请双击下面的英文字幕来播放视频。
翻译人员: Hancheng Li
校对人员: Yinchun Rui
00:12
Well, I'm an ocean chemist.
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我是一位海洋化学家。
00:14
I look at the chemistry
of the ocean today.
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我研究现代海洋的化学特性。
00:16
I look at the chemistry
of the ocean in the past.
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我也研究古代海洋的化学特性。
00:19
The way I look back in the past
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我研究古代海洋的方式,
00:21
is by using the fossilized remains
of deepwater corals.
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是借助深海珊瑚的化石遗体。
00:24
You can see an image of one
of these corals behind me.
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各位可以在我的背后
看到这样一张图片。
00:27
It was collected from close to Antarctica,
thousands of meters below the sea,
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这是在南极洲附近,
海平面以下的数千米处采集的。
00:31
so, very different
than the kinds of corals
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所以这些珊瑚跟其它种类非常不同,
00:33
you may have been lucky enough to see
if you've had a tropical holiday.
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比如说你去热带度假的时候
有幸见到的一些。
00:37
So I'm hoping that this talk will give you
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我希望我的演讲能够为大家
00:39
a four-dimensional view of the ocean.
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呈现一幅四维的海洋图像。
00:41
Two dimensions, such as this
beautiful two-dimensional image
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其中的两个维度,
正如这个漂亮的平面图,
00:45
of the sea surface temperature.
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描述了海平面的温度。
00:47
This was taken using satellite,
so it's got tremendous spatial resolution.
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这张照片是卫星拍摄的,
所以有着极高的空间分辨率。
00:51
The overall features are extremely
easy to understand.
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照片的大致内容是相当容易理解的。
00:54
The equatorial regions are warm
because there's more sunlight.
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赤道地区比较温暖,
因为接受的日照很多。
00:58
The polar regions are cold
because there's less sunlight.
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极地比较寒冷,
因为接受的日照较少。
01:01
And that allows big icecaps
to build up on Antarctica
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所以这就让南极洲的土地上
生成了巨大的冰盖,
01:04
and up in the Northern Hemisphere.
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同样还有北半球的顶部。
01:06
If you plunge deep into the sea,
or even put your toes in the sea,
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如果你深潜入大海里,
或者只是让脚趾头碰到海水,
01:09
you know it gets colder as you go down,
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你就会知道越深处越寒冷,
01:11
and that's mostly because the deep waters
that fill the abyss of the ocean
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这主要是因为,
填充海底沟壑的深海海水
01:15
come from the cold polar regions
where the waters are dense.
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是来自寒冷的极地地区,
而那里的水密度更大。
01:19
If we travel back in time
20,000 years ago,
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如果我们让时光倒流两万年,
01:22
the earth looked very much different.
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整个地球看上去非常不同。
01:24
And I've just given you a cartoon version
of one of the major differences
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我刚刚给你们看的是
其中一个巨大变化的漫画示意图,
01:28
you would have seen
if you went back that long.
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那个时代的景象就像这样。
01:30
The icecaps were much bigger.
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冰盖要比现在大很多。
01:32
They covered lots of the continent,
and they extended out over the ocean.
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它们覆盖了大面积的陆地,
而且延展到各大洋。
01:35
Sea level was 120 meters lower.
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海平面比现在低了120米。
01:38
Carbon dioxide [levels] were very
much lower than they are today.
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二氧化碳[水平]比现在要低很多。
01:42
So the earth was probably about three
to five degrees colder overall,
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地球上的平均气温比现在
大概要低3到5摄氏度,
01:45
and much, much colder
in the polar regions.
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而且在极地地区要更加寒冷。
01:49
What I'm trying to understand,
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我想要研究清楚的东西,
01:51
and what other colleagues of mine
are trying to understand,
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也是我的同事们想要弄明白的东西,
就是我们如何从那种极端寒冷的气候
01:54
is how we moved from that
cold climate condition
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01:56
to the warm climate condition
that we enjoy today.
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转变成现在我们所享受的
这种温暖气候的。
01:59
We know from ice core research
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对冰芯的研究告诉我们,
02:01
that the transition from these
cold conditions to warm conditions
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从寒冷气候到温暖气候的转变
并不是非常平缓的,
02:04
wasn't smooth, as you might predict
from the slow increase in solar radiation.
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你们可以通过太阳辐射的
缓慢增加中推测出来。
02:10
And we know this from ice cores,
because if you drill down into ice,
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我们可以得出这种结论,
是因为如果你在冰盖上钻孔,
02:13
you find annual bands of ice,
and you can see this in the iceberg.
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你可以发现按年份分层的冰,
就像这幅冰山的图片里。
02:16
You can see those blue-white layers.
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你可以看到那些蓝白相间的条纹。
02:18
Gases are trapped in the ice cores,
so we can measure CO2 --
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气体被封闭在这些冰芯里,
所以我们可以据此测定二氧化碳。
02:22
that's why we know CO2
was lower in the past --
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所以我们得知
以前的二氧化碳水平比现在要低。
02:24
and the chemistry of the ice
also tells us about temperature
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冰的化学组成同样可以告诉我们
极地地区的气温信息。
02:27
in the polar regions.
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02:29
And if you move in time
from 20,000 years ago to the modern day,
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如果你从两万年前穿越到现代,
02:32
you see that temperature increased.
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你会发现气温出现了增长。
02:34
It didn't increase smoothly.
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它不是平缓地增长的。
02:36
Sometimes it increased very rapidly,
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有时候气温上升得非常迅速,
02:38
then there was a plateau,
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然后就稳定一段时间,
02:39
then it increased rapidly.
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之后再次迅速上升。
02:40
It was different in the two polar regions,
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气温在两极地区有些差异,
02:42
and CO2 also increased in jumps.
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而且二氧化碳水平
也以这种跳跃方式增长。
02:46
So we're pretty sure the ocean
has a lot to do with this.
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于是我们可以确定,
海洋与这些变化有着密切联系。
02:49
The ocean stores huge amounts of carbon,
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海洋里储存着大量的碳元素,
02:52
about 60 times more
than is in the atmosphere.
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比大气中的储量多了大约60倍。
02:54
It also acts to transport heat
across the equator,
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海洋还有的作用,
就是跨赤道地区输送热量,
02:58
and the ocean is full of nutrients
and it controls primary productivity.
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而且海洋里富含养分,
还提供了极高的初级产能。
03:02
So if we want to find out
what's going on down in the deep sea,
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如果我们想要研究
深海世界里发生了什么,
03:05
we really need to get down there,
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我们真的需要潜入其中,
03:06
see what's there
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看看那里有什么,
03:07
and start to explore.
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并且开始努力探索。
03:09
This is some spectacular footage
coming from a seamount
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这是采自海底山峰的
一些精彩镜头,
03:12
about a kilometer deep
in international waters
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这个山峰位于赤道地区的公海,
而且远离大陆,
03:14
in the equatorial Atlantic, far from land.
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大概在大西洋底1,000米深处。
03:17
You're amongst the first people
to see this bit of the seafloor,
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你们是最先欣赏到
这个地区的海底的一群人,
03:20
along with my research team.
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跟我的研究团队差不多。
03:23
You're probably seeing new species.
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你们可能看到的是一些新物种。
03:25
We don't know.
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然而我们并不了解。
03:26
You'd have to collect the samples
and do some very intense taxonomy.
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你得采集很多样本,
然后做非常繁琐的生物学分类。
03:29
You can see beautiful bubblegum corals.
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你可以看到这些美丽的
泡泡糖珊瑚。
03:31
There are brittle stars
growing on these corals.
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柔软的海星长在这些珊瑚上。
03:34
Those are things that look
like tentacles coming out of corals.
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它们看起来就像珊瑚上
延伸出的触手一样。
03:37
There are corals made of different forms
of calcium carbonate
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这些珊瑚由不同形式的碳酸钙组成,
03:40
growing off the basalt of this
massive undersea mountain,
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在这个巨大的海底山峰的
玄武岩上茁壮生长,
03:43
and the dark sort of stuff,
those are fossilized corals,
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那些颜色很黑的东西,
就是变成化石的珊瑚,
03:46
and we're going to talk
a little more about those
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让我们回到过去,
更仔细聊聊这些珊瑚的故事。
03:49
as we travel back in time.
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03:51
To do that, we need
to charter a research boat.
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要做时光旅行,
我们得租一条考察船,
03:53
This is the James Cook,
an ocean-class research vessel
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这是詹姆斯·库克号,
一艘大洋级的调查船,
03:56
moored up in Tenerife.
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停泊在特纳里夫港口。
03:57
Looks beautiful, right?
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看上去很棒,对吧?
03:59
Great, if you're not a great mariner.
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如果你不是个很好的海员,
你会觉得不错的。
04:01
Sometimes it looks
a little more like this.
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但是有时她看起来更像这样。
04:04
This is us trying to make sure
that we don't lose precious samples.
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我们正在努力保证
珍贵的样品不丢失。
04:07
Everyone's scurrying around,
and I get terribly seasick,
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每个人都手忙脚乱,
然后我也严重晕船,
04:10
so it's not always a lot of fun,
but overall it is.
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所以说这不全是有趣的经历,
但是总体还是不错的。
04:13
So we've got to become
a really good mapper to do this.
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我们必须要成为很好的测绘师
才能做这个工作。
04:15
You don't see that kind of spectacular
coral abundance everywhere.
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你不可能在处处都找到
如此丰富的珊瑚储量。
04:19
It is global and it is deep,
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我们得走遍世界、潜入深海寻找,
04:22
but we need to really find
the right places.
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但是我们必须得找到正确的地方。
04:25
We just saw a global map,
and overlaid was our cruise passage
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我们刚刚看到一个世界地图,
上面重叠着我们去年的航线。
04:28
from last year.
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04:29
This was a seven-week cruise,
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那是一个为期七周的航程,
04:31
and this is us, having made our own maps
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这就是我们自己做的地图,
04:33
of about 75,000 square kilometers
of the seafloor in seven weeks,
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在七周时间里,我们描绘了
大约75,000平方公里的海底地图,
04:37
but that's only a tiny fraction
of the seafloor.
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但那也只是整个海底的微小部分。
04:40
We're traveling from west to east,
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我们自西向东航行,
04:41
over part of the ocean that would
look featureless on a big-scale map,
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穿过的一些海域,
在世界地图上没有任何特征可言,
04:45
but actually some of these mountains
are as big as Everest.
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但是这里的一些山峰
其实可以跟珠穆朗玛峰相提并论。
04:48
So with the maps that we make on board,
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我们在船上制作的地图,
04:50
we get about 100-meter resolution,
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大概有100米左右的分辨率,
04:52
enough to pick out areas
to deploy our equipment,
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这已经足够让我们
选定地址放置测绘仪器,
04:55
but not enough to see very much.
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但是想要看得更清楚就不是很够。
04:57
To do that, we need to fly
remotely-operated vehicles
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为了使图像更清晰,
我们要操纵遥控的深潜器,
05:00
about five meters off the seafloor.
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到距离海底5米左右的深处。
05:02
And if we do that, we can get maps
that are one-meter resolution
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如果我们这么做,我们可以得到
海平面以下数千米处
05:05
down thousands of meters.
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分辨率小至1米的高清图像。
05:07
Here is a remotely-operated vehicle,
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这就是一台遥控深潜器,
05:09
a research-grade vehicle.
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科研级别的深潜器。
05:12
You can see an array
of big lights on the top.
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你可以在它顶部看到一排大灯。
05:14
There are high-definition cameras,
manipulator arms,
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上面还有高清摄影机、操纵臂,
05:17
and lots of little boxes and things
to put your samples.
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还有各种小盒子、小零件
来收集海底样本。
05:21
Here we are on our first dive
of this particular cruise,
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这是我们航程的第一次深潜,
05:24
plunging down into the ocean.
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机器潜到大洋深处。
05:26
We go pretty fast to make sure
the remotely operated vehicles
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我们让它尽快下潜,
使它不会受其它过往船只的影响。
05:29
are not affected by any other ships.
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05:31
And we go down,
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我们不断下潜,
05:32
and these are the kinds of things you see.
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这就是你们可以看到的东西。
05:34
These are deep sea sponges, meter scale.
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这些是大小达到数米的深海海绵。
05:38
This is a swimming holothurian --
it's a small sea slug, basically.
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这是个游动的海参——
其实是一个小的海底蛞蝓。
05:43
This is slowed down.
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这些是慢镜头。
05:44
Most of the footage I'm showing
you is speeded up,
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我展示的大部分视频资料
都是加速播放的,
05:46
because all of this takes a lot of time.
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因为这些过程都耗时很长。
05:49
This is a beautiful holothurian as well.
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这也是一个漂亮的海参。
05:52
And this animal you're going to see
coming up was a big surprise.
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接下来你们看到的这个动物
是一个很大的惊喜。
05:55
I've never seen anything like this
and it took us all a bit surprised.
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我从来没见过任何类似的东西,
这让我们所有人都震惊了。
我们已经连续工作了15个小时,
都累得很不耐烦了,
05:59
This was after about 15 hours of work
and we were all a bit trigger-happy,
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突然这个巨大的海怪
缓缓从我们旁边游过。
06:03
and suddenly this giant
sea monster started rolling past.
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06:05
It's called a pyrosome
or colonial tunicate, if you like.
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它叫做“火体虫”,
或者说是一种寄生性尾索动物。
06:08
This wasn't what we were looking for.
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这可不是我们要找的东西。
06:10
We were looking for corals,
deep sea corals.
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我们在搜寻珊瑚,
深海里的珊瑚。
06:14
You're going to see a picture
of one in a moment.
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你们过一会儿就会
看到一张珊瑚的照片。
06:16
It's small, about five centimeters high.
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它很小,只有5厘米高。
06:19
It's made of calcium carbonate,
so you can see its tentacles there,
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它是由碳酸钙构成的,
你们可以看到它的触手,
06:22
moving in the ocean currents.
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在洋流之中摆动。
06:25
An organism like this probably lives
for about a hundred years.
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像这样的有机体
一般可以存活100年。
06:28
And as it grows, it takes in
chemicals from the ocean.
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在它生长过程中,
它从海洋中吸收化学成分。
06:31
And the chemicals,
or the amount of chemicals,
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这些化学成分,
或是说化学成分的量,
06:34
depends on the temperature;
it depends on the pH,
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取决于海水温度,还有pH值,
06:36
it depends on the nutrients.
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以及水中的养分。
06:38
And if we can understand how
these chemicals get into the skeleton,
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如果我们可以理解
这些化学成分如何进入生物骨架,
06:41
we can then go back,
collect fossil specimens,
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我们就可以采集样本、回溯历史,
06:44
and reconstruct what the ocean
used to look like in the past.
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重现古代海洋的图景。
06:47
And here you can see us collecting
that coral with a vacuum system,
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现在你们可以看到我们在用
抽真空系统收集那个珊瑚样本,
06:50
and we put it into a sampling container.
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然后把样本放在容器里。
06:53
We can do this very
carefully, I should add.
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我应该补充一下,
我们可以做得非常仔细。
06:55
Some of these organisms live even longer.
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这类有机体有些可以活得更长。
06:57
This is a black coral called Leiopathes,
an image taken by my colleague,
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这是一种名叫“黑树”的黑角珊瑚,
在夏威夷海域500米深处找到,
07:01
Brendan Roark, about 500
meters below Hawaii.
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照片是由我的同事
布兰登·洛克拍摄的。
07:04
Four thousand years is a long time.
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四千年可是很长的时间啊。
07:06
If you take a branch from one
of these corals and polish it up,
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如果你从这种珊瑚中
摘取一段枝条,然后把它打磨,
07:10
this is about 100 microns across.
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这张图横向大约有100微米宽。
07:12
And Brendan took some analyses
across this coral --
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布兰登对这个珊瑚做了横切分析,
07:15
you can see the marks --
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你们可以看到横向的标记,
07:17
and he's been able to show
that these are actual annual bands,
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他由此证明了这其实是珊瑚的年轮,
07:20
so even at 500 meters deep in the ocean,
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所以说即使在
海平面以下500米深处,
07:22
corals can record seasonal changes,
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珊瑚可以记录季节的更替,
07:24
which is pretty spectacular.
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这其实是挺惊人的。
07:26
But 4,000 years is not enough to get
us back to our last glacial maximum.
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然而四千年不足以让我们
回到最后一个冰川极盛期。
07:30
So what do we do?
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那么我们怎么办呢?
07:31
We go in for these fossil specimens.
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我们潜入海中寻找化石样本。
07:34
This is what makes me really unpopular
with my research team.
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其实这就是为什么
我在研究团队里特别不受人欢迎。
07:37
So going along,
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所以潜到海底,
07:38
there's giant sharks everywhere,
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到处都是巨大的鲨鱼,
07:39
there are pyrosomes,
there are swimming holothurians,
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还有火体虫、游动的海蛞蝓,
07:42
there's giant sponges,
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以及巨大的海绵,
07:43
but I make everyone go down
to these dead fossil areas
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但是我要求每个人都
潜到这死气沉沉的化石区,
07:46
and spend ages kind of shoveling
around on the seafloor.
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然后花很长的时间
在海底铲来铲去。
07:49
And we pick up all these corals,
bring them back, we sort them out.
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我们拾取所有的珊瑚样本,
把它们带回来,然后做分类。
07:53
But each one of these is a different age,
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但是每一个样本都来自不同的时代,
07:55
and if we can find out how old they are
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如果我们可以知道它们有多古老,
07:57
and then we can measure
those chemical signals,
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然后我们去测定
其中的化学信号,
08:00
this helps us to find out
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这就可以帮助我们
08:01
what's been going on
in the ocean in the past.
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研究出古代海洋中
发生了怎样的事。
08:04
So on the left-hand image here,
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请看左侧的照片,
08:06
I've taken a slice through a coral,
polished it very carefully
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我对珊瑚做了一份纵切片,
很仔细地打磨,
08:09
and taken an optical image.
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之后拍摄了光学影像。
08:11
On the right-hand side,
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在右侧的照片中,
08:12
we've taken that same piece of coral,
put it in a nuclear reactor,
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我们提取了同一片珊瑚,
将它放进核反应堆,
08:15
induced fission,
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诱发核裂变反应,
08:16
and every time there's some decay,
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每一次都会产生一些衰减,
08:18
you can see that marked out in the coral,
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你可以在珊瑚中看到一些标记,
08:20
so we can see the uranium distribution.
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我们可以据此判断
铀元素的分布情况。
08:22
Why are we doing this?
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我们为什么要这么做呢?
08:23
Uranium is a very poorly regarded element,
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铀是一种很不被重视的元素,
08:25
but I love it.
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但是我非常喜欢它。
08:27
The decay helps us find out
about the rates and dates
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这种衰减帮助我们研究出
海洋中何时发生了何事,
某种成分有多大的量。
08:30
of what's going on in the ocean.
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08:31
And if you remember from the beginning,
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如果你们还记得我开头所讲的,
08:33
that's what we want to get at
when we're thinking about climate.
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这就是我们思考气候问题时
想要进一步研究的东西。
08:36
So we use a laser to analyze uranium
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所以我们用激光去分析铀元素,
08:38
and one of its daughter products,
thorium, in these corals,
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以及珊瑚中所含的,
铀的副产物钍元素,
08:41
and that tells us exactly
how old the fossils are.
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由此我们得知这些化石的精确年龄。
08:44
This beautiful animation
of the Southern Ocean
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这个漂亮的南极洋动画,
08:46
I'm just going to use illustrate
how we're using these corals
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展现了我们如何利用这些珊瑚
08:50
to get at some of the ancient
ocean feedbacks.
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来提取古代海洋的反馈信息。
08:54
You can see the density
of the surface water
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这个由莱恩·阿伯纳西制作的动画中,
08:56
in this animation by Ryan Abernathey.
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你们可以看到表面海水的密度分布。
08:59
It's just one year of data,
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这只是一年的数据,
09:01
but you can see how dynamic
the Southern Ocean is.
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但是各位已经可以看出
南极洋非常动态的变化。
09:04
The intense mixing,
particularly the Drake Passage,
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尤其是方框中的德雷克海峡,
09:07
which is shown by the box,
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这里洋流交汇非常强烈,
09:10
is really one of the strongest
currents in the world
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其实是世界上
最强的洋流之一。
09:13
coming through here,
flowing from west to east.
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洋流从西到东穿过海峡。
09:15
It's very turbulently mixed,
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洋流在此处汹涌地交汇,
09:16
because it's moving over those
great big undersea mountains,
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因为它经过了那些
巨大的海底山峰,
09:19
and this allows CO2 and heat to exchange
with the atmosphere in and out.
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这就让二氧化碳和热量
与大气进行交换。
09:24
And essentially, the oceans are breathing
through the Southern Ocean.
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本质上,海洋系统
通过南极洋进行“呼吸”作用。
09:28
We've collected corals from back and forth
across this Antarctic passage,
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我们在这个南极的海峡
来回穿行,采集珊瑚样本,
09:34
and we've found quite a surprising thing
from my uranium dating:
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从我的铀元素年代测定结果,
我们得到了很惊人的结论:
09:37
the corals migrated from south to north
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从冰期到间冰期的过渡期,
09:39
during this transition from the glacial
to the interglacial.
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这些珊瑚从南方迁移到了北方。
09:43
We don't really know why,
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我们并不知道为什么,
09:44
but we think it's something
to do with the food source
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但是我们认为这与
食物来源有一些关联,
09:46
and maybe the oxygen in the water.
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或者是海水中的氧气含量。
09:49
So here we are.
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所以讲到这儿,
09:50
I'm going to illustrate what I think
we've found about climate
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我接下来要展示,
我们从南极洋的珊瑚中
得出的有关气候的结论。
09:53
from those corals in the Southern Ocean.
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我们在海底山脉中游走,
我们采集了细小的珊瑚化石。
09:55
We went up and down sea mountains.
We collected little fossil corals.
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这是我的图解。
09:59
This is my illustration of that.
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10:00
We think back in the glacial,
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在分析了珊瑚之后,
10:02
from the analysis
we've made in the corals,
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我们认为,在冰川期时,
南极洋的深处碳元素非常丰富,
10:04
that the deep part of the Southern Ocean
was very rich in carbon,
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10:07
and there was a low-density
layer sitting on top.
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并且一层低密度海水浮在大洋表面。
10:10
That stops carbon dioxide
coming out of the ocean.
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这就阻止了二氧化碳从海洋中逸出。
10:13
We then found corals
that are of an intermediate age,
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我们之后发现了一些
中等年龄的珊瑚,
10:16
and they show us that the ocean mixed
partway through that climate transition.
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它们告诉我们,洋流的激烈交汇
发生在气候过渡期的中段。
10:20
That allows carbon to come
out of the deep ocean.
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这让深海中的碳元素得以逸出。
10:24
And then if we analyze corals
closer to the modern day,
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那么如果我们研究
更接近现代的珊瑚,
10:27
or indeed if we go down there today anyway
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或者我们干脆马上就潜到海里,
10:29
and measure the chemistry of the corals,
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然后研究珊瑚的化学成分,
10:31
we see that we move to a position
where carbon can exchange in and out.
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我们可以看到现在是
二氧化碳进行进出交换的时代。
10:35
So this is the way
we can use fossil corals
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所以这就是我们利用珊瑚化石
10:37
to help us learn about the environment.
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来研究环境变化的方法。
10:41
So I want to leave you
with this last slide.
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那么我给大家展示最后一张幻灯片。
10:43
It's just a still taken out of that first
piece of footage that I showed you.
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这是从最开始我播放的视频中
截取的一张图片。
10:47
This is a spectacular coral garden.
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这是一个异常美丽的珊瑚花园。
10:50
We didn't even expect
to find things this beautiful.
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我们根本没有想象到
会发现如此之美的东西。
10:52
It's thousands of meters deep.
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这里有数千米深。
10:54
There are new species.
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这里有全新的物种。
10:56
It's just a beautiful place.
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这就是一个美丽的圣地。
10:58
There are fossils in amongst,
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这其中有很多化石,
10:59
and now I've trained you
to appreciate the fossil corals
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现在我教会大家
去欣赏这些化石珊瑚,
11:02
that are down there.
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沉睡在海底深处。
11:03
So next time you're lucky enough
to fly over the ocean
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所以说下一次当你有幸飞过大洋时,
11:06
or sail over the ocean,
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或者是航行在海洋之上,
11:08
just think -- there are massive
sea mountains down there
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请各位记得——
海底世界有崇山峻岭,
11:10
that nobody's ever seen before,
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无人领略过它的壮美,
11:12
and there are beautiful corals.
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海底世界还有美丽的珊瑚。
11:14
Thank you.
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谢谢各位。
11:15
(Applause)
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(掌声)
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