Allan Jones: A map of the brain

Prevodilac: Jelena Nedjic Lektor: Ivana Gadjanski

Humans have long held a fascination

Ljudi su već dugo očarani

for the human brain.

ljudskim mozgom.

We chart it, we've described it,

Istražujemo ga, opisujemo ga,

we've drawn it,

crtamo ga,

we've mapped it.

pravimo mapu ljudskog mozga.

Now just like the physical maps of our world

Tehnologija je značajno uticala

that have been highly influenced by technology --

na izgled mapa našeg sveta --

think Google Maps,

pomislite na Gugl mape,

think GPS --

pomislite na GPS -

the same thing is happening for brain mapping

isti preobražaj se dešava

through transformation.

i u oblasti mapiranja mozga.

So let's take a look at the brain.

Bacimo pogled na mozak.

Most people, when they first look at a fresh human brain,

Većina ljudi, kada prvi put vidi svež ljudski mozak,

they say, "It doesn't look what you're typically looking at

kaže: "Ne podseća na ono što obično vidite

when someone shows you a brain."

kada vam neko pokaže mozak."

Typically, what you're looking at is a fixed brain. It's gray.

Ono što vam je uglavnom pokazivano je prepariran mozak. Siv je.

And this outer layer, this is the vasculature,

Ovaj spoljašnji sloj, to je vaskulatura ,

which is incredible, around a human brain.

neverovatno je da se nalazi oko ljudskog mozga.

This is the blood vessels.

To su krvni sudovi.

20 percent of the oxygen

20 procenata kiseonika

coming from your lungs,

iz vaših pluća,

20 percent of the blood pumped from your heart,

20 procenata krvi ispumpane iz vašeg srca,

is servicing this one organ.

opslužuje ovaj jedan organ.

That's basically, if you hold two fists together,

Praktično, ako spojite dve pesnice,

it's just slightly larger than the two fists.

mozak je jedva malo veći od toga.

Scientists, sort of at the end of the 20th century,

Naučnici su negde krajem dvadesetog veka

learned that they could track blood flow

otkrili da prateći krvotok mogu

to map non-invasively

neinvazivnim putem da mapiraju

where activity was going on in the human brain.

mesta aktivnosti u ljudskom mozgu.

So for example, they can see in the back part of the brain,

Na primer, mogu da pogledaju potiljačni deo mozga

which is just turning around there.

koji se nalazi otprilike ovde.

There's the cerebellum; that's keeping you upright right now.

Tu se nalazi mali mozak; održava vas u ovom momentu u uspravnom položaju.

It's keeping me standing. It's involved in coordinated movement.

Meni omogućava da stojim. On je zadužen za održavanje ravnoteže.

On the side here, this is temporal cortex.

Sa strane se nalazi slepoočni režanj.

This is the area where primary auditory processing --

Ovaj deo je zadužen za primarnu obradu zvuka --

so you're hearing my words,

tako da možete da čujete moje reči,

you're sending it up into higher language processing centers.

i šaljete ih dalje u više centre za obradu govornih informacija

Towards the front of the brain

Na prednjem delu mozga

is the place in which all of the more complex thought, decision making --

nalazi se centar za razmišljanje, donošenje odluka --

it's the last to mature in late adulthood.

taj deo se poslednji formira, u odraslom dobu.

This is where all your decision-making processes are going on.

Tu se odvijaju svi procesi vezani za donošenje odluka.

It's the place where you're deciding right now

To je mesto koje upravo sada odlučuje

you probably aren't going to order the steak for dinner.

da verovatno nećete naručiti biftek za večeru.

So if you take a deeper look at the brain,

Ako pažljivije pogledate unutar mozga.

one of the things, if you look at it in cross-section,

ako posmatrate poprečni presek,

what you can see

možete uočiti da

is that you can't really see a whole lot of structure there.

tu i nema baš mnogo struktura.

But there's actually a lot of structure there.

Ali zapravo, postoji tu mnogo struktura.

It's cells and it's wires all wired together.

To su međusobno povezane ćelije i provodnici.

So about a hundred years ago,

Pre nekih sto godina,

some scientists invented a stain that would stain cells.

naučnici su izumeli način da oboje ćelije.

And that's shown here in the the very light blue.

To je prikazano ovde veoma svetlom plavom bojom.

You can see areas

Možete uočiti zone

where neuronal cell bodies are being stained.

koje predstavljaju obojena ćelijska tela neurona.

And what you can see is it's very non-uniform. You see a lot more structure there.

Uočavate da nije jednolično. Primećujete mnogo više struktura.

So the outer part of that brain

Spoljašnji deo ovog mozga

is the neocortex.

je neokorteks.

It's one continuous processing unit, if you will.

To je, moglo bi se reći, neprekidna jedinica za obradu informacija.

But you can also see things underneath there as well.

Takođe možete uočiti i ono što leži ispod toga.

And all of these blank areas

Neobojeni regioni su

are the areas in which the wires are running through.

delovi gde prolaze provodnici.

They're probably less cell dense.

Gustina ćelija je tu verovatno manja.

So there's about 86 billion neurons in our brain.

U našem mozgu se nalazi oko 86 milijardi neurona.

And as you can see, they're very non-uniformly distributed.

Kao što možete da vidite, nisu uniformno raspoređeni.

And how they're distributed really contributes

Raspored neurona značajno određuje

to their underlying function.

njihovu ulogu u mozgu.

And of course, as I mentioned before,

Naravno, kao što sam već spomenuo,

since we can now start to map brain function,

s obzirom da smo počeli da mapiramo funkcije mozga

we can start to tie these into the individual cells.

sada možemo da ih povezujemo sa pojedinačnim ćelijama.

So let's take a deeper look.

Pogledajmo to detaljnije.

Let's look at neurons.

Pogledajmo neurone.

So as I mentioned, there are 86 billion neurons.

Kao što rekoh, imamo 86 milijardi neurona.

There are also these smaller cells as you'll see.

Tu se nalaze i ove manje ćelije koje ćete videti.

These are support cells -- astrocytes glia.

To su pomoćne ćelije - to je glija, to su astrociti.

And the nerves themselves

Sami neuroni su

are the ones who are receiving input.

prijemnici informacija.

They're storing it, they're processing it.

Oni ih skladište i obrađuju.

Each neuron is connected via synapses

Svaki neuron je putem sinapsi povezan

to up to 10,000 other neurons in your brain.

sa do 10 000 drugih neurona u vašem mozgu.

And each neuron itself

Svaki neuron je sam po sebi

is largely unique.

poprilično jedinstven.

The unique character of both individual neurons

Jedinstvene osobine i izdvojenih neurona

and neurons within a collection of the brain

i grupe neurona jedne strukture mozga

are driven by fundamental properties

su određene biohemijskim

of their underlying biochemistry.

procesima koji se tu odvijaju.

These are proteins.

Proteini su za to zaduženi.

They're proteins that are controlling things like ion channel movement.

Proteini koji upravljaju kretanjem jonskih kanala.

They're controlling who nervous system cells partner up with.

Oni određuju sa kojim strukturama sarađuju ćelije nervnog sistema

And they're controlling

Upravljaju u principu svime

basically everything that the nervous system has to do.

što nervni sistem treba da uradi.

So if we zoom in to an even deeper level,

Uveličanjem do sledećeg nivoa vidimo da

all of those proteins

su svi ovi proteini

are encoded by our genomes.

kodirani u našem genomu.

We each have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Svako od nas ima 23 para hromozoma.

We get one from mom, one from dad.

Dobijemo jednu kopiju od majke, jednu od oca.

And on these chromosomes

Na ovim hromozomima se

are roughly 25,000 genes.

nalazi oko 25 000 gena.

They're encoded in the DNA.

Geni su zapisani u našoj DNK.

And the nature of a given cell

Priroda svake ćelije

driving its underlying biochemistry

uslovljava određene biohemijske procese,

is dictated by which of these 25,000 genes

a određena je podskupom uključenih gena

are turned on

od ukupno 25 000 prisutnih u genomu

and at what level they're turned on.

i merom njihove eksprimiranosti.

And so our project

Naš projekat ima za cilj

is seeking to look at this readout,

da odgonetne ove parametre,

understanding which of these 25,000 genes is turned on.

da razume koji od ovih 25 000 gena su uključeni.

So in order to undertake such a project,

Da bismo uradili takav projekat,

we obviously need brains.

očigledno je da su nam neophodni mozgovi.

So we sent our lab technician out.

Tako da mi šaljemo laboratorijske tehničare na teren.

We were seeking normal human brains.

Tražimo zdrave ljudske mozgove.

What we actually start with

Mi počinjemo u principu

is a medical examiner's office.

kod lekara-patologa, u mrtvačnici.

This a place where the dead are brought in.

Tu se donose mrtvi ljudi.

We are seeking normal human brains.

Mi tražimo zdrave ljudske mozgove.

There's a lot of criteria by which we're selecting these brains.

Imamo puno kriterijuma po kojima biramo te mozgove.

We want to make sure

Zasigurno proverimo da

that we have normal humans between the ages of 20 to 60,

su to bili zdravi ljudi stari između 20 i 60 godina,

they died a somewhat natural death

da su umrli prirodnom smrću

with no injury to the brain,

bez povreda mozga,

no history of psychiatric disease,

bez istorije psihijatrijskih bolesti,

no drugs on board --

da nisu koristili droge -

we do a toxicology workup.

i proverimo toksikologiju.

And we're very careful

Pažljiivo se ophodimo prema mozgovima

about the brains that we do take.

koje prihvatimo.

We're also selecting for brains

Biramo one mozgove

in which we can get the tissue,

iz kojih možemo da izolujemo tkivo,

we can get consent to take the tissue

gde možemo da dobijemo pristanak za preuzimanje tkiva

within 24 hours of time of death.

u prva 24 sata posle smrti

Because what we're trying to measure, the RNA --

Moramo da budemo brzi u proceduri

which is the readout from our genes --

jer radimo sa RNK molekulima

is very labile,

koji prenose informacije sa DNK do proteina,

and so we have to move very quickly.

a veoma su nestabilni.

One side note on the collection of brains:

Jedna napomena o prikupljanju mozgova:

because of the way that we collect,

zbog načina na koji do organa dolazimo

and because we require consent,

i budući da je neophodan pristanak,

we actually have a lot more male brains than female brains.

imamo mnogo više muških od ženskih mozgova.

Males are much more likely to die an accidental death in the prime of their life.

Veća je verovatnoća za muškarce da umru iznenadnom smrću u najboljim godinama

And men are much more likely

Mnogo je veća verovatnoća da

to have their significant other, spouse, give consent

njihov životni partner da odobrenje za proceduru

than the other way around.

nego obrnuto.

(Laughter)

(smeh)

So the first thing that we do at the site of collection

Kada preuzmemo organ, na licu mesta

is we collect what's called an MR.

napravimo nešto što se zove MR snimak.

This is magnetic resonance imaging -- MRI.

To je slikanje magnetnom rezonancom - MRI.

It's a standard template by which we're going to hang the rest of this data.

To je standradni uzorak na osnovu kojeg ćemo analizirati ostatak podataka.

So we collect this MR.

Napravimo taj MR snimak.

And you can think of this as our satellite view for our map.

To je nešto kao satelitski snimak za našu mapu

The next thing we do

Sledeći korak je dobijanje

is we collect what's called a diffusion tensor imaging.

nečega što nazivamo slikanje difuznom magnetnom rezonancom.

This maps the large cabling in the brain.

To mapira velike provodnike u mozgu.

And again, you can think of this

To pak možete zamisliti kao

as almost mapping our interstate highways, if you will.

mapiranje autoputeva među državama, ako želite.

The brain is removed from the skull,

Potom izvadimo mozak iz lobanje

and then it's sliced into one-centimeter slices.

i isečemo ga na deliće debljine jednog centimetra.

And those are frozen solid,

Te uzorke potom zamrznemo,

and they're shipped to Seattle.

i pošaljemo ih u Sijetl.

And in Seattle, we take these --

U Sijetlu preuzmemo uzorke,

this is a whole human hemisphere --

ovo je čitava jedna hemisfera ljudskog mozga,

and we put them into what's basically a glorified meat slicer.

i postavimo uzorke u proslavljeni sekač mesa.

There's a blade here that's going to cut across

Ovaj žilet pravi preseke

a section of the tissue

kroz postavljeno tkivo

and transfer it to a microscope slide.

i potom prebaci uzorak na mikroskopsku pločicu .

We're going to then apply one of those stains to it,

Potom nanesemo na te uzorke određene boje

and we scan it.

i snimamo ih.

And then what we get is our first mapping.

Tada dobijamo našu prvu mapu.

So this is where experts come in

Stručnjaci potom dolaze na scenu

and they make basic anatomic assignments.

i određuju anatomske odrednice uzoraka.

You could consider this state boundaries, if you will,

Na to možete gledati kao na granice među državama,

those pretty broad outlines.

to su poprilično široki obrisi.

From this, we're able to then fragment that brain into further pieces,

Od ove tačke možemo dalje podeliti mozak na manje delove,

which then we can put on a smaller cryostat.

koje potom postavimo na manji kriostat.

And this is just showing this here --

To je prikazano ovde -

this frozen tissue, and it's being cut.

zamrznuto tkivo koje sečemo.

This is 20 microns thin, so this is about a baby hair's width.

Uzorci su tanki 20 mikrona, debljine paperjaste dlake.

And remember, it's frozen.

Zapamtite da je tkivo zamrznuto.

And so you can see here,

Možete ovde primetiti

old-fashioned technology of the paintbrush being applied.

da koristimo staromodnu tehniku slikarske četkice.

We take a microscope slide.

Dobijemo preparat za mikroskopiranje.

Then we very carefully melt onto the slide.

Tada pažljivo otopimo uzorak na samoj pločici

This will then go onto a robot

Posle toga će robot premazati

that's going to apply one of those stains to it.

uzorke jednom od ovih boja.

And our anatomists are going to go in and take a deeper look at this.

Stručnjaci za anatomiju će zatim analizirati uzorak.

So again this is what they can see under the microscope.

Ovo je ono što mogu videti pod mikroskopom.

You can see collections and configurations

Možete videti grupacije i oblike

of large and small cells

velikih i malih ćelija,

in clusters and various places.

i grupacija ćelija na raznim mestima.

And from there it's routine. They understand where to make these assignments.

Od tog momenta, procedura je rutinska.

And they can make basically what's a reference atlas.

Oni tada naprave referentni atlas.

This is a more detailed map.

Ovo je detaljnija mapa.

Our scientists then use this

Naši naučnici na osnovu toga

to go back to another piece of that tissue

analiziraju drugi delić tog tkiva

and do what's called laser scanning microdissection.

uz pomoć laserske mikrodisekcije.

So the technician takes the instructions.

Tehničar dobije uputstva.

They scribe along a place there.

Obeleži region na uzorku.

And then the laser actually cuts.

Zatim se u principu laserom napravi rez.

You can see that blue dot there cutting. And that tissue falls off.

Uočićete ovu plavu tačku koju laser iseca. Tkivo se odvoji od uzorka.

You can see on the microscope slide here,

To možete sada videti na pločici,

that's what's happening in real time.

to se dešava istovremeno.

There's a container underneath that's collecting that tissue.

Ispod svega se nalazi posuda u kojoj sakupljamo tkivo.

We take that tissue,

Mi uzmemo to tkivo,

we purify the RNA out of it

izolujemo iz njega RNK

using some basic technology,

koristeći osnovnu tehnologiju,

and then we put a florescent tag on it.

i onda to obeležimo fluorescentnom bojom.

We take that tagged material

Uzmemo taj obeleženi materijal

and we put it on to something called a microarray.

i prebacimo ga na nešto što zovemo mikroniz (microarray).

Now this may look like a bunch of dots to you,

Ovo se vama može učiniti da je samo

but each one of these individual dots

skup tačkica, ali u principu svaka tačka

is actually a unique piece of the human genome

predstavlja jedinstveni deo humanog genoma

that we spotted down on glass.

koji smo mi preneli na staklo.

This has roughly 60,000 elements on it,

Tu se nalazi oko 60 000 elemenata,

so we repeatedly measure various genes

tako da je svaki od 25 000 gena u genomu

of the 25,000 genes in the genome.

predstavljen nekoliko puta.

And when we take a sample and we hybridize it to it,

Kada prebacimo i vežemo naš uzorak za tu platformu,

we get a unique fingerprint, if you will,

dobijemo jedinstveni otisak, možemo ga tako nazvati,

quantitatively of what genes are turned on in that sample.

koji pokazuje koji geni su eksprimirani, i u kom stepenu u tom uzorku

Now we do this over and over again,

Ovo ponavljamo nekoliko puta

this process for any given brain.

za svaki mozak koji dobijemo.

We're taking over a thousand samples for each brain.

Za svaki mozak radimo analizu hiljadu uzoraka.

This area shown here is an area called the hippocampus.

Deo mozga koji je ovde pokazan se naziva hipokampus.

It's involved in learning and memory.

Zadužen je za učenje i pamćenje.

And it contributes to about 70 samples

Uzorci hipokampalnog regiona mozga čine 70 uzoraka

of those thousand samples.

od tih hiljadu uzoraka koje analiziramo.

So each sample gets us about 50,000 data points

Analiza svakog uzorka nam da oko 50 000 nalaza,

with repeat measurements, a thousand samples.

imamo ponovljena merenja i radimo sa hiljadu uzoraka.

So roughly, we have 50 million data points

Otprilike, govorimo o setu od 50 miliona nalaza

for a given human brain.

za svaki mozak koji analiziramo.

We've done right now

Do sada smo obradili nalaze iz

two human brains-worth of data.

dva ljudska mozga.

We've put all of that together

Sve te podatke smo integrisali

into one thing,

u jednu celinu

and I'll show you what that synthesis looks like.

i pokazaću vam kako ta sinteza podataka izgleda.

It's basically a large data set of information

To je jedna ogromna baza podataka

that's all freely available to any scientist around the world.

koja je besplatna i dostupna svim naučnicima na svetu.

They don't even have to log in to come use this tool,

Čak ne moraju ni da se registruju da bi je koristili,

mine this data, find interesting things out with this.

istraživali ove podatke i došli do interesantnih informacija.

So here's the modalities that we put together.

Ovo su moduli koje smo uspostavili.

You'll start to recognize these things from what we've collected before.

Prepoznaćete sada strukture sa kojima smo započeli proceduru.

Here's the MR. It provides the framework.

Ove je MR snimak. To nam daje okvir rada.

There's an operator side on the right that allows you to turn,

Ovde, sa desne strane, imamo operatorske funkcije koje omogućavaju

it allows you to zoom in,

da uveličate određeni deo,

it allows you to highlight individual structures.

da označite pojedinačne strukture.

But most importantly,

Najvažnije je to što

we're now mapping into this anatomic framework,

sada prevodimo naše nalaze u anatomsku mrežu mozga,

which is a common framework for people to understand where genes are turned on.

to je opšta mreža koja omogućava ljudima da shvate gde su geni eksprimirani.

So the red levels

Crvena boja predstavlja

are where a gene is turned on to a great degree.

strukture u kojima je gen snažno eksprimiran.

Green is the sort of cool areas where it's not turned on.

Zelenom bojom je označen "hladni" region gde gen nije uključen

And each gene gives us a fingerprint.

Za svaki gen imamo jedinstvenu šemu.

And remember that we've assayed all the 25,000 genes in the genome

Zapamtite da smo analizirali svih 25 000 gena u genomu

and have all of that data available.

i svi ti podaci su dostupni.

So what can scientists learn about this data?

Šta naučnici mogu iz svega toga da nauče?

We're just starting to look at this data ourselves.

Mi sada počinjemo da analiziramo ove podatke.

There's some basic things that you would want to understand.

Trebalo bi da razumete određene osnovne principe.

Two great examples are drugs,

Navešću dva divna primera lekova,

Prozac and Wellbutrin.

a to su "Prozak" i "Wellbutrin".

These are commonly prescribed antidepressants.

To su uobičajeni antidepresivi koje lekari prepisuju

Now remember, we're assaying genes.

Zapamtite da mi analiziramo gene.

Genes send the instructions to make proteins.

Oni su recepti za sintezu proteina.

Proteins are targets for drugs.

Proteini su meta lekova.

So drugs bind to proteins

Lekovi se vezuju za proteine

and either turn them off, etc.

i mogu da ih uključe ili isključe, itd.

So if you want to understand the action of drugs,

Ako želite da razumete mehanizam delovanja leka,

you want to understand how they're acting in the ways you want them to,

treba da shvatite kako oni rade na način koji vi želite

and also in the ways you don't want them to.

i kako čine ono što ne želite da čine.

In the side effect profile, etc.,

U analizi sporednih efekata lekova, itd.,

you want to see where those genes are turned on.

želite da znate gde su ti geni uključeni.

And for the first time, we can actually do that.

Po prvi put smo u principu u stanju to da uradimo.

We can do that in multiple individuals that we've assayed too.

Možemo analizirati istu stvar kod velikog broja ljudi.

So now we can look throughout the brain.

Sada možemo da pregledamo ceo mozak.

We can see this unique fingerprint.

Uočićemo taj jedinstveni otisak gena.

And we get confirmation.

Tako dobijamo potvrdu.

We get confirmation that, indeed, the gene is turned on --

Dobijamo potvrdu da je gen zaista uključen

for something like Prozac,

za delovanje "Prozaca"

in serotonergic structures, things that are already known be affected --

u delovima koji proizvode serotonin, što smo svakako već znali,

but we also get to see the whole thing.

ali sada možemo analizirati sve.

We also get to see areas that no one has ever looked at before,

Sada možemo da analiziramo delove mozga koje niko pre nas nije analizirao,

and we see these genes turned on there.

možemo uočiti eksprimiranje tih gena.

It's as interesting a side effect as it could be.

Interesantno je onoliko koliko neželjeni efekti mogu biti interesantni.

One other thing you can do with such a thing

Druga primena ovih podataka je

is you can, because it's a pattern matching exercise,

u vežbama za pronalaženje šema,

because there's unique fingerprint,

usled toga što je to jedinstveni potpis gena,

we can actually scan through the entire genome

možete na osnovu ovoga analizirati čitav genom

and find other proteins

i naći i druge proteine

that show a similar fingerprint.

koji imaju sličan potpis.

So if you're in drug discovery, for example,

Ukoliko se bavite otkrivanjem novih aktivnih supstanci,

you can go through

onda možete da analizirate

an entire listing of what the genome has on offer

celu listu proteina koji genom nudi

to find perhaps better drug targets and optimize.

i možda pronađete bolje mete za lekove i usavršite lek.

Most of you are probably familiar

Verovatno su vam poznate studije

with genome-wide association studies

koje se bave analizom čitavog genoma

in the form of people covering in the news

koje su dobro medijski propraćene, pa nalećete

saying, "Scientists have recently discovered the gene or genes

na izjave: "Naučnici su nedavno otkrili da je ovaj gen ili geni

which affect X."

povezan sa osobinom X."

And so these kinds of studies

Naučnici rutinski objavljuju

are routinely published by scientists

studije ovog tipa

and they're great. They analyze large populations.

i one su odlične. Analiziraju velike populacije ljudi.

They look at their entire genomes,

Analiziraju čitave genome,

and they try to find hot spots of activity

i pokušavaju da dođu do ključne osobine

that are linked causally to genes.

koja je uzročno povezana sa genima.

But what you get out of such an exercise

Ovakvim vežbicama dolazite samo

is simply a list of genes.

do liste gena.

It tells you the what, but it doesn't tell you the where.

To vam govori o "šta", ali vam ne kaže ništa o "gde".

And so it's very important for those researchers

Tako da je veoma važno za ove istraživače

that we've created this resource.

da smo stvorili ovu bazu podataka.

Now they can come in

Sada mogu uz pomoć baze podataka

and they can start to get clues about activity.

i da razumeju aktivnost gena.

They can start to look at common pathways --

Mogu se baviti istraživanjem zajedničkih mehanizama,

other things that they simply haven't been able to do before.

i drugih fenomena koje prosto ranije nisu mogli da rade.

So I think this audience in particular

Smatram da publika ovde shvata

can understand the importance of individuality.

važnost posebnosti.

And I think every human,

Smatram da svaki čovek,

we all have different genetic backgrounds,

svi imamo drukčiju genetičku pozadinu,

we all have lived separate lives.

svi smo živeli drukčije živote.

But the fact is

Ali činjenica je da su

our genomes are greater than 99 percent similar.

naši genomi međusobno više od 99 odsto slični.

We're similar at the genetic level.

Na genetičkom nivou mi smo slični.

And what we're finding

Pronašli smo da smo

is actually, even at the brain biochemical level,

čak i na nivou biohemijskih procesa u mozgu

we are quite similar.

veoma slični.

And so this shows it's not 99 percent,

Vidimo ovde da sličnost nije 99 odsto,

but it's roughly 90 percent correspondence

već postoji oko 90 odsto sličnosti

at a reasonable cutoff,

kada postavite razumne parametre

so everything in the cloud is roughly correlated.

i time je sve u ovom oblaku delimično povezano.

And then we find some outliers,

Potom pronađemo neke izuzetke,

some things that lie beyond the cloud.

ono što se nalazi izvan ovog oblaka.

And those genes are interesting,

Ovi geni su interesantni,

but they're very subtle.

ali imaju blage efekte.

So I think it's an important message

Mislim da je najznačajnija poruka

to take home today

koju treba da ponesete sa ovog predavanja

that even though we celebrate all of our differences,

ta da iako slavimo razlike među nama,

we are quite similar

mi smo veoma slični,

even at the brain level.

čak i na nivou mozga.

Now what do those differences look like?

Kako izgledaju te razlike?

This is an example of a study that we did

Ovo je primer studije koja prati

to follow up and see what exactly those differences were --

i nadovezuje se na priču gde smo tačno odredili te razlike --

and they're quite subtle.

razlike su veoma suptilne.

These are things where genes are turned on in an individual cell type.

Ovo su primeri gena koji su eksprimirani u određenom tipu ćelija.

These are two genes that we found as good examples.

Ova dva gena su zaista dobri primeri.

One is called RELN -- it's involved in early developmental cues.

Jedan je nazvan RELN -- bitan je za rano razviće.

DISC1 is a gene

A DISC1 je gen

that's deleted in schizophrenia.

koji je mutiran u šizofreniji.

These aren't schizophrenic individuals,

Ovo nisu šizofreni ljudi,

but they do show some population variation.

ali pokazuju određeni stepen varijabilnosti u populaciji.

And so what you're looking at here

Ovde možete videti

in donor one and donor four,

donora broj jedan i broj četiri,

which are the exceptions to the other two,

koji se razlikuju u odnosu na ostala dva,

that genes are being turned on

jer su geni eksprimirani

in a very specific subset of cells.

u veoma određenoj grupi ćelija.

It's this dark purple precipitate within the cell

Ovaj tamno ljubičasti talog u ćeliji

that's telling us a gene is turned on there.

nam govori da je gen eksprimiran.

Whether or not that's due

Ne znamo da li je to uslovljeno

to an individual's genetic background or their experiences,

razlikama u ličnoj genetičkoj pozadini

we don't know.

ili je uslovljeno iskustvom.

Those kinds of studies require much larger populations.

Ovakav tip studija zahteva analizu znatno većih populacija.

So I'm going to leave you with a final note

Završiću izlaganje komentarom

about the complexity of the brain

o složenosti mozga i tome

and how much more we have to go.

koliko još treba naučimo.

I think these resources are incredibly valuable.

Smatram da su ovakve baze podataka neopisivo korisne.

They give researchers a handle

Pružaju istraživačima smernice

on where to go.

u kom pravcu treba da razmišljaju.

But we only looked at a handful of individuals at this point.

Analizirali smo mali broj osoba do sada.

We're certainly going to be looking at more.

Sigurno ćemo analizirati više ljudi.

I'll just close by saying

Završiću komentarom

that the tools are there,

da sada imamo oruđe,

and this is truly an unexplored, undiscovered continent.

a ovo je zaista neistraženi, neotkriveni kontinent.

This is the new frontier, if you will.

Ovo je, moglo bi se reći, naš novi horizont.

And so for those who are undaunted,

One koji nisu obeshrabreni,

but humbled by the complexity of the brain,

već očarani složenošću mozga,

the future awaits.

čeka budućnost.

Thanks.

Hvala.

(Applause)

(aplauz)