The secrets I find on the mysterious ocean floor | Laura Robinson

128,179 views ・ 2016-03-30

TED


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譯者: Shik Cheung 審譯者: Li Li
00:12
Well, I'm an ocean chemist.
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我是一個海洋化學家
我關注現在的海洋變化
00:14
I look at the chemistry of the ocean today.
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00:16
I look at the chemistry of the ocean in the past.
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我關注過去的海洋變化
00:19
The way I look back in the past
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我探索過去的法則
00:21
is by using the fossilized remains of deepwater corals.
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是利用已經變成化石的深海珊瑚的遺骸
00:24
You can see an image of one of these corals behind me.
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你可以看到在我身後 其中一張珊瑚的照片
00:27
It was collected from close to Antarctica, thousands of meters below the sea,
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我們在毗鄰南極洲幾千米之下的深海處找到它
00:31
so, very different than the kinds of corals
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因此 如果你在熱帶旅遊的時候能夠有幸看到一些珊瑚
00:33
you may have been lucky enough to see if you've had a tropical holiday.
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會發現二者很不一樣
00:37
So I'm hoping that this talk will give you
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我真誠地希望我的演說
能夠為你帶來一個四維的海洋
00:39
a four-dimensional view of the ocean.
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00:41
Two dimensions, such as this beautiful two-dimensional image
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二維的海洋
比如這張美麗的海洋表面溫度的二維的圖像
00:45
of the sea surface temperature.
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00:47
This was taken using satellite, so it's got tremendous spatial resolution.
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这是由卫星拍摄的 所以拥有极好的空间辨析度
00:51
The overall features are extremely easy to understand.
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图片上关于整体的特征极其容易了解
00:54
The equatorial regions are warm because there's more sunlight.
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赤道地区比较温暖 因为那裡接收了更多的阳光
00:58
The polar regions are cold because there's less sunlight.
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极地地区比较严寒 因为那裡光照稀少
01:01
And that allows big icecaps to build up on Antarctica
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这让巨大的冰盖在南极洲和北半球上部形成
01:04
and up in the Northern Hemisphere.
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01:06
If you plunge deep into the sea, or even put your toes in the sea,
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如果你俯冲入深海之中 或者把你的脚趾放进海里
01:09
you know it gets colder as you go down,
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你就知道越往下水温越低
01:11
and that's mostly because the deep waters that fill the abyss of the ocean
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那是大多是因为流動在海洋深處的海水
01:15
come from the cold polar regions where the waters are dense.
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来自寒冷的极地地区 它们的密度更高
01:19
If we travel back in time 20,000 years ago,
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如果我们進行時間旅行 回到两万年前
01:22
the earth looked very much different.
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会发现地球看起来有很大不同
01:24
And I've just given you a cartoon version of one of the major differences
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如果你真的回到那麼久以前的地球
将会看到我用图像给你们展现其中一个最大的不同之处
01:28
you would have seen if you went back that long.
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01:30
The icecaps were much bigger.
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冰川面積更大
01:32
They covered lots of the continent, and they extended out over the ocean.
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它們覆蓋了很多的陸地 而且延伸到了海洋
01:35
Sea level was 120 meters lower.
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海平面比现在低了120米
01:38
Carbon dioxide [levels] were very much lower than they are today.
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二氧化碳含量也比現在低了許多
01:42
So the earth was probably about three to five degrees colder overall,
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所以可能全球平均氣溫要低了3到5度
01:45
and much, much colder in the polar regions.
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在極地地區要更加寒冷
01:49
What I'm trying to understand,
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我希望了解的
01:51
and what other colleagues of mine are trying to understand,
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我的其他同事們希望了解的
是我們的地球怎麼從一個極寒的星球
01:54
is how we moved from that cold climate condition
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01:56
to the warm climate condition that we enjoy today.
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變成一個适宜人类居住的家園
01:59
We know from ice core research
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通過對冰核的探索
02:01
that the transition from these cold conditions to warm conditions
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我們了解到這一個從嚴寒到溫暖的轉變過程並不平穩
02:04
wasn't smooth, as you might predict from the slow increase in solar radiation.
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這也可以從緩慢增長的太陽輻射推測出來
02:10
And we know this from ice cores, because if you drill down into ice,
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而我們從冰核中得到這些結論
因為如果你鑽入到冰川深處
就能看到年復一年形成的冰層
02:13
you find annual bands of ice, and you can see this in the iceberg.
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在冰川上它們肉眼可見
02:16
You can see those blue-white layers.
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你能看到那些藍白相間的層
02:18
Gases are trapped in the ice cores, so we can measure CO2 --
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氣體被困在冰核之中
所以我們可以測量氣體中CO2的含量
02:22
that's why we know CO2 was lower in the past --
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因此我們知道過去的CO2含量要低得多
02:24
and the chemistry of the ice also tells us about temperature
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而且冰的元素組成
也告訴我們過去極地的溫度信息
02:27
in the polar regions.
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02:29
And if you move in time from 20,000 years ago to the modern day,
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如果你的思緒从20,000年前回到现在
02:32
you see that temperature increased.
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你會發現溫度上升了
02:34
It didn't increase smoothly.
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它提升得並不平穩
02:36
Sometimes it increased very rapidly,
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有時候它迅速上升
02:38
then there was a plateau,
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接著是穩定狀態
02:39
then it increased rapidly.
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然後再次迅速上升
02:40
It was different in the two polar regions,
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兩極的狀況有所不同
02:42
and CO2 also increased in jumps.
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而CO2含量同樣猛漲
02:46
So we're pretty sure the ocean has a lot to do with this.
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所以我們相當確定海洋影響了這個過程
02:49
The ocean stores huge amounts of carbon,
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海洋儲存了大量的碳元素
02:52
about 60 times more than is in the atmosphere.
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大約是空氣中的60倍
02:54
It also acts to transport heat across the equator,
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海洋也影響了热量跨越赤道传播
02:58
and the ocean is full of nutrients and it controls primary productivity.
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而且它富有養分 控制了初級生產力
03:02
So if we want to find out what's going on down in the deep sea,
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所以我們想弄明白深海中到底發生了什麼事情
03:05
we really need to get down there,
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我們真的需要下到那裡
03:06
see what's there
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看看有什麼事物
03:07
and start to explore.
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然後開始挖掘與探索
03:09
This is some spectacular footage coming from a seamount
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這是一些美麗的海丘的影像
03:12
about a kilometer deep in international waters
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在公海海域大概一千米深處
在鄰近赤道 遠離陸地的大西洋海域
03:14
in the equatorial Atlantic, far from land.
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03:17
You're amongst the first people to see this bit of the seafloor,
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你們是第一批看到這海底一隅的人
03:20
along with my research team.
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和我的團隊一起
03:23
You're probably seeing new species.
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你可能已經看到了新物種
03:25
We don't know.
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也許吧
你需要收集樣本然後進行認真的分類
03:26
You'd have to collect the samples and do some very intense taxonomy.
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03:29
You can see beautiful bubblegum corals.
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你可以看到美麗的泡泡珊瑚
03:31
There are brittle stars growing on these corals.
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那裡有柔軟的海星生長在上面
03:34
Those are things that look like tentacles coming out of corals.
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那看起來就像珊瑚裡伸出了觸手
那裡有由各種形式的碳酸鈣組成的珊瑚
03:37
There are corals made of different forms of calcium carbonate
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03:40
growing off the basalt of this massive undersea mountain,
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生長在巨大的海底玄武岩山脈上
03:43
and the dark sort of stuff, those are fossilized corals,
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而那些黑色物質是變成化石的珊瑚
03:46
and we're going to talk a little more about those
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隨著我們對過去的探究
我们也會對它們進行更多的討論
03:49
as we travel back in time.
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03:51
To do that, we need to charter a research boat.
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為了完成這件事 我們要租一艘科研船
03:53
This is the James Cook, an ocean-class research vessel
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這是James Cook 一艘遠洋探索船舶
03:56
moored up in Tenerife.
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它停泊在特納夫利島
03:57
Looks beautiful, right?
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看起來美極了 對吧?
03:59
Great, if you're not a great mariner.
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然而 如果你不是一名好的船員
04:01
Sometimes it looks a little more like this.
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有時候情況更多是這樣的
04:04
This is us trying to make sure that we don't lose precious samples.
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為了不要錯過一個珍貴的樣本
04:07
Everyone's scurrying around, and I get terribly seasick,
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所有人來回跑動 我劇烈地暈船
04:10
so it's not always a lot of fun, but overall it is.
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所以這並不總是很愉快的 但總體來說它是
04:13
So we've got to become a really good mapper to do this.
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為了做這件事 我們必須成為非常優秀的製圖人
04:15
You don't see that kind of spectacular coral abundance everywhere.
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你不可能在所有地方都看到那樣壯觀的大片珊瑚
04:19
It is global and it is deep,
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隻有在極少數的 深海的地方才能看到
04:22
but we need to really find the right places.
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但我們迫切地需要找到正確的地方
04:25
We just saw a global map, and overlaid was our cruise passage
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我們參考一張標明去年巡遊路線的世界地圖
04:28
from last year.
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04:29
This was a seven-week cruise,
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這是一次持續七周的巡遊
04:31
and this is us, having made our own maps
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而這是我們自己製作的
04:33
of about 75,000 square kilometers of the seafloor in seven weeks,
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關於75,000平方千米的海底的地圖
它是花費7周的成果
04:37
but that's only a tiny fraction of the seafloor.
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但這只是海底很小的一部分
04:40
We're traveling from west to east,
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我們從西邊走到東邊
04:41
over part of the ocean that would look featureless on a big-scale map,
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走過在過於簡略的世界地圖上看起來毫無特點的海洋
04:45
but actually some of these mountains are as big as Everest.
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但事實上這些海洋底部的山脈與珠穆朗瑪峰一樣巨大
04:48
So with the maps that we make on board,
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有了這張我們在船上繪製的地圖
04:50
we get about 100-meter resolution,
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我們得到了100米的分辨率
04:52
enough to pick out areas to deploy our equipment,
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足以讓我們選擇一個區域並布置我們的儀器
04:55
but not enough to see very much.
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但不足以讓我們看到太多的東西
04:57
To do that, we need to fly remotely-operated vehicles
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為了看到更多 我們需要让遠程遙控機器人
05:00
about five meters off the seafloor.
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遊動在大概距海底5米的地方
05:02
And if we do that, we can get maps that are one-meter resolution
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如果我們這樣做
我們就能夠在數千米之下的海底得到1米的分辨率
05:05
down thousands of meters.
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05:07
Here is a remotely-operated vehicle,
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這是我們的遠程遙控機器人
05:09
a research-grade vehicle.
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一個研究型的機器人媒介
05:12
You can see an array of big lights on the top.
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你可以在它的頭上看到一列的大燈
05:14
There are high-definition cameras, manipulator arms,
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和高清攝像機以及人工機械臂
05:17
and lots of little boxes and things to put your samples.
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許多箱子之類的東西來收集樣品
05:21
Here we are on our first dive of this particular cruise,
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終於到了我們在這個特殊的巡遊中
第一次入海的時候
05:24
plunging down into the ocean.
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猛潛入海洋
05:26
We go pretty fast to make sure the remotely operated vehicles
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我們下潛地很快
來保證機器人不會被任何其他船隻影響
05:29
are not affected by any other ships.
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05:31
And we go down,
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然後我們持續下潛
05:32
and these are the kinds of things you see.
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這就是在海水中你能夠看到的景象
05:34
These are deep sea sponges, meter scale.
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這是一隻米級的深海海綿
05:38
This is a swimming holothurian -- it's a small sea slug, basically.
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一個正在海洋中徜徉的海參
本質上也就是一個小小的海洋鼻涕蟲
05:43
This is slowed down.
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這個影像被放慢了
05:44
Most of the footage I'm showing you is speeded up,
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大多數我展現給你們的影像都是快進的
05:46
because all of this takes a lot of time.
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因為所有的這些拍攝花費了大量的時間
05:49
This is a beautiful holothurian as well.
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這也是一個漂亮的海參
05:52
And this animal you're going to see coming up was a big surprise.
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而這個將要出現的生物是給我們帶來了巨大的驚喜
05:55
I've never seen anything like this and it took us all a bit surprised.
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我從來沒有見過這樣的生物 它讓我們都很驚訝
在這時我們已經工作了15個小時 都處於亢奮的狀態
05:59
This was after about 15 hours of work and we were all a bit trigger-happy,
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突然這個巨大的海洋怪物蠕動着經過
06:03
and suddenly this giant sea monster started rolling past.
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它被稱為火體蟲 或者群體性被囊動物
06:05
It's called a pyrosome or colonial tunicate, if you like.
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隨你怎麼叫
06:08
This wasn't what we were looking for.
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但是這不是我們在尋找的生物
06:10
We were looking for corals, deep sea corals.
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我們在尋找着珊瑚 深海的珊瑚
06:14
You're going to see a picture of one in a moment.
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你將會看到一張深海珊瑚的照片
06:16
It's small, about five centimeters high.
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它很小 大概只有5釐米高
06:19
It's made of calcium carbonate, so you can see its tentacles there,
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它由碳酸鈣構成
你可以看到它的那些小觸手隨着洋流飄動
06:22
moving in the ocean currents.
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06:25
An organism like this probably lives for about a hundred years.
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它大概已經生活了幾百年了
06:28
And as it grows, it takes in chemicals from the ocean.
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當它生長的時候 它會吸收海洋中的元素
06:31
And the chemicals, or the amount of chemicals,
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而海洋中的元素種類
或者元素含量
06:34
depends on the temperature; it depends on the pH,
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取決於溫度 取決於酸堿度
06:36
it depends on the nutrients.
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也取決於海洋中的養分
06:38
And if we can understand how these chemicals get into the skeleton,
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如果我們能夠明白這些元素是怎麼進到珊瑚遺骨里的
06:41
we can then go back, collect fossil specimens,
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我們就能通過收集化石樣品
06:44
and reconstruct what the ocean used to look like in the past.
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重新構建過去的海洋景觀
06:47
And here you can see us collecting that coral with a vacuum system,
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現在你能夠看到我們在用真空吸器收集珊瑚
06:50
and we put it into a sampling container.
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將它放進一個樣品收集箱
06:53
We can do this very carefully, I should add.
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應當說明的是 我們非常小心地做這件事
06:55
Some of these organisms live even longer.
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有些海底生物甚至活得更久
06:57
This is a black coral called Leiopathes, an image taken by my colleague,
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這是一張珊瑚黑礁的照片
是由我的同事Brendan Roark
07:01
Brendan Roark, about 500 meters below Hawaii.
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在夏威夷海域500米水下拍攝的
07:04
Four thousand years is a long time.
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4000年很漫長
07:06
If you take a branch from one of these corals and polish it up,
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從這些珊瑚礁上取下一條枝條並將它處理乾淨
07:10
this is about 100 microns across.
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它大概有100微米長
07:12
And Brendan took some analyses across this coral --
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Brendan對這些珊瑚礁進行了一系列的分析
07:15
you can see the marks --
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你們可以看到那些痕跡
07:17
and he's been able to show that these are actual annual bands,
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他發現那真真切切是年齡層
07:20
so even at 500 meters deep in the ocean,
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所以即使生活在500米水深下
07:22
corals can record seasonal changes,
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珊瑚也能夠記錄季節性變化
07:24
which is pretty spectacular.
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這十分令人驚艷
07:26
But 4,000 years is not enough to get us back to our last glacial maximum.
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但4000年還不足以讓我們回到末次冰盛期
07:30
So what do we do?
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那麼我們該怎麼做呢?
07:31
We go in for these fossil specimens.
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我們要繼續收集化石樣品
07:34
This is what makes me really unpopular with my research team.
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這讓我在我的隊伍里很不得人心
07:37
So going along,
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我們一直在海底前進
07:38
there's giant sharks everywhere,
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到處都是巨大的鯊魚
07:39
there are pyrosomes, there are swimming holothurians,
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有火體蟲 有遊動的海參
07:42
there's giant sponges,
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有巨大的海綿
07:43
but I make everyone go down to these dead fossil areas
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但是我讓所有人去到那死氣沉沉的化石區域
07:46
and spend ages kind of shoveling around on the seafloor.
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花上幾個世紀的時間時間 在海底鏟來鏟去
07:49
And we pick up all these corals, bring them back, we sort them out.
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然後我們帶回所有的珊瑚樣品 將它們分類
07:53
But each one of these is a different age,
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每一株珊瑚的年代都是不同的
07:55
and if we can find out how old they are
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但是如果我們能夠發現它們到底生活了多久
07:57
and then we can measure those chemical signals,
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我們就能量化那些化學信號
08:00
this helps us to find out
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這幫助我們了解
08:01
what's been going on in the ocean in the past.
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過去的海洋到底發生了什麼
08:04
So on the left-hand image here,
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所以在左邊的這張圖片
08:06
I've taken a slice through a coral, polished it very carefully
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我從珊瑚上取下了一小片 並十分小心地清潔它
08:09
and taken an optical image.
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然後拍了一張光學圖像
08:11
On the right-hand side,
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右邊這張圖
08:12
we've taken that same piece of coral, put it in a nuclear reactor,
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我再取了這個珊瑚的一小片 把它放進核反應堆
08:15
induced fission,
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激發核裂變
08:16
and every time there's some decay,
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經過足夠長的時間它開始衰變
08:18
you can see that marked out in the coral,
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你看到那些在珊瑚上的痕跡
08:20
so we can see the uranium distribution.
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是肉眼可見的珊瑚中鈾的分布
08:22
Why are we doing this?
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我們為什麼要做這樣的事情呢?
08:23
Uranium is a very poorly regarded element,
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鈾是一種很不常見的元素
08:25
but I love it.
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但我愛死它了
08:27
The decay helps us find out about the rates and dates
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它的衰變幫助我們了解海洋中事情發生的頻率和時間
08:30
of what's going on in the ocean.
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08:31
And if you remember from the beginning,
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如果你還記得的話
08:33
that's what we want to get at when we're thinking about climate.
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這就是我們為了探索氣候想要得到的數據
所以我們用激光去探測珊瑚中的鈾元素
08:36
So we use a laser to analyze uranium
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08:38
and one of its daughter products, thorium, in these corals,
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以及它的其中一個衰變產物釷
這能告訴我們這些化石的確切壽命
08:41
and that tells us exactly how old the fossils are.
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08:44
This beautiful animation of the Southern Ocean
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這是一張美麗的南部海洋的動畫
08:46
I'm just going to use illustrate how we're using these corals
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我將會利用它來說明我們如何利用這些珊瑚
獲得遠古海洋的訊息
08:50
to get at some of the ancient ocean feedbacks.
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在這個動圖中你可以看出表面海水的密度
08:54
You can see the density of the surface water
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08:56
in this animation by Ryan Abernathey.
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我的同事Ryan Abernathey製作了它
08:59
It's just one year of data,
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上面隻展現了一年的數據
09:01
but you can see how dynamic the Southern Ocean is.
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但你可以看到南部的海洋有多麼的活力四射
09:04
The intense mixing, particularly the Drake Passage,
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那些強烈的交匯
特別是在圖中用黑色方框圈出來的大渡海的地區
09:07
which is shown by the box,
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09:10
is really one of the strongest currents in the world
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世界上最強的洋流之一
從那裡自西向東穿過
09:13
coming through here, flowing from west to east.
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洶湧的洋流在那裡交匯
09:15
It's very turbulently mixed,
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09:16
because it's moving over those great big undersea mountains,
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因為它們在那些巨大的海底山脈上方流動
而這個過程讓CO2和熱量在海洋和大氣間交換
09:19
and this allows CO2 and heat to exchange with the atmosphere in and out.
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形象地說 就像海洋在通過南大洋呼吸著
09:24
And essentially, the oceans are breathing through the Southern Ocean.
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09:28
We've collected corals from back and forth across this Antarctic passage,
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我們來來回回地在南極洲航路上收集珊瑚
09:34
and we've found quite a surprising thing from my uranium dating:
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在對珊瑚的鈾年代測定中 發現了一件很令人驚訝的事情
09:37
the corals migrated from south to north
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這些珊瑚從南部遷徙到了北部
09:39
during this transition from the glacial to the interglacial.
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正在這個世界處於冰河期與間冰期的轉換期的時候
我們不知道為什麼
09:43
We don't really know why,
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09:44
but we think it's something to do with the food source
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也許與食物來源有關
或者是海水中的氧氣含量有關
09:46
and maybe the oxygen in the water.
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09:49
So here we are.
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所以問題來了
09:50
I'm going to illustrate what I think we've found about climate
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我會說明利用那些南大洋里的珊瑚
我們到底發現了什麼
09:53
from those corals in the Southern Ocean.
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我們徹底探索海底山脈
09:55
We went up and down sea mountains. We collected little fossil corals.
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收集那些小小的珊瑚化石
那是我們的證據
09:59
This is my illustration of that.
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10:00
We think back in the glacial,
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基於對珊瑚成分的分析
我們認為在遙遠的冰河時期
10:02
from the analysis we've made in the corals,
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南大洋深處儲存了大量的碳元素
10:04
that the deep part of the Southern Ocean was very rich in carbon,
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10:07
and there was a low-density layer sitting on top.
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但是有一層低密度的層覆蓋在那些碳元素上
10:10
That stops carbon dioxide coming out of the ocean.
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阻止了CO2從海洋中釋放出來
10:13
We then found corals that are of an intermediate age,
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我們隨後找到了那些處於中間年齡的珊瑚樣本
10:16
and they show us that the ocean mixed partway through that climate transition.
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它告訴我們海洋在氣候變化的中期匯合
10:20
That allows carbon to come out of the deep ocean.
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這讓碳元素從深海中被釋放
10:24
And then if we analyze corals closer to the modern day,
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而如果我們分析現今的珊瑚成分
10:27
or indeed if we go down there today anyway
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也就是下到海洋里去
10:29
and measure the chemistry of the corals,
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并測量珊瑚的化學成分
10:31
we see that we move to a position where carbon can exchange in and out.
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就會發現我們處於一個碳元素可以自由交換的年代
10:35
So this is the way we can use fossil corals
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我們利用珊瑚化石
10:37
to help us learn about the environment.
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幫助我們了解環境
10:41
So I want to leave you with this last slide.
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所以我想為你展現著最後一張幻燈片
10:43
It's just a still taken out of that first piece of footage that I showed you.
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是一張一開始我呈現給你們的影像中的一張截圖
10:47
This is a spectacular coral garden.
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這是一個壯觀的珊瑚王國
10:50
We didn't even expect to find things this beautiful.
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我們恐怕再也見不到比這還美麗的事物
10:52
It's thousands of meters deep.
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在幾千米的水下
10:54
There are new species.
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有新奇的物種
10:56
It's just a beautiful place.
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那真是一個美麗的地方
10:58
There are fossils in amongst,
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那其中還有化石
10:59
and now I've trained you to appreciate the fossil corals
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我剛剛告訴了你們海底化石的奧秘
11:02
that are down there.
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11:03
So next time you're lucky enough to fly over the ocean
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所以以後當你們飛越大洋
11:06
or sail over the ocean,
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或者在海上航行的時候
11:08
just think -- there are massive sea mountains down there
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要想想——
你身下有巨大的海底山脈
11:10
that nobody's ever seen before,
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沒有人層看見過它們
11:12
and there are beautiful corals.
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在山上長著美麗的珊瑚
11:14
Thank you.
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謝謝
11:15
(Applause)
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(鼓掌)
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