Allan Jones: A map of the brain

Prevoditelj: Senzos Osijek Recezent: Tilen Pigac - EFZG

Humans have long held a fascination

Ljudi su već dugo vremena fascinirani

for the human brain.

mozgom.

We chart it, we've described it,

Napravili smo grafikone, opisali smo ga,

we've drawn it,

nacrtali smo ga,

we've mapped it.

mapirali smo ga.

Now just like the physical maps of our world

Baš kao karte svijeta

that have been highly influenced by technology --

koje su pod velikim utjecajem tehnologije --

think Google Maps,

sjetite se Google Map-a,

think GPS --

GPS-a --

the same thing is happening for brain mapping

ista se transformacija događa

through transformation.

kod mapiranja mozga.

So let's take a look at the brain.

Pogledajmo mozak.

Most people, when they first look at a fresh human brain,

Većina ljudi, kada prvi put ugledaju ljudski mozak,

they say, "It doesn't look what you're typically looking at

kaže: „ Ne izgleda kao ono što se tipično

when someone shows you a brain."

prikazuje kao mozak.“

Typically, what you're looking at is a fixed brain. It's gray.

Uobičajeno, ono što vidite je fiksirani mozak. On je siv.

And this outer layer, this is the vasculature,

A ovaj vanjski sloj, to je vaskulatura,

which is incredible, around a human brain.

koja je nevjerojatna, oko ljudskog mozga.

This is the blood vessels.

Ovo su krvne žile.

20 percent of the oxygen

20% kisika

coming from your lungs,

dolazi iz pluća,

20 percent of the blood pumped from your heart,

20% od krvi ispumpane iz vašeg srca

is servicing this one organ.

opskrbljuje ovaj organ.

That's basically, if you hold two fists together,

U principu, ako držite dvije šake stisnute zajedno,

it's just slightly larger than the two fists.

mozak je samo malo veći od te dvije šake.

Scientists, sort of at the end of the 20th century,

Znanstvenici su, negdje krajem 20. stoljeća,

learned that they could track blood flow

naučili da mogu, neinvazivno prateći protok krvi

to map non-invasively

na mapi,

where activity was going on in the human brain.

vidjeti gdje se odvija pojedina aktivnost u ljudskom mozgu.

So for example, they can see in the back part of the brain,

Na primjer, oni mogu vidjeti stražnji dio mozga,

which is just turning around there.

koji se nalazi ovdje.

There's the cerebellum; that's keeping you upright right now.

Tu je mali mozak, koji vas održava uspravnima u ovom trenutku.

It's keeping me standing. It's involved in coordinated movement.

On mi pomaže da stojim ovdje. Uključen je u koordinaciju pokreta.

On the side here, this is temporal cortex.

Na ovoj je strani temporalni korteks.

This is the area where primary auditory processing --

To je područje primarnog auditornog procesiranja --

so you're hearing my words,

znači, čujete moje riječi

you're sending it up into higher language processing centers.

i šaljete ih u druge centre za daljnju, višu obradu.

Towards the front of the brain

Idući prema prednjem dijelu mozga,

is the place in which all of the more complex thought, decision making --

nalazi se područje složenijih misli, donošenja odluka --

it's the last to mature in late adulthood.

ono zadnje sazrijeva, u kasnoj odrasloj dobi.

This is where all your decision-making processes are going on.

Ovdje se odvijaju svi procesi donošenja vaših odluka.

It's the place where you're deciding right now

To je mjesto gdje upravo odlučujete

you probably aren't going to order the steak for dinner.

kako vjerojatno nećete naručiti odrezak za večeru.

So if you take a deeper look at the brain,

Dakle, ako bolje pogledate mozak,

one of the things, if you look at it in cross-section,

jedna od stvari, ako ga gledate na presjeku,

what you can see

koju možete vidjeti

is that you can't really see a whole lot of structure there.

jest da zapravo i ne možete vidjeti mnogo struktura tamo.

But there's actually a lot of structure there.

Ali tu zapravo ima puno struktura.

It's cells and it's wires all wired together.

To su stanice i snopovi, svi međusobno povezani.

So about a hundred years ago,

Prije otprilike sto godina

some scientists invented a stain that would stain cells.

znanstvenici su izumili boju koja će obojati stanice.

And that's shown here in the the very light blue.

To je ovdje prikazano kao vrlo svijetlo plava.

You can see areas

Možete vidjeti područja

where neuronal cell bodies are being stained.

gdje su obojana normalna tijela stanica.

And what you can see is it's very non-uniform. You see a lot more structure there.

A ono što možete vidjeti je jako nejednoliko. Možete vidjeti mnoge strukture.

So the outer part of that brain

Vanjski je dio mozga

is the neocortex.

neokorteks.

It's one continuous processing unit, if you will.

To je jedna kontinuirana procesorska jedinica, moglo bi se reći.

But you can also see things underneath there as well.

Ali vi, također, možete vidjeti stvari ispod njega.

And all of these blank areas

I sva ova prazna područja

are the areas in which the wires are running through.

su područja kroz koja prolaze snopovi, poveznice.

They're probably less cell dense.

Vjerojatno su manje stanične gustoće.

So there's about 86 billion neurons in our brain.

Postoji otprilike 86 milijardi neurona u našem mozgu.

And as you can see, they're very non-uniformly distributed.

I kao što možete vidjeti, prilično su nejednoliko raspoređeni.

And how they're distributed really contributes

A način na koji su raspoređeni pridonosi

to their underlying function.

određivanju njihove temeljne funkcije.

And of course, as I mentioned before,

I, naravno, kao što sam već spomenuo,

since we can now start to map brain function,

s obzirom da sada možemo početi mapirati moždane aktivnosti,

we can start to tie these into the individual cells.

možemo početi povezivati te aktivnosti s pojedinim stanicama.

So let's take a deeper look.

Sada pogledajmo malo dublje.

Let's look at neurons.

Pogledajmo neurone.

So as I mentioned, there are 86 billion neurons.

Kao što sam već rekao, postoji 86 milijardi neurona.

There are also these smaller cells as you'll see.

Tu su i ove manje stanice, kao što vidite.

These are support cells -- astrocytes glia.

Ovo su potporne stanice -- astroglija stanice.

And the nerves themselves

Sami živci

are the ones who are receiving input.

su oni koji primaju signal.

They're storing it, they're processing it.

Oni ga pohranjuju, oni ga obrađuju.

Each neuron is connected via synapses

Svaki je neuron, preko sinapsi, spojen s

to up to 10,000 other neurons in your brain.

do 10.000 drugih neurona u našem mozgu.

And each neuron itself

I svaki je neuron, sam za sebe,

is largely unique.

prilično jedinstven.

The unique character of both individual neurons

Jedinstveni karakter, kako individualnih neurona,

and neurons within a collection of the brain

tako i neurona unutar područja u mozgu,

are driven by fundamental properties

određen je temeljnim značajkama

of their underlying biochemistry.

njihove biokemijske podloge.

These are proteins.

Ovo su proteini.

They're proteins that are controlling things like ion channel movement.

To su proteini koji kontroliraju stvari kao što je prolazak kroz ionske kanale.

They're controlling who nervous system cells partner up with.

Oni kontroliraju s kim se povezuju stanice živčanog sustava.

And they're controlling

I oni, u osnovi, kontroliraju

basically everything that the nervous system has to do.

sve što živčani sustav mora činiti.

So if we zoom in to an even deeper level,

Ako pogledamo sve to na još dubljoj razini,

all of those proteins

svi su ti proteini

are encoded by our genomes.

kodirani našim genomima.

We each have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Svatko od nas ima 23 para kromosoma.

We get one from mom, one from dad.

Jedan dobijemo od majke, jedan od oca.

And on these chromosomes

Na ovim se kromosomima

are roughly 25,000 genes.

nalazi otprilike 25.000 gena.

They're encoded in the DNA.

Oni su kodirani u DNK.

And the nature of a given cell

I prirodu ovih stanica,

driving its underlying biochemistry

određujući njihovu biokemijsku podlogu,

is dictated by which of these 25,000 genes

diktira koji je od ovih 25.000 gena

are turned on

aktivan

and at what level they're turned on.

i na kojem je stupnju aktivan.

And so our project

Naš projekt

is seeking to look at this readout,

pokušava razumijeti ovo iščitavanje,

understanding which of these 25,000 genes is turned on.

shvatiti koji je od ovih 25.000 gena aktivan.

So in order to undertake such a project,

Znači, kako bismo proveli takav projekt,

we obviously need brains.

očito je da trebamo nekakve mozgove.

So we sent our lab technician out.

Zato smo poslali našeg laboratorijskog tehničara u potragu.

We were seeking normal human brains.

Tražili smo normalne ljudske mozgove.

What we actually start with

Počeli smo s

is a medical examiner's office.

uredom za medicinsko vještačenje.

This a place where the dead are brought in.

To je mjesto gdje dovode mrtve.

We are seeking normal human brains.

Mi tražimo normalne ljudske mozgove.

There's a lot of criteria by which we're selecting these brains.

Brojni su kriteriji po kojima izabiremo ove mozgove.

We want to make sure

Želimo biti sigurni

that we have normal humans between the ages of 20 to 60,

da imamo normalne ljudske mozgove starosti između 20 i 60 godina,

they died a somewhat natural death

da su ljudi umrli prirodnom smrću,

with no injury to the brain,

bez ozljeda mozga,

no history of psychiatric disease,

da nisu imali zabilježenih psihijatrijskih poremećaja,

no drugs on board --

prisutnosti droge --

we do a toxicology workup.

zato radimo toksikološki pregled.

And we're very careful

I jako smo pažljivi

about the brains that we do take.

u pogledu mozgova koje uzimamo.

We're also selecting for brains

Također, tražimo mozgove

in which we can get the tissue,

od kojih možemo uzeti uzorak,

we can get consent to take the tissue

one za koje u roku od 24 sata od trenutka smrti

within 24 hours of time of death.

dobijemo dozvolu da uzmemo uzorak.

Because what we're trying to measure, the RNA --

Ovo radimo zato što je ono što pokušavamo analizirati, RNK --

which is the readout from our genes --

koja je iščitanje naših gena --

is very labile,

vrlo labilno

and so we have to move very quickly.

pa moramo brzo djelovati.

One side note on the collection of brains:

Još jedna napomena o prikupljanju mozgova:

because of the way that we collect,

zbog načina na koji prikupljamo

and because we require consent,

i zato što tražimo suglasnost,

we actually have a lot more male brains than female brains.

imamo puno više muških, nego ženskih mozgova.

Males are much more likely to die an accidental death in the prime of their life.

Muškarci imaju veće šanse umrijeti slučajnom smrću u najboljim godinama svoga života.

And men are much more likely

I muškarci imaju veće šanse

to have their significant other, spouse, give consent

da će njihova bolja polovica, supruga, dati suglasnost

than the other way around.

za navedeno, nego obrnuto.

(Laughter)

(Smijeh)

So the first thing that we do at the site of collection

Prva stvar koju činimo na mjestu prikupljanja

is we collect what's called an MR.

je MR.

This is magnetic resonance imaging -- MRI.

To je magnetska rezonanca -- MRI.

It's a standard template by which we're going to hang the rest of this data.

To je standardni predložak prema kojemu ćemo određivati ostatak ovih podataka.

So we collect this MR.

Zato snimamo MR.

And you can think of this as our satellite view for our map.

Ovo možete smatrati satelitskim prikazom naše karte.

The next thing we do

Sljedeći je korak

is we collect what's called a diffusion tensor imaging.

skupljanje difuznog prikaza.

This maps the large cabling in the brain.

Ovo prikazuje velike poveznice u mozgu.

And again, you can think of this

I opet, na ovo možete gledati

as almost mapping our interstate highways, if you will.

kao na kartu naših državnih autocesta, ako hoćete.

The brain is removed from the skull,

Mozak je prvo odstranjen iz lubanje

and then it's sliced into one-centimeter slices.

i zatim je narezan na kriške debljine jednog centimetra.

And those are frozen solid,

One su čvrsto zamrznute

and they're shipped to Seattle.

i poslane u Seattle.

And in Seattle, we take these --

U Seattleu uzimamo ove --

this is a whole human hemisphere --

ovo je cijela hemisfera --

and we put them into what's basically a glorified meat slicer.

i stavljamo ih u nešto što je, u principu, slično rezaču za meso.

There's a blade here that's going to cut across

Ovdje je oštrica koja će prerezati

a section of the tissue

dio tkiva

and transfer it to a microscope slide.

i pretvoriti ga u mikroskopski preparat.

We're going to then apply one of those stains to it,

Tada ćemo nanijeti jednu od boja na njega

and we scan it.

i skenirati ga.

And then what we get is our first mapping.

I ono što dobijemo jest naša prva mapa.

So this is where experts come in

Ovo je trenutak kada dolaze stručnjaci

and they make basic anatomic assignments.

i obavljaju osnovne anatomske zadatke.

You could consider this state boundaries, if you will,

Možete ovo smatrati kao državne granice, ako hoćete,

those pretty broad outlines.

ove grube crte.

From this, we're able to then fragment that brain into further pieces,

Od ovoga možemo vršiti daljnu fragmentaciju mozga, na komadiće

which then we can put on a smaller cryostat.

koje možemo staviti na manji kriostat.

And this is just showing this here --

Ovdje to možete vidjeti --

this frozen tissue, and it's being cut.

ovo je zamrznuto tkivo i ono se reže.

This is 20 microns thin, so this is about a baby hair's width.

Ovo je tanko 20 mikrona, to je otprilike debljina bebine dlake kose.

And remember, it's frozen.

I zapamtite, ovo je smrznuto.

And so you can see here,

Ovdje možete vidjeti

old-fashioned technology of the paintbrush being applied.

tradicionalanu tehnologiju nanošenja boje kistom.

We take a microscope slide.

Uzimamo mikroskopski uzorak.

Then we very carefully melt onto the slide.

Zatim ga pažljivo otapamo.

This will then go onto a robot

Ovo će sada ići u uređaj

that's going to apply one of those stains to it.

koji će nanijeti neku od boja na njega.

And our anatomists are going to go in and take a deeper look at this.

I naši anatomi će zatim bolje proučiti uzorak.

So again this is what they can see under the microscope.

Ovo je ono što mogu vidjeti pod mikroskopom.

You can see collections and configurations

Možete vidjeti nakupine i strukture

of large and small cells

velikih i malih stanica

in clusters and various places.

u skupinama i različitim mjestima.

And from there it's routine. They understand where to make these assignments.

Dalje je sve rutinski. Anatomi znaju gdje obaviti koje poslove.

And they can make basically what's a reference atlas.

I mogu napraviti osnovni referentni atlas.

This is a more detailed map.

To je još malo detaljnija mapa.

Our scientists then use this

Naši znanstvenici, tada, koriste ovo

to go back to another piece of that tissue

kako bi se vratili na drugi komadić tkiva

and do what's called laser scanning microdissection.

i napravili ono što zovemo laserska mikrosekcija.

So the technician takes the instructions.

Tehničar daje upute.

They scribe along a place there.

On ih piše na jedno mjesto.

And then the laser actually cuts.

I tada laser reže.

You can see that blue dot there cutting. And that tissue falls off.

Možete vidjeti ovu plavu točku koja reže. I to tkivo otpada.

You can see on the microscope slide here,

Možete sve vidjeti na mikrosposkom uzorku ovdje,

that's what's happening in real time.

ovo se događa u istom vremenu.

There's a container underneath that's collecting that tissue.

Ispod je spremnik koji prikuplja tkivo.

We take that tissue,

Mi uzimamo to tkivo,

we purify the RNA out of it

vadimo RNK iz njega

using some basic technology,

koristeći jednostavnu tehnologiju

and then we put a florescent tag on it.

i tada stavljamo flourescentnu oznaku na njega.

We take that tagged material

Uzimamo označeni materijal

and we put it on to something called a microarray.

i stavljamo ga na neku vrstu mikropločice.

Now this may look like a bunch of dots to you,

Vama ovo sada možda izgleda kao hrpa točkica,

but each one of these individual dots

ali svaka je pojedina točkica

is actually a unique piece of the human genome

jedinstven komadić ljudskog genoma

that we spotted down on glass.

koji smo uočili na staklu.

This has roughly 60,000 elements on it,

Ovo ima, grubo rečeno, oko 60.000 elemenata na sebi --

so we repeatedly measure various genes

zato konstantno mjerimo različite verzije gena

of the 25,000 genes in the genome.

od ukupnih 25.000 gena u genomu.

And when we take a sample and we hybridize it to it,

I kada uzmemo uzorak i križamo ga s ovim,

we get a unique fingerprint, if you will,

dobivamo jedinstveni otisak prsta, ako ćete tako lakše shvatiti,

quantitatively of what genes are turned on in that sample.

kvantitet gena koji su aktivni u tom uzorku.

Now we do this over and over again,

Zatim to činimo ponovno i ponovno,

this process for any given brain.

ponavljamo ovaj proces za svaki dani mozak.

We're taking over a thousand samples for each brain.

Uzimamo preko tisuću uzoraka iz svakog mozga.

This area shown here is an area called the hippocampus.

Ovo područje ovdje naziva se hippokampus.

It's involved in learning and memory.

Uključen je u procese učenja i pamćenja.

And it contributes to about 70 samples

I on daje oko 70 uzoraka

of those thousand samples.

od ovih 1.000 uzoraka.

So each sample gets us about 50,000 data points

Svaki nam uzorak daje otprilike 50.000 podataka.

with repeat measurements, a thousand samples.

Ponavljamo postupke na 1.000 uzoraka.

So roughly, we have 50 million data points

Grubo rečeno, imamo 50 milijuna podataka

for a given human brain.

za dani ljudski mozak.

We've done right now

Dosada smo obradili

two human brains-worth of data.

količinu podataka koja odgovara količini za dva ljudska mozga.

We've put all of that together

Sve smo to spojili

into one thing,

u jedno

and I'll show you what that synthesis looks like.

i sada ću vam pokazati kako ta sinteza izgleda.

It's basically a large data set of information

To je, u principu, velika baza podataka i informacija

that's all freely available to any scientist around the world.

koja je besplatna i dostupna svakom znanstveniku na svijetu.

They don't even have to log in to come use this tool,

Ne moraju se čak niti prijaviti kako bi koristili ovaj program,

mine this data, find interesting things out with this.

ovu bazu, i otkrivali zanimljive stvari s nama.

So here's the modalities that we put together.

Ovo su modeli koje smo sklopili i postavili.

You'll start to recognize these things from what we've collected before.

Prepoznat ćete ove stvari prema onome što smo prethodno prikupljali.

Here's the MR. It provides the framework.

Evo MR-a. On pruža okvirnu sliku.

There's an operator side on the right that allows you to turn,

Desno je operativni sistem koji vam omogućava da okrećete,

it allows you to zoom in,

povećavate,

it allows you to highlight individual structures.

istaknete pojedine strukture.

But most importantly,

No, ono što je najvažnije,

we're now mapping into this anatomic framework,

jest to da mi sada pravimo mapu u ovom anatomskom okviru,

which is a common framework for people to understand where genes are turned on.

koji je jednostavan okvir preko kojeg ljudi mogu shvatiti koji su geni aktivni.

So the red levels

Crveni slojevi su

are where a gene is turned on to a great degree.

mjesta gdje je neki gen aktivan u velikoj mjeri.

Green is the sort of cool areas where it's not turned on.

Zeleno su mjesta gdje nije uključen.

And each gene gives us a fingerprint.

A svaki nam gen daje svoj otisak.

And remember that we've assayed all the 25,000 genes in the genome

I zapamtite da smo analizirali svih 25.000 gena u genomu

and have all of that data available.

i da su nam dostupni svi ti podaci.

So what can scientists learn about this data?

Dakle, što znanstvenici mogu naučiti iz ove baze?

We're just starting to look at this data ourselves.

Mi tek krećemo pregledavati te podatke osobno.

There's some basic things that you would want to understand.

Postoje neke osnovne stvari koje biste trebali razumijeti.

Two great examples are drugs,

Dva izvrsna primjera su lijekovi

Prozac and Wellbutrin.

Prozac i Wellbutrin.

These are commonly prescribed antidepressants.

To su najčešće propisivani antidepresivi.

Now remember, we're assaying genes.

Sad upamtite, mi analiziramo gene.

Genes send the instructions to make proteins.

Geni šalju upute za pravljenje proteina.

Proteins are targets for drugs.

A proteini su meta lijekova.

So drugs bind to proteins

Lijekovi se vežu na proteine

and either turn them off, etc.

i, ili ih inhibiraju ili rade nešto drugo ...

So if you want to understand the action of drugs,

Stoga, ako želite razumijeti djelovanje lijekova,

you want to understand how they're acting in the ways you want them to,

želite razumijeti način na koji djeluju kako biste vi to željeli

and also in the ways you don't want them to.

i, naravno, način na koji ne želite da djeluju.

In the side effect profile, etc.,

Pri nuspojavama, na primjer,

you want to see where those genes are turned on.

želite vidjeti gdje su ti geni uključeni.

And for the first time, we can actually do that.

I prvi put, mi to zapravo možemo učiniti.

We can do that in multiple individuals that we've assayed too.

Mi to možemo napraviti za više pojedinaca koje smo analizirali.

So now we can look throughout the brain.

Sada možemo gledati kroz mozak.

We can see this unique fingerprint.

Možemo vidjeti ovaj jedinstveni otisak prsta.

And we get confirmation.

I možemo dobiti potvrdu.

We get confirmation that, indeed, the gene is turned on --

Možemo potvrditi da, uistinu, gen jest uključen --

for something like Prozac,

za nešto poput Prozaca,

in serotonergic structures, things that are already known be affected --

u serotonergičkim strukturama, za koje se već zna da su pod utjecajem,

but we also get to see the whole thing.

ali sada, također, možemo vidjeti kompletan prikaz.

We also get to see areas that no one has ever looked at before,

Također, možemo vidjeti područja koja nitko nikada nije pregledavao

and we see these genes turned on there.

i koji su geni tamo aktivni.

It's as interesting a side effect as it could be.

To je zanimljiv nusprodukt.

One other thing you can do with such a thing

Još jedna zanimljiva stvar koju možete učiniti,

is you can, because it's a pattern matching exercise,

jer je ovo vježba uspoređivanja s uzorkom

because there's unique fingerprint,

i jer postoji jedinstveni otisak,

we can actually scan through the entire genome

možete proći kroz cijeli genom

and find other proteins

i vidjeti druge proteine

that show a similar fingerprint.

koji pokazuju sličnost ovima.

So if you're in drug discovery, for example,

Stoga, ako ste u procesu traženja lijeka, na primjer,

you can go through

možete proći kroz

an entire listing of what the genome has on offer

cijelo izlistanje onoga što genom ima za ponuditi

to find perhaps better drug targets and optimize.

kako biste, možda, našli bolje mete za lijek i na taj način optimizirali djelovanje lijeka.

Most of you are probably familiar

Većina vas je vjerojatno upoznata

with genome-wide association studies

s genomom -- širok spektar studija

in the form of people covering in the news

koji se tiče liječenja ljudi u vijestima

saying, "Scientists have recently discovered the gene or genes

govori : „Znanstvenici su nedavno pronašli gen ili gene

which affect X."

koji utječu na nešto ...“

And so these kinds of studies

Ovakve se studije

are routinely published by scientists

rutinski objavljuju od strane znanstevnika

and they're great. They analyze large populations.

i one su sjajne. One analiziraju velike populacije.

They look at their entire genomes,

One razmatraju cijele njihove genome

and they try to find hot spots of activity

i pokušavaju naći mjesta aktivnosti

that are linked causally to genes.

koja su uzročno povezana s genima.

But what you get out of such an exercise

Ali ono što dobijete od ovakve studije

is simply a list of genes.

jest obična lista gena.

It tells you the what, but it doesn't tell you the where.

Govori vam koji su, ali vam ne govori gdje.

And so it's very important for those researchers

I zato je od iznimne važnosti za ove istraživače

that we've created this resource.

to što smo kreirali ovakavu bazu.

Now they can come in

Sada mogu doći i

and they can start to get clues about activity.

dobiti neke naznake o aktivnosti gena.

They can start to look at common pathways --

Mogu početi tražiti zajedničke puteve --

other things that they simply haven't been able to do before.

sve druge stvari koje jednostavno nisu bili u mogućnosti činiti prije.

So I think this audience in particular

Smatram da ova publika posebno

can understand the importance of individuality.

može razumijeti važnost individualnosti.

And I think every human,

I smatram da to može svaki čovjek,

we all have different genetic backgrounds,

mi svi imamo drugačije genetičke pozadine,

we all have lived separate lives.

svi živimo različite, odvojene živote.

But the fact is

Ali činjenica je da

our genomes are greater than 99 percent similar.

naši genomi pokazuju više od 99% sličnosti.

We're similar at the genetic level.

Na genetičkoj smo razini slični.

And what we're finding

I ono što nalazimo,

is actually, even at the brain biochemical level,

zapravo, čak i na biokemijskoj razini mozga,

we are quite similar.

jest da smo prilično slični.

And so this shows it's not 99 percent,

Ovo pokazuje da nije baš 99%,

but it's roughly 90 percent correspondence

ali je otprilike 90% podudarnosti

at a reasonable cutoff,

na normalnom uzorku.

so everything in the cloud is roughly correlated.

Sve u oblaku je prilično povezano.

And then we find some outliers,

A tada nalazimo neka odstupanja,

some things that lie beyond the cloud.

neke stvari koje se nalaze izvan oblaka.

And those genes are interesting,

I ti su geni interesantni,

but they're very subtle.

ali su prilično nezamjetni.

So I think it's an important message

Stoga, smatram da je važna poruka

to take home today

koju trebamo ponijeti doma danas

that even though we celebrate all of our differences,

to da smo, iako slavimo svu našu različitost,

we are quite similar

zapravo prilično slični,

even at the brain level.

čak i na razini mozga.

Now what do those differences look like?

Sada, kako izgledaju te razlike?

This is an example of a study that we did

Ovo je primjer studije koju smo radili

to follow up and see what exactly those differences were --

kako bismo točno vidjeli koje su to razlike --

and they're quite subtle.

i bile su prilično nezamjetne.

These are things where genes are turned on in an individual cell type.

Ovdje su geni aktivni u individualnim stanicama.

These are two genes that we found as good examples.

Ovo su dva gena koja smo izdvojili kao dobar primjer.

One is called RELN -- it's involved in early developmental cues.

Jedan je nazvan RELN -- on je aktivan u ranim razvojnim fazama.

DISC1 is a gene

DISC1 je gen

that's deleted in schizophrenia.

koji je izbrisan kod šizofrenije.

These aren't schizophrenic individuals,

Ovo nisu uzorci od osoba koje boluju od šizofrenije,

but they do show some population variation.

ali pokazuju neke varijacije u populaciji.

And so what you're looking at here

Ovo što vidite ovdje

in donor one and donor four,

kod donora 1 i donora 4,

which are the exceptions to the other two,

koji su iznimke u odnosu na ostale,

that genes are being turned on

jest da su geni aktivni

in a very specific subset of cells.

u prilično specifičnim podskupinama u stanici.

It's this dark purple precipitate within the cell

Ovaj tamnoljubičasti talog unutar stanice

that's telling us a gene is turned on there.

nam govori da je gen tamo aktivan.

Whether or not that's due

Ovisi li to ili ne ovisi

to an individual's genetic background or their experiences,

o individualnoj genetičkoj podlozi ili njihovim prethodnim iskustvima,

we don't know.

ne znamo.

Those kinds of studies require much larger populations.

Ove vrste studija zahtijevaju mnogo veće populacije.

So I'm going to leave you with a final note

Ostavit ću vas s konačnom mišlju

about the complexity of the brain

o složenosti mozga

and how much more we have to go.

i koliko je još toga za istražiti pred nama.

I think these resources are incredibly valuable.

Smatram da su ovo podatci od iznimne važnosti.

They give researchers a handle

Oni daju istraživačima putokaz,

on where to go.

u kojem smjeru ići.

But we only looked at a handful of individuals at this point.

Ali u ovom trenutku gledamo samo na skupinu pojedinaca.

We're certainly going to be looking at more.

U budućnosti ćemo svakako gledati na više toga.

I'll just close by saying

Završit ću rekavši

that the tools are there,

da je tehnologija dostupna

and this is truly an unexplored, undiscovered continent.

i da je ovo uistinu neistraženo, neotkriveno područje.

This is the new frontier, if you will.

Ovo je nova granica.

And so for those who are undaunted,

I, stoga, za one koji su neustrašivi,

but humbled by the complexity of the brain,

ali ipak ponizni pred složenosti mozga,

the future awaits.

budućnost je pred vama.

Thanks.

Hvala.

(Applause)

(Pljesak)