
is called cognitive dissonance,
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ื ืงืจื ื“ื™ืกื•ื ื ืก ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™,
02:52
and most people are driven to resolve this uncomfortable state of limbo.
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ื•ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื™ืจื’ื™ืฉื• ืฆื•ืจืš ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ืื™ ื”ื ื•ื—ื•ืช ื”ื–ื•.
02:57
You might start to blame the referee, complain that the other team started it,
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ืื•ืœื™ ืชืืฉื™ืžื• ืืช ื”ืฉื•ืคื˜, ืชืชืœื•ื ื ื• ืฉื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื” ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื”,
03:01
or even convince yourself there was no foul in the first place.
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ืื• ืืคื™ืœื• ืชืฉื›ื ืขื• ืืช ืขืฆืžื›ื ืฉืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ื‘ื›ืœืœ.
03:06
In a case like this,
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื›ื–ื”,
03:07
people are often more motivated to maintain a positive relationship
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ื™ืฉ ื ื˜ื™ื™ื” ืœื”ืขื“ื™ืฃ ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœ ื™ื—ืก ื—ื™ื•ื‘ื™ ืœืงื‘ื•ืฆื”,
03:11
with their group than perceive the world accurately.
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ื•ืœื ืœืชืคื•ืก ืืช ื”ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื“ื•ื™ื™ืง.
03:15
This behavior is especially dangerous in politics.
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ื”ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ื”ื–ื• ืžืกื•ื›ื ืช ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื”.
03:19
On an individual scale,
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ื‘ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื” ืื™ืฉื™,
03:21
allegiance to a party allows people to create a political identity
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ื ืืžื ื•ืช ืœืžืคืœื’ื” ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื–ื”ื•ืช ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช
03:25
and support policies they agree with.
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ื•ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืื™ืชื” ื”ื ืžืกื›ื™ืžื™ื.
03:27
But partisan-based cognitive dissonance can lead people to reject evidence
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ืื‘ืœ ื“ื™ืกื•ื ื ืก ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ ืžืคืœื’ืชื ื™ ืขืœื•ืœ ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืœื“ื—ื•ืช ืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช
03:32
thatโ€™s inconsistent with the party line or discredits party leaders.
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ืฉืžืชื ื’ืฉื•ืช ืขื ื”ืงื• ื”ืžืคืœื’ืชื™, ืื• ืฉืžื˜ื™ืœื•ืช ืกืคืง ื‘ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื”.
03:37
And when entire groups of people revise the facts in service of partisan beliefs,
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ื•ื›ืฉืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉืœืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืžืชืื™ืžื™ื ืืช ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ืืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžืคืœื’ืชื ื™ื•ืช,
03:42
it can lead to policies that arenโ€™t grounded in truth or reason.
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ื–ื” ืขืœื•ืœ ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืื™ื ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืขืœ ืืžืช ืื• ื”ื’ื™ื•ืŸ.
03:47
This problem isnโ€™t newโ€”
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ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ืื™ื ื” ื—ื“ืฉื” --
03:49
political identities have been around for centuries.
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ื–ื”ื•ืช ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช ืงื™ื™ืžืช ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื.
03:52
But studies show that partisan polarization
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืžืจืื™ื ืฉื”ืงื™ื˜ื•ื‘ ื”ืžืคืœื’ืชื ื™
03:55
has increased dramatically in the last few decades.
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ื”ืชื’ื‘ืจ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ืขืฉื•ืจื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื.
03:58
One theory explaining this increase
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ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื” ืื—ืช ืžืกื‘ื™ืจื” ืืช ื”ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื”ื–ื•
04:00
is the trend towards clustering geographically in like-minded communities.
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ื‘ืžื’ืžื” ืœื”ืชืงื‘ืฆื•ืช ื’ื™ืื•ื’ืจืคื™ืช ื‘ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื•ืช ื“ืคื•ืกื™ ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื“ื•ืžื™ื.
04:05
Another is the growing tendency to rely on partisan news
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ื”ืกื‘ืจ ืื—ืจ ื”ื•ื ื”ื ื˜ื™ื™ื” ื”ื’ื•ื‘ืจืช ืœื”ืกืชืžืš ืขืœ ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืžืคืœื’ืชื ื™ื•ืช
04:09
or social media bubbles.
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ืื• ื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช.
04:11
These often act like echo chambers,
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ืฉืคื•ืขืœื•ืช ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื›ืžื• ืชื™ื‘ื•ืช ืชื”ื•ื“ื”,
04:14
delivering news and ideas from people with similar views.
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ื”ืžืกืคืงื•ืช ืœืื“ื ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื•ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืžืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ื“ืขื•ืช ื“ื•ืžื•ืช.
04:18
Fortunately, cognitive scientists have uncovered some strategies
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ืœืžื–ืœื ื•, ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื™ื ื’ื™ืœื• ื›ืžื” ืืกื˜ืจื˜ื’ื™ื•ืช-ื ื’ื“
04:22
for resisting this distortion filter.
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ืœืคื™ืœื˜ืจ ื”ืžืขื•ื•ืช ื”ื–ื”.
04:25
One is to remember that youโ€™re probably more biased than you think.
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ืื—ืช ื”ื™ื ืœื–ื›ื•ืจ ืฉืืชื ื›ื ืจืื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื•ื˜ื™ื ืžืžื” ืฉืืชื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื.
04:30
So when you encounter new information,
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ืื– ื›ืฉืืชื ื ืชืงืœื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื“ืข,
04:32
make a deliberate effort to push through your initial intuition
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ืขืฉื• ืžืืžืฅ ืžื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ืœื”ื™ืชืงืข ื‘ืื™ื ื˜ื•ืื™ืฆื™ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœื›ื,
04:36
and evaluate it analytically.
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ื•ื”ืขืจื™ื›ื• ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืื ืœื™ื˜ื™.
04:38
In your own groups, try to make fact-checking and questioning assumptions
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ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉืœื›ื, ื ืกื• ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืื™ืžื•ืช ืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช ื•ื”ื˜ืœืช ืกืคืง ื‘ื”ื ื—ื•ืช
04:42
a valued part of the culture.
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ืœื—ืœืง ืžื•ืขืจืš ื‘ืชืจื‘ื•ืช.
04:45
Warning people that they might have been presented with misinformation
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ื”ื–ื”ืจื” ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื”ื•ืฆื’ ืœื”ื ืžื™ื“ืข ืžื•ื˜ืขื”
04:48
can also help.
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ื’ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืขื–ื•ืจ.
04:50
And when youโ€™re trying to persuade someone else,
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ื•ื›ืฉืืชื ืžื ืกื™ื ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืื—ืจ,
04:52
affirming their values and framing the issue in their language
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ืืฉืจื• ืืช ื”ืขืจื›ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื, ื•ืžืกื’ืจื• ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ืฉืคื” ืฉืœื”ื.
04:57
can help make people more receptive.
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ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื”ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืคืชื•ื—ื™ื.
05:00
We still have a long way to go before solving the problem of partisanship.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื“ืจืš ืืจื•ื›ื” ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื ืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ื”ืžืคืœื’ืชื ื•ืช.
05:05
But hopefully, these tools can help keep us better informed,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื›ืœื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ืกื™ื™ืขื• ืœื ื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ,
05:08
and capable of making evidence-based decisions about our shared reality.
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ื•ืœื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœืงื‘ืœ ื”ื—ืœื˜ื•ืช ืžื‘ื•ืกืกื•ืช ืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ื”ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ืฉืœื ื•.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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