Thomas Piketty: New thoughts on capital in the twenty-first century

448,552 views ใƒป 2014-10-06

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ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Ido Dekkers ืžื‘ืงืจ: Sigal Tifferet
00:12
It's very nice to be here tonight.
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ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ื ื—ืžื“ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืคื” ื”ืขืจื‘.
00:14
So I've been working on the history of income
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ืื ื™ ืขื•ื‘ื“ ืขืœ ื”ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื”ื›ื ืกื”
00:18
and wealth distribution for the past 15 years,
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ื•ื—ืœื•ืงืช ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ ื‘ 15 ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช,
00:21
and one of the interesting lessons
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ื•ืื—ื“ ื”ืœืงื—ื™ื ื”ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื
00:25
coming from this historical evidence
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ืฉืžื’ื™ืข ืžื”ืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืช
00:27
is indeed that, in the long run,
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ื”ื•ื ื‘ืืžืช, ืฉื‘ื˜ื•ื•ื— ื”ืืจื•ืš,
00:29
there is a tendency for the rate of return of capital
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ื™ืฉ ื ื˜ื™ื” ืœืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ืชืฉื•ืืช ื”ื”ื•ืŸ r
00:33
to exceed the economy's growth rate,
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ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื”ืฆืžื™ื—ื” ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช g,
00:35
and this tends to lead to high concentration of wealth.
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ื•ื–ื” ื ื•ื˜ื” ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืจื™ื›ื•ื– ื’ื‘ื•ื” ืฉืœ ืขื•ืฉืจ.
00:38
Not infinite concentration of wealth,
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ืœื ืจื™ื›ื•ื– ืื™ืŸ ืกื•ืคื™ ืฉืœ ืขื•ืฉืจ,
00:40
but the higher the gap between r and g,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ืคืขืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ r ื• g,
00:43
the higher the level of inequality of wealth
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ืขื•ืœื” ื—ื•ืกืจ ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ
00:46
towards which society tends to converge.
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ืืœื™ื• ืžืชื›ื ืกืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจื”.
00:49
So this is a key force that I'm going to talk about today,
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ืื– ื–ื” ื›ื•ื— ืžืคืชื— ืขืœื™ื• ืื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื•ื,
00:52
but let me say right away
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ืื‘ืœ ืชื ื• ืœื™ ืœื”ื’ื™ื“ ืžื™ื™ื“
00:54
that this is not the only important force
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ืฉื–ื” ืœื ื”ื›ื•ื— ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™
00:57
in the dynamics of income and wealth distribution,
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ื‘ื“ื™ื ืžื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื ืกื” ื•ื—ืœื•ืงืช ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ,
00:59
and there are many other forces that play
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ื•ื™ืฉ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉืžืฉื—ืงื™ื
01:01
an important role in the long-run dynamics
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ืชืคืงื™ื“ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื“ื™ื ืžื™ืงื” ืœื˜ื•ื•ื— ืืจื•ืš
01:04
of income and wealth distribution.
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ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื ืกื” ื•ื—ืœื•ืงืช ืขื•ืฉืจ.
01:06
Also there is a lot of data
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ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื™ืฉ ื’ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื™ื“ืข
01:08
that still needs to be collected.
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ืฉืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ืืกืฃ.
01:09
We know a little bit more today
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžืขื˜ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื™ื•ื
01:12
than we used to know, but we still know too little,
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ืžืฉื™ื“ืขื ื• ื‘ืขื‘ืจ, ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžืขื˜ ืžื“ื™,
01:15
and certainly there are many different processes โ€”
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ื•ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜ ื™ืฉ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื --
01:17
economic, social, political โ€”
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ื›ืœื›ืœื™ื™ื, ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื, ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื™ื --
01:20
that need to be studied more.
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ืฉืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื—ืงืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
01:21
And so I'm going to focus today on this simple force,
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ืœื›ืŸ ืืชืžืงื“ ื”ื™ื•ื ื‘ื›ื•ื— ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื”ื–ื”,
01:24
but that doesn't mean that other important forces
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืœื ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื
01:26
do not exist.
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ืœื ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื.
01:28
So most of the data I'm going to present
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ืื– ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉืื ื™ ืขื•ืžื“ ืœื”ืฆื™ื’
01:30
comes from this database
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ืžื’ื™ืข ืžืžืื’ืจ ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ื”ื–ื”
01:32
that's available online:
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ืฉื–ืžื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืฉืช:
01:33
the World Top Incomes Database.
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ืžืื’ืจ ื”ื”ื›ื ืกื” ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช.
01:35
So this is the largest existing
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ืื– ื–ื” ื”ืžืื’ืจ ื”ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™
01:37
historical database on inequality,
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ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ืงื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื—ื•ืกืจ ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ,
01:39
and this comes from the effort
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื’ื™ืข ืžื”ืžืืžืฅ
01:41
of over 30 scholars from several dozen countries.
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ืฉืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž 30 ืžืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ืžื›ืžื” ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช.
01:45
So let me show you a couple of facts
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ืื– ืชื ื• ืœื™ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืœื›ื ื›ืžื” ืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช
01:47
coming from this database,
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ืฉืžื’ื™ืขื•ืช ืžืžืื’ืจ ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ื”ื–ื”,
01:49
and then we'll return to r bigger than g.
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ื•ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ื ื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœ r ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž g.
01:51
So fact number one is that there has been
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ืื– ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืžืกืคืจ ืื—ืช ื”ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื”
01:53
a big reversal in the ordering of income inequality
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ื”ื™ืคื•ืš ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืกื“ืจ ื—ื•ืกืจ ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ
01:56
between the United States and Europe
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ืœืื™ืจื•ืคื”
01:58
over the past century.
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ืžืื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื”.
02:00
So back in 1900, 1910, income inequality was actually
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ืื– ื‘ 1900, 1910, ื—ื•ืกืจ ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืœืžืขืฉื”
02:03
much higher in Europe than in the United States,
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ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ืžืืฉืจ ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช,
02:06
whereas today, it is a lot higher in the United States.
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื”ื™ื•ื, ื”ื•ื ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช.
02:09
So let me be very clear:
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ืื– ืชื ื• ืœื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ืจื•ืจ:
02:10
The main explanation for this is not r bigger than g.
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ื”ื”ืกื‘ืจ ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ ืœื–ื” ื”ื•ื ืœื r ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืž g.
02:13
It has more to do with changing supply and demand
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ื–ื” ื ื•ื’ืข ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ื‘ื™ืงื•ืฉ ื•ื”ื”ืฆืข
02:17
for skill, the race between education and technology,
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ืœื›ื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื, ื”ืžืจื•ืฅ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”,
02:20
globalization, probably more unequal access
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ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ื–ืฆื™ื”, ื›ื ืจืื” ื’ื™ืฉื” ืคื—ื•ืช ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ื ื™ืช
02:24
to skills in the U.S.,
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ืœื›ื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช,
02:25
where you have very good, very top universities
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ืฉื ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืื•ืช ืžืฆื˜ื™ื™ื ื•ืช,
02:28
but where the bottom part of the educational system
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ืื‘ืœ ืชื—ืชื™ืช ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš
02:30
is not as good,
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ืื™ื ื” ื›ื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื”,
02:31
so very unequal access to skills,
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ืื– ื’ื™ืฉื” ืžืื•ื“ ืœื ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืœื›ื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื,
02:33
and also an unprecedented rise
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ื•ื’ื ืขืœื™ื” ืœืœื ืชืงื“ื™ื
02:35
of top managerial compensation of the United States,
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ืฉืœ ืคื™ืฆื•ื™ ืžื ื”ืœื™ื ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช,
02:38
which is difficult to account for just on the basis of education.
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ืฉืงืฉื” ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืจืง ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ื—ื™ื ื•ืš.
02:41
So there is more going on here,
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ืื– ื™ืฉ ืžืฉื”ื• ื ื•ืกืฃ ืฉืงื•ืจื” ืคื”,
02:43
but I'm not going to talk too much about this today,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื ืื“ื‘ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ ืขืœ ื–ื” ื”ื™ื•ื.
02:46
because I want to focus on wealth inequality.
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืชืžืงื“ ื‘ื—ื•ืกืจ ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ.
02:48
So let me just show you a very simple indicator
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ืื– ืชื ื• ืœื™ ืจืง ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืกืžืžืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ืคืฉื•ื˜
02:51
about the income inequality part.
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ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืกืจ ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ.
02:54
So this is the share of total income
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ืื– ื–ื” ื”ื—ืœืง ืฉืœ ื”ื”ื›ื ืกื” ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช
02:56
going to the top 10 percent.
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ืฉื”ื•ืœืš ืœ10 ื”ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื™ื.
02:58
So you can see that one century ago,
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ืื– ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉืœืคื ื™ ืžืื” ืื—ืช,
03:00
it was between 45 and 50 percent in Europe
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืื—ื•ื–ื•ืŸ ื” 45 ื•ื” 50 ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”
03:04
and a little bit above 40 percent in the U.S.,
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ื•ืžืขื˜ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž40 ืื—ื•ื– ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช,
03:06
so there was more inequality in Europe.
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ืื– ื”ื™ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”.
03:09
Then there was a sharp decline
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ืื– ื”ื™ืชื” ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื—ื“ื”
03:11
during the first half of the 20th century,
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ื—ืฆื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื” 20,
03:13
and in the recent decade, you can see that
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ื•ื‘ืขืฉื•ืจ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ, ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช
03:16
the U.S. has become more unequal than Europe,
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ืฉืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ืคื›ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื™ ืฉื™ื•ื•ื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืžืื™ืจื•ืคื”,
03:19
and this is the first fact I just talked about.
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ื•ื–ื• ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™ ืขืœื™ื”.
03:22
Now, the second fact is more about wealth inequality,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื” ื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ,
03:26
and here the central fact is that wealth inequality
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ื•ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช ื”ื™ื ืฉืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ
03:29
is always a lot higher than income inequality,
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ื”ื•ื ืชืžื™ื“ ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ื›ื ืกื”,
03:31
and also that wealth inequality,
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ื•ื’ื ืฉืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ,
03:34
although it has also increased in recent decades,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื’ื ื”ื•ื ื’ื“ืœ ื‘ืขืฉื•ืจื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื,
03:36
is still less extreme today
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ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืคื—ื•ืช ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™
03:38
than what it was a century ago,
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ืžืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื” ืœืคื ื™ ืžืื” ืฉื ื”,
03:40
although the total quantity of wealth
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื›ืžื•ืช ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ
03:43
relative to income has now recovered
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ื™ื—ืกื™ืช ืœื”ื›ื ืกื” ื”ืชืื•ืฉืฉื” ืขื›ืฉื™ื•
03:45
from the very large shocks
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ืžื”ืฉื•ืงื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื
03:46
caused by World War I, the Great Depression,
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ืฉื ื’ืจืžื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืœื”"ืข ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ื”ืฉืคืœ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ,
03:48
World War II.
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ืžืœื”"ืข ื”ืฉื ื™ื”.
03:50
So let me show you two graphs
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ื”ื ื” ืฉื ื™ ื’ืจืคื™ื
03:52
illustrating fact number two and fact number three.
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ืฉืžื“ื’ื™ืžื™ื ืืช ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืžืกืคืจ ืฉืชื™ื ื•ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืžืกืคืจ ืฉืœื•ืฉ.
03:55
So first, if you look at the level of wealth inequality,
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ืื– ืจืืฉื™ืช, ืื ืืชื ืžื‘ื™ื˜ื™ื ื‘ืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ,
03:59
this is the share of total wealth
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ื–ื” ื”ื—ืœืง ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ื›ืœืœื™
04:02
going to the top 10 percent of wealth holders,
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ืขื•ื‘ืจ ืœ10 ื”ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื—ื–ื™ืงื™ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ,
04:05
so you can see the same kind of reversal
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ืื– ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ืื•ืชื• ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืคื•ืš
04:07
between the U.S. and Europe that we had before
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื•ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ืฉื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืงื•ื“ื
04:10
for income inequality.
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ืœืื™ ืฉื™ื•ื•ื™ืŸ ื‘ื”ื›ื ืกื”.
04:12
So wealth concentration was higher
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ืื– ืจื™ื›ื•ื– ืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ื™ื” ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ
04:15
in Europe than in the U.S. a century ago,
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ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ืžืืฉืจ ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ืœืคื ื™ ืžืื”,
04:17
and now it is the opposite.
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ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื–ื” ื”ืคื•ืš.
04:19
But you can also show two things:
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ืื‘ืœ ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื’ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื
04:21
First, the general level of wealth inequality
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ืจืืฉื™ืช, ื”ืจืžื” ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช ืฉืœ ืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ
04:25
is always higher than income inequality.
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ื”ื•ื ืชืžื™ื“ ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ื›ื ืกื”.
04:27
So remember, for income inequality,
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ืื– ื–ื›ืจื•, ืœืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ื›ื ืกื”,
04:30
the share going to the top 10 percent
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ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ื”ื•ืœืš ืœ10 ื”ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื™ื
04:32
was between 30 and 50 percent of total income,
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ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ 30 ื• 50 ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ืžื”ื”ื›ื ืกื” ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช,
04:36
whereas for wealth, the share is always
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ, ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ื•ื ืชืžื™ื“
04:39
between 60 and 90 percent.
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ื‘ื™ืŸ 60 ืœ 90 ืื—ื•ื–.
04:41
Okay, so that's fact number one,
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ืื•ืงื™ื™, ืื– ื–ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืžืกืคืจ ืื—ืช,
04:43
and that's very important for what follows.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืžื” ืฉื™ื‘ื•ื ืขื›ืฉื™ื•.
04:45
Wealth concentration is always
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ืจื™ื›ื•ื– ืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ื•ื ืชืžื™ื“
04:46
a lot higher than income concentration.
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ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ื›ื ืกื”.
04:48
Fact number two is that the rise
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ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืžืกืคืจ ืฉืชื™ื ื”ื™ื ืฉื”ืขืœื™ื”
04:52
in wealth inequality in recent decades
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ื‘ืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ ื‘ืขืฉื•ืจื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื
04:55
is still not enough to get us back to 1910.
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ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ืžืกืคื™ืงื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœ 1910.
04:59
So the big difference today,
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ืื– ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื•ื,
05:01
wealth inequality is still very large,
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ืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ื•ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ื’ื“ื•ืœ,
05:03
with 60, 70 percent of total wealth for the top 10,
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ืขื 60, 70 ืื—ื•ื– ืžื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ ืฉืœ ื”10 ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื™ื,
05:06
but the good news is that it's actually
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืŸ ืฉื–ื” ืœืžืขืฉื”
05:08
better than one century ago,
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ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืœืคื ื™ ืžืื”,
05:10
where you had 90 percent in Europe going to the top 10.
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ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืฉื”ื™ื• ืœื›ื 90 ืื—ื•ื– ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ืœ10 ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื™ื.
05:13
So today what you have
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ืื– ื”ื™ื•ื ืžื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื
05:15
is what I call the middle 40 percent,
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ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืงื•ืจื ืœื• 40 ื”ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื™ื,
05:17
the people who are not in the top 10
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ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืœื ื‘ 10 ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื™ื
05:19
and who are not in the bottom 50,
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ื•ืœื ื‘ 50 ืื—ื•ื– ื”ืชื—ืชื•ื ื™ื,
05:21
and what you can view as the wealth middle class
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ืžื” ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืงืจื•ื ืžืขืžื“ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืฉื™ืจ
05:23
that owns 20 to 30 percent
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ืฉื‘ื‘ืขืœื•ืชื• 20 ืขื“ 30 ืื—ื•ื–
05:26
of total wealth, national wealth,
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ืžื”ืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ื›ืœืœื™, ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ืœืื•ืžื™,
05:28
whereas they used to be poor, a century ago,
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื”ืขื ื™ื™ื, ืœืคื ื™ ืžืื”,
05:31
when there was basically no wealth middle class.
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ืฉื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจื•ืŸ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžืขืžื“ ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื ืขืฉื™ืจ.
05:34
So this is an important change,
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ืื– ื–ื” ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื—ืฉื•ื‘,
05:35
and it's interesting to see that wealth inequality
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ื•ื–ื” ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉืื™-ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ
05:40
has not fully recovered to pre-World War I levels,
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ืœื ื”ืฉืชืงื ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืœืจืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ืœืคื ื™ ืžืœื”"ืข ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”,
05:43
although the total quantity of wealth has recovered.
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื›ืžื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ืฉืชืงืžื”.
05:47
Okay? So this is the total value
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ืื•ืงื™ื™? ืื– ื–ื” ื”ืขืจืš ื”ื›ืœืœื™
05:49
of wealth relative to income,
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ืฉืœ ืขื•ืฉืจ ื™ื—ืกื™ืช ืœื”ื›ื ืกื”,
05:51
and you can see that in particular in Europe,
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ื•ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”,
05:53
we are almost back to the pre-World War I level.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืžืขื˜ ื—ื–ืจื ื• ืœืจืžื” ืฉืœ ืœืคื ื™ ืžืœื”"ืข ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”.
05:57
So there are really two
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ืื– ื‘ืืžืช ื™ืฉ ืฉื ื™
05:59
different parts of the story here.
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ื—ืœืงื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืคื”.
06:01
One has to do with
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ืื—ื“ ื ื•ื’ืข
06:02
the total quantity of wealth that we accumulate,
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ืœื›ืžื•ืช ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ ืฉืฆื‘ืจื ื•,
06:05
and there is nothing bad per se, of course,
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ื•ืื™ืŸ ืžืฉื”ื• ืจืข ืœื›ืฉืขืฆืžื•, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ,
06:07
in accumulating a lot of wealth,
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ื‘ืœืฆื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืขื•ืฉืจ,
06:08
and in particular if it is more diffuse
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ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืื ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืคื•ื–ืจ
06:11
and less concentrated.
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ื•ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืจื•ื›ื–.
06:13
So what we really want to focus on
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ืื– ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ืืžืช ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื”ืชืžืงื“ ื‘ื• ืขื›ืฉื™ื•
06:15
is the long-run evolution of wealth inequality,
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ื–ื” ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ืœื˜ื•ื•ื— ืืจื•ืš ืฉืœ ืื™-ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ,
06:18
and what's going to happen in the future.
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืขื•ืžื“ ืœืงืจื•ืช ื‘ืขืชื™ื“.
06:20
How can we account for the fact that
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ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชื—ืฉื‘ ื‘ืขื•ื‘ื“ื”
06:22
until World War I, wealth inequality was so high
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ืฉืขื“ ืžืœื”"ืข ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ืื™-ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ื™ื” ื›ื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”
06:26
and, if anything, was rising to even higher levels,
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ื•ืื ื‘ื›ืœืœ, ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืขืœื™ื” ืœืืคื™ืœื• ืจืžื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ,
06:29
and how can we think about the future?
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ื•ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื”ืขืชื™ื“?
06:32
So let me come to some of the explanations
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ืื– ืชื ื• ืœื™ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื›ืžื” ื”ืกื‘ืจื™ื
06:36
and speculations about the future.
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ื•ื”ืฉืขืจื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืขืชื™ื“.
06:38
Let me first say that
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ืชื ื• ืœื™ ืจืืฉื™ืช ืœื”ื’ื™ื“
06:40
probably the best model to explain
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ืฉื›ื ืจืื” ื”ืžื•ื“ืœ ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ
06:42
why wealth is so much
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ืœืžื” ืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ื•ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš
06:44
more concentrated than income
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ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืจื•ื›ื– ืžื”ื›ื ืกื”
06:46
is a dynamic, dynastic model
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ื–ื” ืžื•ื“ืœ ื“ื™ื ืžื™, ืฉื•ืฉืœืชื™
06:49
where individuals have a long horizon
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ืฉื ืœืื ืฉื™ื ื™ืฉ ืื•ืคืง ืืจื•ืš
06:52
and accumulate wealth for all sorts of reasons.
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ื•ืฆื•ื‘ืจื™ื ืขื•ืฉืจ ืžื”ืจื‘ื” ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช.
06:54
If people were accumulating wealth
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ืื ืื ืฉื™ื ืื’ืจื• ืขื•ืฉืจ
06:57
only for life cycle reasons,
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ืจืง ืœืžื˜ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื—ื–ื•ืจ ื—ื™ื™ื,
06:59
you know, to be able to consume
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœืฆืจื•ืš
07:01
when they are old,
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ื›ืฉื”ื ื–ืงื ื™ื,
07:03
then the level of wealth inequality
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ืื– ืจืžืช ืื™ ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ
07:05
should be more or less in line
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ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืคื—ื•ืช ืื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืชืื™ืžื”
07:07
with the level of income inequality.
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ืœืจืžื” ืฉืœ ืื™-ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ื›ื ืกื”.
07:09
But it will be very difficult to explain
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืงืฉื” ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ
07:11
why you have so much more wealth inequality
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ืœืžื” ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื™-ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ
07:13
than income inequality
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ืžืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ื›ื ืกื”
07:15
with a pure life cycle model,
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ืขื ืžื•ื“ืœ ืžื—ื–ื•ืจ ื—ื™ื™ื ื˜ื”ื•ืจ,
07:16
so you need a story
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ืื– ืืชื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืกื™ืคื•ืจ
07:18
where people also care
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ื‘ื• ืœืื ืฉื™ื ื’ื ืื›ืคืช
07:20
about wealth accumulation for other reasons.
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ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืฆื‘ื™ืจืช ืขื•ืฉืจ ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช.
07:22
So typically, they want to transmit
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ืื– ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื›ืœืœื™, ื”ื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ
07:24
wealth to the next generation, to their children,
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ืขื•ืฉืจ ืœื“ื•ืจ ื”ื‘ื, ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื,
07:28
or sometimes they want to accumulate wealth
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ืื• ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื”ื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœืฆื‘ื•ืจ ืขื•ืฉืจ
07:29
because of the prestige, the power that goes with wealth.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ื™ื•ืงืจื”, ื”ื›ื•ื— ืฉืžื’ื™ืข ืขื ืขื•ืฉืจ.
07:32
So there must be other reasons
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ืื– ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช
07:34
for accumulating wealth than just life cycle
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ืœืฆื‘ื™ืจืช ืขื•ืฉืจ ืžืจืง ืžื—ื–ื•ืจ ื—ื™ื™ื
07:36
to explain what we see in the data.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื“ืข.
07:38
Now, in a large class of dynamic models
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื‘ืžื—ืœืงื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื ื“ื™ื ืžื™ื™ื
07:42
of wealth accumulation
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ืฉืœ ืฆื‘ื™ืจืช ื”ื•ืŸ
07:44
with such dynastic motive for accumulating wealth,
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ืขื ืกื™ื‘ื” ื›ื–ืืช ืฉื•ืฉืœืชื™ืช ืœืฆื‘ื™ืจืช ื”ื•ืŸ,
07:47
you will have all sorts of random,
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ื™ื”ื™ื• ืœื›ื ื›ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืฉืœ ืฉื•ืงื™ื
07:50
multiplicative shocks.
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ืืงืจืื™ื™ื ื•ืžืชืจื‘ื™ื.
07:51
So for instance, some families
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ืื– ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ืœื›ืžื” ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช
07:53
have a very large number of children,
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ื™ืฉ ื›ืžื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ื™ืœื“ื™ื,
07:55
so the wealth will be divided.
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ืื– ื”ื”ื•ืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžื—ื•ืœืง.
07:57
Some families have fewer children.
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ืœื›ืžื” ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ื™ืฉ ืคื—ื•ืช ื™ืœื“ื™ื.
07:59
You also have shocks to rates of return.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื’ื ืฉื•ืงื™ื ืœื”ื—ื–ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื”ืฉืงืขื”.
08:01
Some families make huge capital gains.
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ื›ืžื” ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ื™ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืจื•ื•ื— ื”ื•ืŸ ืขืฆื•ื.
08:03
Some made bad investments.
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ื›ืžื” ืขืฉื• ื”ืฉืงืขื•ืช ื’ืจื•ืขื•ืช.
08:05
So you will always have some mobility
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ืื– ืชืžื™ื“ ืชื”ื™ื” ืœื›ื ืชื ื•ืขืชื™ื•ืช
08:07
in the wealth process.
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ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ.
08:08
Some people will move up, some people will move down.
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ื›ืžื” ืื ืฉื™ื ื™ืขืœื•, ื›ืžื” ืื ืฉื™ื ื™ืจื“ื•.
08:11
The important point is that,
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ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื,
08:12
in any such model,
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืžื•ื“ืœ ื›ื–ื”,
08:13
for a given variance of such shocks,
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ืœืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื ืชื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ืฉื•ืงื™ื ื›ืืœื”,
08:16
the equilibrium level of wealth inequality
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ืื™ื–ื•ืŸ ืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ
08:18
will be a steeply rising function of r minus g.
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ื™ื”ื™ื” ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื” ืขื•ืœื” ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ r ืคื—ื•ืช g.
08:23
And intuitively, the reason why the difference
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ื•ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืื™ื ื˜ื•ืื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™, ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœืžื” ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœ
08:26
between the rate of return to wealth
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืงืฆื‘ ื”ื”ื—ื–ืจ ืขืœ ืขื•ืฉืจ
08:28
and the growth rate is important
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ื•ืงืฆื‘ ื”ื’ื“ื™ืœื” ื”ื•ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘
08:29
is that initial wealth inequalities
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ื–ื” ืฉืื™-ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ
08:32
will be amplified at a faster pace
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ื™ื•ื’ื‘ืจ ื‘ืงืฆื‘ ืžื”ื™ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ
08:34
with a bigger r minus g.
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ืขื r ืคื—ื•ืช g ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
08:36
So take a simple example,
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ืื– ืงื—ื• ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ื”,
08:38
with r equals five percent and g equals one percent,
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ืขื r ืฉื•ื•ื” ืœื—ืžื™ืฉื” ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ื• g ืฉื•ื•ื” ืœืื—ื•ื– ืื—ื“,
08:41
wealth holders only need to reinvest
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ืžื—ื–ื™ืงื™ ื”ื”ื•ืŸ ืจืง ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืฉืงื™ืข ืžื—ื“ืฉ
08:43
one fifth of their capital income to ensure
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ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ืช ืžื”ื”ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื”ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื—
08:46
that their wealth rises as fast
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ืฉื”ื”ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื”ื ื™ืขืœื” ืžื”ืจ
08:49
as the size of the economy.
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ื›ืžื• ื”ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื”.
08:51
So this makes it easier
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ืื– ื–ื” ื”ื•ืคืš ืืช ื–ื” ืœืคืฉื•ื˜ ื™ื•ืชืจ
08:52
to build and perpetuate large fortunes
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ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ื•ืœืงื™ื™ื ืขื•ืฉืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ
08:54
because you can consume four fifths,
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฆืจื•ืš ืืจื‘ืข ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ื•ืช,
08:56
assuming zero tax,
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ืื ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ื‘ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ืืคืก ืžื™ืกื™ื,
08:58
and you can just reinvest one fifth.
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ื•ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืœื”ืฉืงื™ืข ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ืช.
08:59
So of course some families will consume more than that,
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ืื– ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืฉื›ืžื” ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ื™ืฆืจื›ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื”,
09:02
some will consume less, so there will be
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ื›ืžื” ื™ืฆืจื›ื• ืคื—ื•ืช, ืื– ืชื”ื™ื”
09:04
some mobility in the distribution,
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ืชื ื•ืขืชื™ื•ืช ื‘ืคื™ื–ื•ืจ,
09:05
but on average, they only need to reinvest one fifth,
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืžืžื•ืฆืข, ื”ื ืจืง ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืฉืงื™ืข ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ืช,
09:08
so this allows high wealth inequalities to be sustained.
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ืื– ื–ื” ืžืืคืฉืจ ืงื™ื•ื ืฉืœ ืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื’ื‘ื•ื”.
09:12
Now, you should not be surprised
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืืชื ืœื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืคืชืขื™ื
09:14
by the statement that r can be bigger than g forever,
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ืžื”ื”ืฆื”ืจื” ืฉ r ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืž g ืœืชืžื™ื“,
09:18
because, in fact, this is what happened
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ืžืคื ื™, ืฉืœืžืขืฉื”, ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืงืจื”
09:20
during most of the history of mankind.
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช.
09:22
And this was in a way very obvious to everybody
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื“ืจืš ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืœื›ื•ืœื
09:25
for a simple reason, which is that growth
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ืžืกื™ื‘ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ื”, ื•ื”ื™ื ืฉื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ
09:27
was close to zero percent
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ื”ื™ื” ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœืืคืก ืื—ื•ื–
09:29
during most of the history of mankind.
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช.
09:31
Growth was maybe 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 percent,
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ื”ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืื•ืœื™ 0.2 ,0.1, 0.3 ืื—ื•ื–,
09:34
but very slow growth of population
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ืื‘ืœ ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ืžืื•ื“ ืื™ื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื”
09:36
and output per capita,
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ื•ืชืคื•ืงื” ืœื’ื•ืœื’ื•ืœืช,
09:38
whereas the rate of return on capital
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื”ืงืฆื‘ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื–ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื”ื•ืŸ
09:40
of course was not zero percent.
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ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืืคืก ืื—ื•ื–.
09:42
It was, for land assets, which was
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื”, ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื ื›ืกื™ ื ื“ืœ"ืŸ, ืฉื”ื™ืชื”
09:44
the traditional form
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ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ืช
09:46
of assets in preindustrial societies,
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ืฉืœ ื ื›ืกื™ื ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื˜ืจื•ื ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืชื™ื•ืช.
09:48
it was typically five percent.
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ื—ืžื™ืฉื” ืื—ื•ื–.
09:50
Any reader of Jane Austen would know that.
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ื›ืœ ืงื•ืจื ืฉืœ ื’'ื™ืŸ ืื•ืกื˜ื™ืŸ ื™ื•ื“ืข ืืช ื–ื”.
09:54
If you want an annual income of 1,000 pounds,
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ืื ืืชื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ื”ื›ื ืกื” ืฉื ืชื™ืช ืฉืœ 1,000 ืœื™ืจื•ืช ืกื˜ืจืœื™ื ื’,
09:57
you should have a capital value
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืœื›ื ืขืจืš ื”ื•ืŸ
09:58
of 20,000 pounds so that
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ืฉืœ 20,000 ื›ืš
10:00
five percent of 20,000 is 1,000.
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ืฉื—ืžืฉ ืื—ื•ื– ืฉืœ 20,000 ื–ื” 1,000.
10:03
And in a way, this was
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ื•ื‘ื“ืจืš ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช,
10:05
the very foundation of society,
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื”ื‘ืกื™ืก ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื”,
10:06
because r bigger than g
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉ r ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืž g
10:09
was what allowed holders of wealth and assets
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ื”ื™ื” ืžื” ืฉืื™ืคืฉืจ ืœืžื—ื–ื™ืงื™ ื”ื•ืŸ ื•ื ื›ืกื™ื
10:14
to live off their capital income
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ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ืžื”ื›ื ืกื•ืช ื”ื”ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื”ื
10:16
and to do something else in life
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ื•ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžืฉื”ื• ืื—ืจ ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื
10:19
than just to care about their own survival.
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ืœืœื ื“ืื’ื” ืœื”ืฉืจื“ื•ืช.
10:22
Now, one important conclusion
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืžืกืงื ื” ืื—ืช ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื”
10:24
of my historical research is that
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ืฉืœ ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ ืฉืœื™ ื”ื™ื
10:26
modern industrial growth did not change
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ืฉืฆืžื™ื—ื” ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืชื™ืช ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช ืœื ืฉื™ื ืชื”
10:29
this basic fact as much as one might have expected.
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ืืช ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช ื”ืจื‘ื” ื›ืžื• ืฉืฆื™ืคื™ื ื•.
10:32
Of course, the growth rate
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ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ืงืฆื‘ ื”ื’ื“ื™ืœื”
10:34
following the Industrial Revolution
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ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืชื™ืช
10:35
rose, typically from zero to one to two percent,
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ืขืœื”, ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื›ืœืœื™ ืžืืคืก ืœืื—ื•ื– ืื—ื“ ืื• ืฉื ื™ื™ื,
10:40
but at the same time, the rate of return
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ, ืงืฆื‘ ื”ื”ื—ื–ืจ
10:42
to capital also rose
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ืœื”ื•ืŸ ื’ื ืขืœื”
10:43
so that the gap between the two
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ื›ืš ืฉื”ืคืขืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื
10:46
did not really change.
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ืœื ื‘ืืžืช ื”ืฉืชื ื”.
10:47
So during the 20th century,
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ืื– ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืื” ื” 20,
10:49
you had a very unique combination of events.
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ื”ื™ื” ืœื›ื ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ืžืžืฉ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืฉืœ ืืจื•ืขื™ื.
10:52
First, a very low rate of return
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ืจืืฉื™ืช, ืงืฆื‘ ืžืื•ื“ ื ืžื•ืš ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื–ืจ
10:54
due to the 1914 and 1945 war shocks,
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ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื•ืงื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ 1914 ื• 1945,
10:57
destruction of wealth, inflation,
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ื”ื”ืฉืžื“ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ, ืื™ื ืคืœืฆื™ื”,
10:59
bankruptcy during the Great Depression,
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ืคืฉื™ื˜ืช ืจื’ืœ ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืฉืคืœ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ,
11:01
and all of this reduced
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ื•ื›ืœ ื–ื” ื”ืคื—ื™ืช
11:03
the private rate of return to wealth
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1750
ืืช ื”ืงืฆื‘ ื”ืคืจื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื–ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื”ื•ืŸ
11:05
to unusually low levels
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ืœืจืžื•ืช ื ืžื•ื›ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื™ื•ืฆื ื“ื•ืคืŸ
11:07
between 1914 and 1945.
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ื‘ื™ืŸ 1914 ื• 1945.
11:09
And then, in the postwar period,
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ื•ืื–, ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉืœืื—ืจ ื”ืžืœื—ืžื”,
11:11
you had unusually high growth rate,
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ื”ื™ื” ืœื›ื ืงืฆื‘ ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืฆื ื“ื•ืคืŸ,
11:14
partly due to the reconstruction.
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ื—ืœืงื™ืช ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื™ืงื•ื.
11:16
You know, in Germany, in France, in Japan,
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”, ื‘ืฆืจืคืช, ื‘ื™ืคืŸ,
11:18
you had five percent growth rate
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ื”ื™ื” ืงืฆื‘ ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ 5%
11:20
between 1950 and 1980
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ื‘ื™ืŸ 1950 ื• 10980
11:23
largely due to reconstruction,
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ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ืžื—ื“ืฉ,
11:25
and also due to very large demographic growth,
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ื•ื’ื ื‘ืฉืœ ืฆืžื™ื—ื” ื“ืžื•ื’ืจืคื™ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืžืื•ื“,
11:27
the Baby Boom Cohort effect.
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ืืคืงื˜ ื”ื‘ื™ื™ื‘ื™ ื‘ื•ื.
11:29
Now, apparently that's not going to last for very long,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืžืกืชื‘ืจ ืฉื–ื” ืœื ื™ืžืฉืš ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™.
11:32
or at least the population growth
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ืื• ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืงืฆื‘ ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื”
11:33
is supposed to decline in the future,
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ืืžื•ืจ ืœืจื“ืช ื‘ืขืชื™ื“.
11:36
and the best projections we have is that
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ื•ื”ืชื—ื–ื™ื•ืช ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื”ืŸ
11:40
the long-run growth is going to be closer
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ืฉื”ืฆืžื™ื—ื” ืœื˜ื•ื•ื— ื”ืืจื•ืš ืชื”ื™ื” ืงืจื•ื‘ื”
11:42
to one to two percent
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ืœืื—ื“ ืขื“ ืฉื ื™ ืื—ื•ื–
11:43
rather than four to five percent.
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ื•ืœื 4-5 ืื—ื•ื–.
11:45
So if you look at this,
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ืื ืืชื ืžื‘ื™ื˜ื™ื ื‘ื–ื”,
11:48
these are the best estimates we have
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ืืœื” ื”ื”ืขืจื›ื•ืช ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื•
11:50
of world GDP growth
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ื‘ืฆืžื™ื—ืช ื”ืชืž"ื’ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™
11:51
and rate of return on capital,
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ื•ืงืฆื‘ ื”ื”ื—ื–ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื”ื•ืŸ,
11:54
average rates of return on capital,
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ืจื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื”ื—ื–ืจ ืžืžื•ืฆืขื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ื”ื•ืŸ,
11:56
so you can see that during most
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ืื– ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืจื•ื‘
11:57
of the history of mankind,
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ื”ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช,
11:58
the growth rate was very small,
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ืงืฆื‘ ื”ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืงื˜ืŸ ืžืื•ื“,
12:00
much lower than the rate of return,
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ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืงืฆื‘ ื”ื”ื—ื–ืจ,
12:02
and then during the 20th century,
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ื•ืื– ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืื” ื” 20,
12:04
it is really the population growth,
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ื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ืงืฆื‘ ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื”,
12:06
very high in the postwar period,
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ืžืื•ื“ ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช,
12:09
and the reconstruction process
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ื•ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืฉื™ืงื•ื
12:10
that brought growth
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ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ืฆืžื™ื—ื”
12:12
to a smaller gap with the rate of return.
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ืœืคืขืจ ืงื˜ืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืงืฆื‘ ื”ื”ื—ื–ืจ.
12:15
Here I use the United Nations population projections,
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ืคื” ืื ื™ ืžืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืชื—ื–ื™ื•ืช ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื•"ื,
12:18
so of course they are uncertain.
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ืื– ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืฉื”ืŸ ืœื ื•ื•ื“ืื™ื•ืช.
12:21
It could be that we all start
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฉื›ื•ืœื ื• ื ื‘ื™ื
12:22
having a lot of children in the future,
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื‘ืขืชื™ื“,
12:24
and the growth rates are going to be higher,
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ื•ืื– ืงืฆื‘ื™ ื”ื’ื“ื™ืœื” ื™ื”ื™ื• ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ,
12:27
but from now on,
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ืื‘ืœ ืžืขื›ืฉื™ื•,
12:28
these are the best projections we have,
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ืืœื” ื”ืชื—ื–ื™ื•ืช ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื•,
12:31
and this will make global growth
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ื•ื–ื” ื™ื’ืจื•ื ืœืฆืžื™ื—ื” ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืช
12:33
decline and the gap between
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ืœืจื“ืช ื•ืœืคืขืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ
12:36
the rate of return go up.
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ืงืฆื‘ ื”ื”ื—ื–ืจ ืœืขืœื•ืช.
12:38
Now, the other unusual event
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ืืจื•ืข ื™ื•ืฆื ื”ื“ื•ืคืŸ ื”ื‘ื
12:41
during the 20th century
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืื” ื” 20
12:42
was, as I said,
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ื”ื™ื”, ื›ืžื• ืฉืืžืจืชื™,
12:44
destruction, taxation of capital,
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ื”ืจืก, ืžื™ืกื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื•ืŸ,
12:46
so this is the pre-tax rate of return.
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ืื– ื–ื” ืงืฆื‘ ื”ื”ื—ื–ืจ ืœืคื ื™ ืžืก.
12:49
This is the after-tax rate of return,
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ื–ื” ืงืฆื‘ ื”ื”ื—ื–ืจ ืื—ืจื™ ืžืก,
12:52
and after destruction,
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ื•ืื—ืจื™ ื”ื”ืจืก,
12:53
and this is what brought
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื
12:55
the average rate of return
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ืœืงืฆื‘ ื”ื—ื–ืจ ืžืžื•ืฆืข
12:57
after tax, after destruction,
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ืื—ืจื™ ืžืก, ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืจืก,
12:59
below the growth rate during a long time period.
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ืžืชื—ืช ืœืงืฆื‘ ื”ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืžืฉืš ืชืงื•ืคืช ื–ืžืŸ ืืจื•ื›ื”.
13:01
But without the destruction,
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืœื™ ื”ื”ืจืก,
13:03
without the taxation, this would not have happened.
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ื‘ืœื™ ื”ืžื™ืกื•ื™, ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืงื•ืจื”.
13:05
So let me say that the balance between
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ืื– ื”ืื™ื–ื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืŸ
13:08
returns on capital and growth
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ื”ื—ื–ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื”ื•ืŸ ื•ืฆืžื™ื—ื”
13:11
depends on many different factors
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ืชืœื•ื™ ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืฉืชื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื
13:13
that are very difficult to predict:
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ืฉืžืื•ื“ ืงืฉื™ื ืœื—ื™ื–ื•ื™:
13:15
technology and the development
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ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื•ื”ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช
13:17
of capital-intensive techniques.
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ืฉืœ ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ืชืœื•ื™ืช ื‘ื›ื‘ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื”ื•ืŸ.
13:19
So right now, the most capital-intensive sectors
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ืื– ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ืกืงื˜ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื”ื›ื™ ืชืœื•ื™ื™ ื”ื•ืŸ
13:22
in the economy are the real estate sector, housing,
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ื‘ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื”ื ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื ื“ืœ"ืŸ, ื“ื™ื•ืจ,
13:26
the energy sector, but it could be in the future
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ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื”, ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืชื™ื“
13:29
that we have a lot more robots in a number of sectors
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ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜ื™ื ื‘ืžืกืคืจ ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื
13:32
and that this would be a bigger share
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ื•ืฉื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื—ืœืง ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ
13:34
of the total capital stock that it is today.
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ืฉืœ ื”ื”ื•ืŸ ื”ื›ืœืœื™ ืžื”ื™ื•ื.
13:36
Well, we are very far from this,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืื•ื“ ืจื—ื•ืงื™ื ืžื–ื”,
13:38
and from now, what's going on
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ื•ื‘ื™ื ืชื™ื™ื, ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื”
13:40
in the real estate sector, the energy sector,
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ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื ื“ืœ"ืŸ, ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื”,
13:42
is much more important for the total capital stock
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื”ื•ืŸ ื”ื›ืœืœื™
13:44
and capital share.
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ื•ืœื—ืœืง ื”ื”ื•ืŸ.
13:45
The other important issue
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ื”ื ื•ืฉื ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื”ื ื•ืกืฃ
13:47
is that there are scale effects in portfolio management,
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืืคืงื˜ื™ื ืฉืœ ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื” ื‘ื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ืชื™ืงื™ื,
13:49
together with financial complexity,
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ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช ืคื™ื ื ืกื™ืช,
13:52
financial deregulation,
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ื”ืคื—ืชืช ืจื’ื•ืœืฆื™ื” ืคื™ื ื ืกื™ืช,
13:53
that make it easier to get higher rates of return
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ืฉืขื•ืฉื” ืืช ื–ื” ืœืงืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืงืฆื‘ื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื–ืจ
13:56
for a large portfolio,
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ืœืคื•ืจื˜ืคื•ืœื™ื• ื’ื“ื•ืœ,
13:57
and this seems to be particularly strong
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ื•ื–ื” ื ืจืื” ื—ื–ืง ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“
14:00
for billionaires, large capital endowments.
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ืœืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ืจื™ื, ืชืจื•ืžื•ืช ื”ื•ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช.
14:02
Just to give you one example,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืชืช ืœื›ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื”,
14:04
this comes from the Forbes billionaire rankings
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ื–ื” ืžื’ื™ืข ืžื“ื™ืจื•ื’ ื”ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืคื•ืจื‘ืก
14:08
over the 1987-2013 period,
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ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉืœ 1987-2013,
14:11
and you can see the very top wealth holders
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ื•ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉืžื—ื–ื™ืงื™ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
14:14
have been going up at six, seven percent per year
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ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœ6-7 ืื—ื•ื– ื‘ืฉื ื”
14:17
in real terms above inflation,
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ื‘ืžื•ื ื—ื™ื ืืžื™ืชื™ื™ื ืžืขืœ ื”ืื™ื ืคืœืฆื™ื”,
14:19
whereas average income in the world,
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื”ื›ื ืกื” ืžืžื•ืฆืขืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื,
14:22
average wealth in the world,
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ืขื•ืฉืจ ืžืžื•ืฆืข ื‘ืขื•ืœื,
14:23
have increased at only two percent per year.
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ื’ื“ืœ ืจืง ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืื—ื•ื– ืœืฉื ื”.
14:26
And you find the same
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ื•ืืชื ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืืช ืื•ืชื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจ
14:28
for large university endowments โ€”
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ืœืชืฉืœื•ืžื™ ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช --
14:29
the bigger the initial endowments,
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ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ืชืฉืœื•ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ,
14:32
the bigger the rate of return.
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ื”ื—ื–ืจ ื”ื”ืฉืงืขื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
14:34
Now, what could be done?
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืžื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ืขืฉื•ืช?
14:35
The first thing is that I think we need
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืฉืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื
14:38
more financial transparency.
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ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืงื™ืคื•ืช ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช.
14:40
We know too little about global wealth dynamics,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžืขื˜ ืžื™ื“ื™ ืขืœ ื”ื“ื™ื ืžื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ื›ืœืœื™,
14:44
so we need international transmission
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ื”ืขื‘ืจื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ืœืื•ืžื™ืช
14:46
of bank information.
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ืฉืœ ืžื™ื“ืข ื‘ื ืงืื™.
14:47
We need a global registry of financial assets,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืจื™ืฉื•ื ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ ืฉืœ ื ื›ืกื™ื ืคื™ื ื ืกื™ื™ื,
14:50
more coordination on wealth taxation,
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ื™ื•ืชืจ ืชืื•ื ืฉืœ ืžื™ืกื•ื™ ืขืœ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ,
14:52
and even wealth tax with a small tax rate
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืžืก ืขื•ืฉืจ ืขื ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ืžืก ื ืžื•ืš
14:55
will be a way to produce information
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ื™ื”ื™ื” ื“ืจืš ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืžื™ื“ืข
14:57
so that then we can adapt our policies
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ื›ืš ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืชืื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•
15:00
to whatever we observe.
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ืœืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื.
15:02
And to some extent, the fight
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ื•ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช, ื”ืžืื‘ืง
15:04
against tax havens
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ื ื’ื“ ืžืงืœื˜ื™ ืžืก
15:05
and automatic transmission of information
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ื•ื”ืขื‘ืจื” ืื•ื˜ื•ืžื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžื™ื“ืข
15:07
is pushing us in this direction.
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ื“ื•ื—ืฃ ืื•ืชื ื• ืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ.
15:09
Now, there are other ways to redistribute wealth,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื™ืฉ ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืื—ืจื•ืช ืœื—ืœืง ืืช ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ,
15:11
which it can be tempting to use.
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืคืชื•ืช ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ.
15:14
Inflation:
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ืื™ื ืคืœืฆื™ื”:
15:16
it's much easier to print money
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ื–ื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืงืœ ืœื”ื“ืคื™ืก ื›ืกืฃ
15:17
than to write a tax code, so that's very tempting,
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ืžืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ื—ื•ืงื™ ืžืก, ืื– ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืคืชื”,
15:19
but sometimes you don't know what you do with the money.
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืืชื ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืขื ื”ื›ืกืฃ,
15:22
This is a problem.
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ื–ื• ื‘ืขื™ื”.
15:23
Expropriation is very tempting.
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ื”ืคืงืขื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืคืชื”.
15:25
Just when you feel some people get too wealthy,
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ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืฉืืชื ืžืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ื ื”ื™ื™ื ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื ืžื“ื™,
15:27
you just expropriate them.
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ืืชื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืžืคืงื™ืขื™ื ืžื”ื.
15:29
But this is not a very efficient way
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื• ืœื ื“ืจืš ืžืžืฉ ื™ืขื™ืœื”
15:30
to organize a regulation of wealth dynamics.
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ืœืืจื’ืŸ ืจื’ื•ืœืฆื™ื” ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื ืžื™ืงืช ืขื•ืฉืจ.
15:33
So war is an even less efficient way,
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ืžืœื—ืžื” ื”ื™ื ื“ืจืš ืืคื™ืœื• ืคื—ื•ืช ื™ืขื™ืœื”,
15:36
so I tend to prefer progressive taxation,
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ืื– ืื ื™ ื ื•ื˜ื” ืœื”ืขื“ื™ืฃ ืžื™ืกื•ื™ ืคืจื•ื’ืจืกื™ื‘ื™,
15:38
but of course, history โ€” (Laughter) โ€”
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื”ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” -- (ืฆื—ื•ืง) --
15:41
history will invent its own best ways,
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ื”ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืชืžืฆื™ื ื“ืจื›ื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืžืฉืœื”,
15:42
and it will probably involve
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ื•ื–ื” ื›ื ืจืื” ื™ืขืจื‘
15:44
a combination of all of these.
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ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืืœื”.
15:46
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืœื›ื.
15:48
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
15:50
Bruno Giussani: Thomas Piketty. Thank you.
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ื‘ืจื•ื ื• ื’ื™ื•ืกืื ื™: ืชื•ืžื ืคื™ืงื˜ื™, ืชื•ื“ื” ืœืš.
15:55
Thomas, I want to ask you two or three questions,
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ืชื•ืžื, ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืื•ืชืš ื›ืžื” ืฉืืœื•ืช,
15:57
because it's impressive how you're in command of your data, of course,
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื–ื” ืžืจืฉื™ื ืื™ืš ืฉืืชื” ืฉื•ืœื˜ ื‘ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉืœืš, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ,
16:01
but basically what you suggest is
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืขื™ืงืจื•ืŸ ืžื” ืฉืืชื” ืžืฆื™ืข ื–ื”
16:05
growing wealth concentration is kind of
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ืฉื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ืจื™ื›ื•ื– ื”ื”ื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ
16:06
a natural tendency of capitalism,
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ื ื˜ื™ื” ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช ืฉืœ ืงืคื™ื˜ืœื™ื–ื,
16:08
and if we leave it to its own devices,
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ื•ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฉืื™ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื” ืœื‘ื“,
16:12
it may threaten the system itself,
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ื”ื™ื ืื•ืœื™ ืชืื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ืขืฆืžื”,
16:14
so you're suggesting that we need to act
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ืื– ืืชื” ืžืฆื™ืข ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืคืขื•ืœ
16:16
to implement policies that redistribute wealth,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืœืง ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ,
16:19
including the ones we just saw:
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ื‘ืืžืฆืขื™ื ื›ืžื•:
16:21
progressive taxation, etc.
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ืžื™ืกื•ื™ ืคืจื•ื’ืจืกื™ื‘ื™, ื•ื›ื•'.
16:22
In the current political context,
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ื‘ื”ืงืฉืจ ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™,
16:24
how realistic are those?
416
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ื›ืžื” ืืœื” ืจืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ื™ื?
16:26
How likely do you think that it is
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ืžื” ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื™
16:28
that they will be implemented?
418
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ืฉื”ื ื™ื™ื•ืฉืžื•?
16:30
Thomas Piketty: Well, you know, I think
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ืชื•ืžื ืคื™ืงื˜ื™: ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘
16:31
if you look back through time,
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ืฉืื ื ื‘ื™ื˜ ืœืื—ื•ืจ,
16:33
the history of income, wealth and taxation
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ื”ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื”ื›ื ืกื”, ืขื•ืฉืจ ื•ืžื™ืกื•ื™
16:35
is full of surprise.
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ืžืœืื” ื”ืคืชืขื•ืช.
16:37
So I am not terribly impressed
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ืื– ืื ื™ ืœื ืžืชืจืฉื ืžืžืฉ
16:40
by those who know in advance
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ืžืืœื” ืฉื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžืจืืฉ
16:41
what will or will not happen.
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ืžื” ื™ืงืจื” ืื• ืœื.
16:43
I think one century ago,
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืœืคื ื™ ืžืื”,
16:45
many people would have said
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืื•ืžืจื™ื
16:46
that progressive income taxation would never happen
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ืฉืžื™ืกื•ื™ ื”ื›ื ืกื” ืคืจื•ื’ืจืกื™ื‘ื™ ืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ื™ืงืจื”
16:48
and then it happened.
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ื•ืื– ื–ื” ืงืจื”.
16:50
And even five years ago,
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืœืคื ื™ ื—ืžืฉ ืฉื ื™ื,
16:52
many people would have said that bank secrecy
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืื ืฉื™ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืืžืจื• ืฉื”ื—ืฉืื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื ืงื™ื
16:54
will be with us forever in Switzerland,
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ืชื”ื™ื” ืื™ืชื ื• ืœืชืžื™ื“ ื‘ืฉื•ื•ื™ืฅ,
16:56
that Switzerland was too powerful
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ืฉืฉื•ื•ื™ืฅ ื—ื–ืงื” ืžื“ื™
16:58
for the rest of the world,
434
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ืžื•ืœ ืฉืืจ ื”ืขื•ืœื.
16:59
and then suddenly it took a few U.S. sanctions
435
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ื•ืื– ืคืชืื•ื, ื›ืžื” ืกื ืงืฆื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช
17:02
against Swiss banks for a big change to happen,
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ืžื•ืœ ื‘ื ืงื™ื ืฉื•ื•ื™ืฆืจื™ื ื™ืฆืจื• ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœ,
17:05
and now we are moving toward
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืื ื—ื ื• ื ืขื™ื ืœื›ื™ื™ื•ืŸ
17:07
more financial transparency.
438
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ืฉืงื™ืคื•ืช ืคื™ื ื ืกื™ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื™ื•ืชืจ.
17:08
So I think it's not that difficult
439
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ืื– ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื” ืœื ื›ื–ื” ืงืฉื”
17:13
to better coordinate politically.
440
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ืœืชืื ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช.
17:15
We are going to have a treaty
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ืขื•ืžื“ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืœื ื• ืืžื ื”
17:17
with half of the world GDP around the table
442
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ืขื ื—ืฆื™ ืžื”ืชื•ืฆืจ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœืฉื•ืœื—ืŸ
17:20
with the U.S. and the European Union,
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ืขื ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื•ื”ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ืืจื•ืคืื™,
17:22
so if half of the world GDP is not enough
444
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ืื– ืื ื—ืฆื™ ืžื”ืชื•ืฆืจ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ื”ื’ื•ืœืžื™ ืœื ืžืกืคื™ืง
17:24
to make progress on financial transparency
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื“ื ืฉืงื™ืคื•ืช ืคื™ื ื ืกื™ืช
17:27
and minimal tax for multinational corporate profits,
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ื•ืžื™ืกื•ื™ ืžื™ื ื™ืžืœื™ ืขืœ ืจื•ื•ื—ื™ื ืฉืœ ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื,
17:31
what does it take?
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ืžื” ื–ื” ื™ื“ืจื•ืฉ?
17:33
So I think these are not technical difficulties.
448
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ืื– ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืืœื” ืœื ืงืฉื™ื™ื ื˜ื›ื ื™ื™ื.
17:36
I think we can make progress
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชืงื“ื
17:38
if we have a more pragmatic approach to these questions
450
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ืื ืชื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ื’ื™ืฉื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืคืจื’ืžื˜ื™ืช ืœืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ืืœื•
17:41
and we have the proper sanctions
451
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ื•ื™ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ืกื ืงืฆื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืชืื™ืžื•ืช
17:43
on those who benefit from financial opacity.
452
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ืขืœ ืืœื” ืฉืžืจื•ื•ื™ื—ื™ื ืžื—ื•ืกืจ ืฉืงื™ืคื•ืช ืคื™ื ื ืกื™ืช.
17:46
BG: One of the arguments
453
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ื‘.ื’: ืื—ื“ ื”ื˜ื™ืขื•ื ื™ื
17:47
against your point of view
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ื ื’ื“ ื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืžื‘ื˜ ืฉืœืš
17:49
is that economic inequality
455
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ื”ื™ื ืฉืื™-ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™
17:50
is not only a feature of capitalism but is actually one of its engines.
456
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ื”ื•ื ืœื ืจืง ืชื›ื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ืงืคื™ื˜ืœื™ื–ื ืืœื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืื—ื“ ื”ืžื ื•ืขื™ื.
17:54
So we take measures to lower inequality,
457
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ื ื•ืงื˜ื™ื ืฆืขื“ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคื—ื™ืช ืืช ืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ,
17:57
and at the same time we lower growth, potentially.
458
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ื•ื‘ืื•ืชื•ืช ื–ืžืŸ ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืงื˜ื™ื ื™ื ืืช ื”ืฆืžื™ื—ื”, ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœื™ืช.
17:59
What do you answer to that?
459
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ืžื” ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœืš ืœื–ื”?
18:01
TP: Yeah, I think inequality
460
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ืช.ืค: ื›ืŸ, ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ
18:02
is not a problem per se.
461
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ื”ื•ื ืœื ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืฉืœืขืฆืžื”.
18:04
I think inequality up to a point
462
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ืขื“ ืœื ืงื•ื“ื” ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช
18:06
can actually be useful for innovation and growth.
463
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืžืขืฉื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื™ืขื™ืœ ืœื—ื“ืฉื ื•ืช ื•ืฆืžื™ื—ื”.
18:09
The problem is, it's a question of degree.
464
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ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื, ืฉื–ื” ืฉืืœื” ืฉืœ ื›ืžื•ืช.
18:11
When inequality gets too extreme,
465
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ื›ืฉืื™-ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื ืขืฉื” ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ืžื“ื™,
18:14
then it becomes useless for growth
466
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ืื– ื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืคืš ืœื—ืกืจ ืชื•ืขืœืช ืœืฆืžื™ื—ื”
18:17
and it can even become bad
467
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ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœืจืข
18:18
because it tends to lead to high perpetuation
468
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ื ื•ื˜ื” ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœื”ื ืฆื—ื”
18:21
of inequality over time
469
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ืฉืœ ืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ื–ืžืŸ
18:23
and low mobility.
470
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ื•ื ื™ื™ื“ื•ืช ื ืžื•ื›ื”.
18:25
And for instance, the kind of wealth concentrations
471
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ื•ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ืกื•ื’ ืจื™ื›ื•ื–ื™ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ
18:28
that we had in the 19th century
472
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ืฉื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ื‘ืžืื” ื” 19
18:31
and pretty much until World War I
473
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ื”ื™ื• ื“ื™ ืขื“ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”
18:33
in every European country
474
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืืจื•ืคืื™ืช
18:35
was, I think, not useful for growth.
475
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ื”ื™ื•, ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘, ืœื ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืฆืžื™ื—ื”.
18:37
This was destroyed by a combination
476
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ื–ื” ื”ื•ื—ืจื‘ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘
18:39
of tragic events and policy changes,
477
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ืฉืœ ืืจื•ืขื™ื ื˜ืจื’ื™ื™ื ื•ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช,
18:41
and this did not prevent growth from happening.
478
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ื•ื–ื” ืœื ืžื ืข ืžื”ืฆืžื™ื—ื” ืœื”ืชืจื—ืฉ.
18:43
And also, extreme inequality can be bad
479
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ื•ื’ื, ืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืจืข
18:47
for our democratic institutions
480
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ืœืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•
18:49
if it creates very unequal access to political voice,
481
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ืื ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ืฆืจ ื’ื™ืฉื” ืžืื•ื“ ืœื ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืœืงื•ืœ ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™,
18:51
and the influence of private money
482
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ื•ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืฉืœ ื”ื›ืกืฃ ื”ืคืจื˜ื™
18:53
in U.S. politics, I think,
483
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2002
ื‘ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘,
18:55
is a matter of concern right now.
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ื”ื™ื ื ื•ืฉื ืœื“ืื’ื” ื›ืจื’ืข.
18:58
So we don't want to return to that kind of extreme,
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœืกื•ื’ ื›ื–ื” ืฉืœ
19:01
pre-World War I inequality.
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ืื™-ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ืžืœืคื ื™ ืžืœื”"ืข ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”.
19:03
Having a decent share of the national wealth
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ื›ืฉื™ืฉ ื—ืœืง ืžื›ื•ื‘ื“ ืžื”ืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ืœืื•ืžื™
19:07
for the middle class is not bad for growth.
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ื‘ืžืขืžื“ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื ื–ื” ืœื ืจืข ืœืฆืžื™ื—ื”.
19:10
It is actually useful
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ื–ื” ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžื•ืขื™ืœ
19:11
both for equity and efficiency reasons.
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ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื’ื ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื•ื’ื ื™ืขื™ืœื•ืช.
19:14
BG: I said at the beginning
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ื‘.ื’: ืืžืจืชื™ ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื”
19:16
that your book has been criticized.
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ืฉื”ืกืคืจ ืฉืœืš ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช.
19:18
Some of your data has been criticized.
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ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉืœืš ืขืžื“ ืœื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช.
19:19
Some of your choice of data sets has been criticized.
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ื›ืžื” ืžื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉืœืš ืขืžื“ื• ืœื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช.
19:22
You have been accused of cherry-picking data
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ื”ื•ืืฉืžืช ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจืช ืžื™ื“ืข ืกืœืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช
19:24
to make your case. What do you answer to that?
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ื–ืง ืืช ื”ื˜ื™ืขื•ืŸ ืฉืœืš. ืžื” ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœืš ืœื–ื”?
19:26
TP: Well, I answer that I am very happy
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ืช.ืค: ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ื™ ืขื•ื ื” ืฉืื ื™ ืฉืžื— ืžืื•ื“
19:28
that this book is stimulating debate.
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ืฉื”ืกืคืจ ืžืขื•ืจืจ ื“ื™ื•ืŸ.
19:31
This is part of what it is intended for.
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ื–ื” ื”ื—ืœืง ืฉืืœื™ื• ื”ืชื›ื•ื•ื ืชื™.
19:33
Look, the reason why I put all the data online
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ืชืจืื”, ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืฉื”ืขืœื ื• ืืช ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ืœืจืฉืช
19:37
with all of the detailed computation
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ืขื ื›ืœ ื”ื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื”ืžืคื•ืจื˜ื™ื
19:38
is so that we can have an open and transparent
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ื”ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืœื ื• ื“ื™ื•ืŸ
19:41
debate about this.
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ืคืชื•ื— ื•ืฉืงื•ืฃ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื–ื”.
19:42
So I have responded point by point
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ืื– ื”ื’ื‘ืชื™ ื ืงื•ื“ื” ืื—ืจื™ ื ืงื•ื“ื”
19:44
to every concern.
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ืœื›ืœ ื“ืื’ื”.
19:46
Let me say that if I was to rewrite the book today,
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ืชืŸ ืœื™ ืœื”ื’ื™ื“ ืฉืื ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžืฉื›ืชื‘ ืืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ื™ื•ื,
19:49
I would actually conclude
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžื’ื™ืข ืœืžืกืงื ื”
19:51
that the rise in wealth inequality,
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ืฉื”ืขืœื™ื” ืฉืœ ืื™-ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฉืจ,
19:53
particularly in the United States,
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ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช,
19:55
has been actually higher than what I report in my book.
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ื”ื™ืชื” ืœืžืขืฉื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื” ืฉื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ืชื™ ื‘ืกืคืจ.
19:57
There is a recent study by Saez and Zucman
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ื™ืฉ ืžื—ืงืจ ืขื“ื›ื ื™ ืฉืœ ืกืื– ื•ืฆื•ืงืžืŸ
20:00
showing, with new data
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ืฉืžืจืื”, ืขื ืžื™ื“ืข ื—ื“ืฉ
20:02
which I didn't have at the time of the book,
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ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื™ ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื›ืชื‘ืชื™ ืืช ื”ืกืคืจ,
20:04
that wealth concentration in the U.S. has risen
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ืฉืจื™ื›ื•ื– ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ืขืœื”
20:06
even more than what I report.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื” ืฉื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ืชื™.
20:08
And there will be other data in the future.
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ื•ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžื™ื“ืข ืื—ืจ ื‘ืขืชื™ื“.
20:10
Some of it will go in different directions.
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ื—ืœืง ืžืžื ื• ื™ืœืš ื‘ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื.
20:12
Look, we put online almost every week
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ืชืจืื”, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืขืœื™ื ืœืจืฉืช ื›ืžืขื˜ ื›ืœ ืฉื‘ื•ืข
20:17
new, updated series on the World Top Income Database
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ืกื“ืจื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื•ืžืขื•ื“ื›ื ื•ืช ื‘ืžืื’ืจ ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ืขืœ ื”ื”ื›ื ืกื” ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื”
20:19
and we will keep doing so in the future,
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ื•ื ืžืฉื™ืš ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืขืชื™ื“.
20:21
in particular in emerging countries,
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ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืžืชืคืชื—ื•ืช,
20:24
and I welcome all of those who want to contribute
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ื•ืื ื™ ืžื–ืžื™ืŸ ืืช ื›ืœ ืžื™ ืฉืจื•ืฆื” ืœืชืจื•ื
20:27
to this data collection process.
523
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ืœืชื”ืœื™ืš ืื™ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ื”ื–ื”.
20:29
In fact, I certainly agree
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืื ื™ ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜ ืžืกื›ื™ื
20:32
that there is not enough
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ืฉืื™ืŸ ืžืกืคื™ืง
20:33
transparency about wealth dynamics,
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ืฉืงื™ืคื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื“ื™ื ืžื™ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ,
20:35
and a good way to have better data
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ื•ื“ืจืš ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ืœืงื‘ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื™ื“ืข
20:37
would be to have a wealth tax
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ืชื”ื™ื” ืœื”ืฉื™ืช ืžืก ืขืœ ื”ืขื•ืฉืจ
20:39
with a small tax rate to begin with
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ืขื ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ืžืก ื ืžื•ืš ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื”
20:41
so that we can all agree
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ื›ืš ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœื”ืกื›ื™ื
20:43
about this important evolution
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ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื”
20:45
and adapt our policies to whatever we observe.
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ื•ืœื”ืชืื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ืœืžื” ืฉื ืจืื”.
20:48
So taxation is a source of knowledge,
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ืื– ืžื™ืกื•ื™ ื”ื•ื ืกื•ื’ ืžืกื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื™ื“ืข,
20:50
and that's what we need the most right now.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื›ื™ ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ื›ืจื’ืข.
20:53
BG: Thomas Piketty, merci beaucoup.
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ื‘.ื’: ืชื•ืžื ืคื™ืงื˜ื™, ืžืจืกื™ ื‘ื•ืงื•.
20:55
Thank you. TP: Thank you. (Applause)
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืœืš. ืช.ืค: ืชื•ื“ื” ืœื›ื. (ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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