Earth's mass extinctions | Peter Ward

315,220 views ใƒป 2009-01-28

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Avishai Abbo ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:18
So, I want to start out with
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืขื
00:20
this beautiful picture from my childhood.
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ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื” ื”ื–ื• ืžื”ื™ืœื“ื•ืช ืฉืœื™.
00:22
I love the science fiction movies.
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ืื ื™ ืžืช ืขืœ ืกืจื˜ื™ ืžื“ืข ื‘ื“ื™ื•ื ื™.
00:24
Here it is: "This Island Earth."
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ื”ื ื” ื–ื”: "ื–ื” ื”ืื™ ืืจืฅ."
00:26
And leave it to Hollywood to get it just right.
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ื•ืชืฉืื™ืจื• ืืช ื–ื” ืœื”ื•ืœื™ื•ื•ื“ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื” ื›ืžื• ืฉืฆืจื™ืš.
00:28
Two-and-a-half years in the making.
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ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื ื•ื—ืฆื™ ืฉืœ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”.
00:30
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
00:33
I mean, even the creationists give us 6,000,
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ืื ื™ ืžืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ, ื’ื ื”ื‘ืจื™ืืชื ื™ื ื ื•ืชื ื™ื ืœื ื• 6000,
00:36
but Hollywood goes to the chase.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื•ืœื™ื•ื•ื“ ื™ื•ืฆืืช ืœืžืจื“ืฃ.
00:38
And in this movie, we see what we think is out there:
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ื•ื‘ืกืจื˜ ื”ื–ื”, ืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ืžื” ืฉืื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืฉื ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ:
00:42
flying saucers and aliens.
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ืฆืœื—ื•ืช ืžืขื•ืคืคื•ืช ื•ื—ื™ื™ื–ืจื™ื.
00:45
Every world has an alien, and every alien world has a flying saucer,
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืขื•ืœื ื™ืฉ ื—ื™ื™ื–ืจ, ื•ืœื›ืœ ืขื•ืœื ื—ื™ื™ื–ืจื™ ื™ืฉ ืฆืœื—ืช ืžืขื•ืคืคืช,
00:48
and they move about with great speed. Aliens.
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ื•ื”ื ื ืขื™ื ื‘ื—ืœืœ ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ืขืฆื•ืžื•ืช. ื—ื™ื™ื–ืจื™ื.
00:53
Well, Don Brownlee, my friend, and I finally got to the point
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื“ื•ืŸ ื‘ืจืื•ื ืœื™, ื—ื‘ืจื™, ื•ืื ื™ ื”ื’ืขื ื• ืกื•ืฃ ืกื•ืฃ ืœื ืงื•ื“ื”
00:56
where we got tired of turning on the TV
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ืฉื‘ื” ื ืžืืก ืœื ื• ืœื”ื“ืœื™ืง ืืช ื”ื˜ืœื•ื•ื™ื–ื™ื”
00:59
and seeing the spaceships and seeing the aliens every night,
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ื•ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ื—ืœืœื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ื—ื™ื™ื–ืจื™ื ื›ืœ ืขืจื‘,
01:02
and tried to write a counter-argument to it,
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ื•ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืœื–ื” ื˜ื™ืขื•ืŸ ื ื’ื“,
01:05
and put out what does it really take for an Earth to be habitable,
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ื•ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ืืช ืžื” ืฉื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื‘ืืžืช ืฆืจื™ืš ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœ ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื,
01:09
for a planet to be an Earth, to have a place
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ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ, ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืงื•ื
01:11
where you could probably get not just life, but complexity,
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ืฉื‘ื• ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœื•ื“ืื™ ืœื ืจืง ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื—ื™ื™ื, ืืœื ื’ื ืœืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช,
01:14
which requires a huge amount of evolution,
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ืฉื“ื•ืจืฉืช ื–ืžืŸ ืืจื•ืš ืฉืœ ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื”,
01:16
and therefore constancy of conditions.
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ื•ืœืคื™ื›ืš ืจืฆื™ืคื•ืช ื•ื™ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืชื ืื™ื.
01:19
So, in 2000 we wrote "Rare Earth." In 2003, we then asked,
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ืื–, ื‘ืฉื ืช 2000 ื›ืชื‘ื ื• ืืช "ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ื ื“ื™ืจ". ื‘-2003 ืฉืืœื ื•,
01:22
let's not think about where Earths are in space, but how long has Earth been Earth?
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ื‘ื•ืื• ืœื ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืื™ืคื” ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ื›ื“ื•ืจื™ ืืจืฅ ื‘ื—ืœืœ, ืืœื ื›ืžื” ื–ืžืŸ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืืžืช ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ?
01:27
If you go back two billion years,
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ืื ืชื—ื–ืจื• ืื—ื•ืจื” ืฉื ื™ ืžืœื™ืืจื“ ืฉื ื”,
01:29
you're not on an Earth-like planet any more.
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ืœื ืชื”ื™ื• ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื“ืžื•ื™ ืืจืฅ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
01:31
What we call an Earth-like planet is actually a very short interval of time.
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ืžื” ืฉืื ื• ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืœื• ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื“ืžื•ื™ ืืจืฅ ืงื™ื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ื‘ื—ืœื•ืŸ ื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ.
01:35
Well, "Rare Earth" actually
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, "ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ื ื“ื™ืจ" ืœืžืขืฉื”
01:37
taught me an awful lot about meeting the public.
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ืœื™ืžื“ ืื•ืชื™ ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืขืœ ืœืคื’ื•ืฉ ืืช ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืจื—ื‘.
01:40
Right after, I got an invitation to go to a science fiction convention,
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ืžืžืฉ ืื—ืจื™ (ืฆืืช ื”ืกืคืจ), ื”ื•ื–ืžื ืชื™ ืœื”ืฉืชืชืฃ ื‘ื›ื ืก ืžื“ืข ื‘ื“ื™ื•ื ื™,
01:43
and with all great earnestness walked in.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช ื ื›ื ืกืชื™ ืคื ื™ืžื”.
01:46
David Brin was going to debate me on this,
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ื“ื™ื•ื•ื™ื“ ื‘ืจื™ืŸ ืขืžื“ ืœื“ื•ืŸ ืื™ืชื™ ืขืœ ื–ื”,
01:48
and as I walked in, the crowd of a hundred started booing lustily.
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ื•ื›ืฉื ื›ื ืกืชื™, ืงื”ืœ ืฉืœ ืžืื•ืช ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœืฆืขื•ืง ื‘ื•ื– ื‘ืชื™ืขื•ื‘.
01:52
I had a girl who came up who said, "My dad says you're the devil."
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื™ืœื“ื” ืฉื ื™ื’ืฉื” ืืœื™ื™ ื•ืืžืจื” "ืื‘ื ืฉืœื™ ืื•ืžืจ ืฉืืชื” ื”ืฉื˜ืŸ."
01:55
You cannot take people's aliens away from them
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ืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืงื—ืช ืžื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื–ืจื™ื ืฉืœื”ื
01:59
and expect to be anybody's friends.
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ื•ืœืฆืคื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืื—ืจ ื›ืš.
02:03
Well, the second part of that, soon after --
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉืœ ื–ื”, ืžื™ื“ ืื—ืจื™ ื–ื” --
02:05
and I was talking to Paul Allen; I saw him in the audience,
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ื•ืื ื™ ื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™ ืขื ืคื•ืœ ืืœืŸ; ืจืื™ืชื™ ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืงื”ืœ,
02:08
and I handed him a copy of "Rare Earth."
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ื•ื ืชืชื™ ืœื• ืขื•ืชืง ืฉืœ "ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ื ื“ื™ืจ."
02:10
And Jill Tarter was there, and she turned to me,
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ื•ื’'ื™ืœ ื˜ืจื˜ืจ (ืจืืฉ ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ SETI) ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉื, ื•ื”ื™ื ืคื ืชื” ืืœื™ื™,
02:14
and she looked at me just like that girl in "The Exorcist."
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ื•ื”ื™ื ื”ืกืชื›ืœื” ืขืœื™ื™ ืžืžืฉ ื›ืžื• ื”ื™ืœื“ื” ื‘"ืžื’ืจืฉ ื”ืฉื“ื™ื".
02:17
It was, "It burns! It burns!"
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื”, "ื–ื” ืฉื•ืจืฃ! ื–ื” ืฉื•ืจืฃ!"
02:19
Because SETI doesn't want to hear this.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉ-SETI ืœื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœืฉืžื•ืข ืžื–ื”.
02:21
SETI wants there to be stuff out there.
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SETI ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ.
02:24
I really applaud the SETI efforts, but we have not heard anything yet.
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ืื ื™ ืžืžืฉ ืžืขืจื™ืš ืืช ืžืืžืฆื™ SETI, ืื‘ืœ ืœื ืฉืžืขื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื›ืœื•ื.
02:27
And I really do think we have to start thinking
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ื•ืื ื™ ื‘ืืžืช ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘
02:29
about what's a good planet and what isn't.
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ืขืœ ืžื”ื• ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื•ืžื” ืœื.
02:32
Now, I throw this slide up because it indicates to me that,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืื ื™ ืฉื ืืช ื”ืฉืงื•ืคื™ืช ื”ื–ื• ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ื™ื ืžื–ื›ื™ืจื” ืœื™,
02:35
even if SETI does hear something, can we figure out what they said?
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ืฉื’ื ืื SETI ื™ืฉืžืขื• ืžืฉื”ื•, ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ืืžืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื•?
02:39
Because this was a slide that was passed
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ืฉืงื•ืคื™ืช ื”ื–ื• ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจื”
02:41
between the two major intelligences on Earth -- a Mac to a PC --
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืชื™ ื”ืื™ื ื˜ื™ืœื™ื’ื ืฆื™ื•ืช ืจืืฉื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ -- ืžืงื™ื ื˜ื•ืฉ ืœ-PC --
02:45
and it can't even get the letters right --
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ื•ื”ืŸ ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœืกื“ืจ ืืช ื”ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ื ื›ื•ืŸ --
02:48
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
02:50
-- so how are we going to talk to the aliens?
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-- ืื– ืื™ืš ืื ื• ืืžื•ืจื™ื ืœืชืงืฉืจ ืขื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื–ืจื™ื?
02:52
And if they're 50 light years away, and we call them up,
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ื•ืื ื”ื ื ืžืฆืื™ื 50 ืฉื ื•ืช ืื•ืจ ืžืื™ืชื ื•, ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชืงืฉืจื™ื ืืœื™ื”ื,
02:55
and you blah, blah, blah, blah, blah,
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ื•ืื•ืžืจื™ื ื‘ืœื”, ื‘ืœื”, ื‘ืœื”, ื‘ืœื”, ื‘ืœื”,
02:57
and then 50 years later it comes back and they say, Please repeat?
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ื•ืื– ืื—ืจื™ ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ื ืฉื ื” ื—ื•ื–ืจืช ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื•ื”ื ืื•ืžืจื™ื: ื—ื–ื•ืจ ื‘ื‘ืงืฉื”?
03:00
I mean, there we are.
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ืื ื™ ืžืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ, ื–ื” ื”ืžืฆื‘.
03:02
Our planet is a good planet because it can keep water.
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ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืฉืœื ื• ื”ื•ื ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืžื™ื ื ื•ื–ืœื™ื.
03:05
Mars is a bad planet, but it's still good enough for us to go there
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ืžืื“ื™ื ื”ื•ื ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืจืข, ืื‘ืœ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืกืคื™ืง ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื ื• ืœืœื›ืช ืœืฉื
03:09
and to live on its surface if we're protected.
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ื•ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ืขืœื™ื• ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ื’ื ื™ื.
03:11
But Venus is a very bad -- the worst -- planet.
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ืื‘ืœ ื ื’ื” ื”ื•ื ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืจืข - ื”ื›ื™ ื’ืจื•ืข ืฉื™ืฉ.
03:14
Even though it's Earth-like, and even though early in its history
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ื ื“ื•ืžื” ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ, ื•ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉืžื•ืงื“ื ื‘ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœื•
03:17
it may very well have harbored Earth-like life,
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ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ื•ื”ื•ื ืื›ืœืก ื—ื™ื™ื ื“ื•ืžื™ื ืœืืœื• ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ,
03:20
it soon succumbed to runaway greenhouse --
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ืžื”ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ื”ื•ื ื ื›ื ืข ืœืžืœื›ื•ื“ืช ื—ืžืžื” --
03:23
that's an 800 degrees [Fahrenheit] surface --
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ืืœื• ื”ื ืคื ื™ ืฉื˜ื— ื‘ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืฉืœ 800 ืžืขืœื•ืช ืฆืœื–ื™ื•ืก --
03:25
because of rampant carbon dioxide.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ืฉืชื•ืœืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™.
03:28
Well, we know from astrobiology that we can really now predict
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžืืกื˜ืจื•ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ืืžืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื”ื™ื•ื ืœื—ื–ื•ืช
03:31
what's going to happen to our particular planet.
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ืžื” ื™ืงืจื” ืœื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืžืกื•ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•.
03:34
We are right now in the beautiful Oreo
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืžืฉ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื‘ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืžื•ืคืœื
03:37
of existence -- of at least life on Planet Earth --
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ืฉืœ ืงื™ื•ืžื ืฉืœ ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ,
03:40
following the first horrible microbial age.
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ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืžื™ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ ื”ื ื•ืจื ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ.
03:43
In the Cambrian explosion, life emerged from the swamps,
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ื‘ื”ื”ืชืคื•ืฆืฆื•ืช ื”ืงืžื‘ืจื™ืช, ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœื• ืžืชื•ืš ื”ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืช,
03:46
complexity arose,
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ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช ืขืœืชื”,
03:48
and from what we can tell, we're halfway through.
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ื•ืžืžื” ืฉืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื•ืžืจ, ืื ื• ื‘ื—ืฆื™ ื”ื“ืจืš.
03:51
We have as much time for animals to exist on this planet
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืื•ืชื• ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืœื”ืชืงื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ื–ื”
03:54
as they have been here now,
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ื›ืžื• ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืคื” ืขื“ ืขื›ืฉื™ื•,
03:56
till we hit the second microbial age.
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ืขื“ ืฉื ื’ื™ืข ืœืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืžื™ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ ื”ืฉื ื™.
03:58
And that will happen, paradoxically --
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ื•ื–ื” ื™ืงืจื”, ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืคืจื“ื•ืงืกืœื™ --
04:00
everything you hear about global warming --
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ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืืชื ืฉื•ืžืขื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืช --
04:02
when we hit CO2 down to 10 parts per million,
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ื›ืฉื ื’ื™ืข ืœืจืžื” ื ืžื•ื›ื” ืฉืœ 10 ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ืœืžืœื™ื•ืŸ CO2.
04:05
we are no longer going to have to have plants
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ืœื ื™ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ืขื•ื“ ืฆืžื—ื™ื
04:07
that are allowed to have any photosynthesis, and there go animals.
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ืฉื™ื›ืœื• ืœื‘ืฆืข ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ืชื–ื”, ื•ื›ืš ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ื’ื ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช.
04:11
So, after that we probably have seven billion years.
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ืื–, ืื—ืจื™ ื–ื” ื›ื ืจืื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• 7 ืžืœื™ืืจื“ ืฉื ื”.
04:13
The Sun increases in its intensity, in its brightness,
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ืขืฆืžืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืžืชื’ื‘ืจืช, ื‘ื‘ื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœื”,
04:16
and finally, at about 12 billion years after it first started,
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ื•ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ื›-12 ืžืœื™ืืจื“ ืฉื ื” ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื ื•ืฆืจ,
04:21
the Earth is consumed by a large Sun,
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ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื ื‘ืœืข ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉืžืฉ ื’ื“ื•ืœื”,
04:24
and this is what's left.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉื ืฉืืจ.
04:27
So, a planet like us is going to have an age and an old age,
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ืื–, ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื›ืžื• ืฉืœื ื• ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื’ื™ืœ, ื•ื’ื™ืœ ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจ,
04:31
and we are in its golden summer age right now.
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ื–ื”ื‘ ืžืžืฉ ืขื›ืฉื™ื•.
04:35
But there's two fates to everything, isn't there?
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืฉื ื™ ื’ื•ืจืœื•ืช ืœื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ืœื?
04:37
Now, a lot of you are going to die of old age,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื›ื ื™ืžื•ืชื• ื‘ื’ื™ืœ ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจ,
04:40
but some of you, horribly enough, are going to die in an accident.
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ืื‘ืœ ื—ืœืง ืžื›ื, ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืฆืขืจ, ื™ืžื•ืชื• ื‘ืชืื•ื ื”.
04:43
And that's the fate of a planet, too.
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ื•ื–ื” ื’ื ื’ื•ืจืœื• ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘.
04:45
Earth, if we're lucky enough -- if it doesn't get hit by a Hale-Bopp,
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ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ, ืื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืžืกืคื™ืง ืžื–ืœ -- ืื ืœื ื™ืคื’ืข ื‘ื• ืื™ื–ื” ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืฉื‘ื™ื˜,
04:49
or gets blasted by some supernova nearby
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ืื• ื™ื•ืคืฆืฅ ืžืื™ื–ื” ืกื•ืคืจื ื•ื‘ื” ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”
04:53
in the next seven billion years -- we'll find under your feet.
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ื‘ืฉื‘ืข ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช -- ื™ื™ืžืฆื ืชื—ืช ืจื’ืœื™ื ื•.
04:56
But what about accidental death?
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื” ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืžื•ื•ืช ื‘ืชืื•ื ื”?
04:58
Well, paleontologists for the last 200 years
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืคืœื™ืื•ื ื˜ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ื‘-200 ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช
05:00
have been charting death. It's strange --
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ืžื™ืคื• ืžื•ื•ืช. ื–ื” ืžื•ื–ืจ --
05:02
extinction as a concept wasn't even thought about
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ื”ื›ื—ื“ื” ื›ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื ืขืœืชื” ื‘ืžื—ืฉื‘ื”
05:05
until Baron Cuvier in France found this first mastodon.
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ืขื“ ืฉื”ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ืงื™ื•ื•ื™ื” ื‘ืฆืจืคืช ืžืฆื ืืช ื”ืžืกื˜ื•ื“ื•ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœื•.
05:08
He couldn't match it up to any bones on the planet,
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ื”ื•ื ืœื ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœื”ืชืื™ื ืื•ืชื• ืœืฉื•ื ืขืฆื ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ,
05:10
and he said, Aha! It's extinct.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืืžืจ, ืื”ื”! ื–ื” ื ื›ื—ื“.
05:12
And very soon after, the fossil record started yielding
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ื•ืžื”ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ืื—ืจ ื›ืš, ืชืขื•ื“ ื”ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื ื”ื—ืœ ืœืกืคืง
05:15
a very good idea of how many plants and animals there have been
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ืžื•ืฉื’ ื›ืœืœื™ ื˜ื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ื›ืžื” ื—ื™ื•ืช ื•ืฆืžื—ื™ื ื”ื™ื•
05:18
since complex life really began to leave
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ืžืื– ืฉื—ื™ื™ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื”ืฉืื™ืจ
05:20
a very interesting fossil record.
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ืชืขื•ื“ ืคื•ืกื™ืœื™ ืžืื•ื“ ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ.
05:23
In that complex record of fossils,
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ื‘ืชืขื•ื“ ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ื”ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื,
05:26
there were times when lots of stuff
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ื”ื™ื• ื–ืžื ื™ื ืฉื‘ื”ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื
05:28
seemed to be dying out very quickly,
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ืžืชื• ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžื”ืจ,
05:30
and the father/mother geologists
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ื•ืื‘ื•ืช ื•ืื™ืžื”ื•ืช ื”ื’ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”
05:32
called these "mass extinctions."
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ืงืจืื• ืœื–ื” "ื”ื›ื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื•ืช".
05:34
All along it was thought to be either an act of God
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ื›ืœ ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ืŸ ื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืื• ืœืžืขืฉื” ืืœื•ื”ื™
05:36
or perhaps long, slow climate change,
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ืื• ืื•ืœื™ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืืงืœื™ืžื™ ืื™ื˜ื™ ื•ืืจื•ืš,
05:38
and that really changed in 1980,
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ืฉืชื ื” ืžืžืฉ ื‘-1980,
05:40
in this rocky outcrop near Gubbio,
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ื‘ืžื—ืฉื•ืฃ ื”ืกืœืขื™ ื”ื–ื” ืœื™ื“ ื’ื•ื‘ื™ื•,
05:43
where Walter Alvarez, trying to figure out
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืฉื‘ื• ื•ื•ืœื˜ืจ ืืœื•ื•ืจื–, ืฉื ื™ืกื” ืœื‘ืจืจ
05:46
what was the time difference between these white rocks,
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ืžื” ื”ืคืจืฉ ื”ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืกืœืขื™ื ื”ืœื‘ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
05:49
which held creatures of the Cretaceous period,
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ืฉื”ื›ื™ืœื• ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืžืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ืงืจื˜ื™ืงื•ืŸ,
05:51
and the pink rocks above, which held Tertiary fossils.
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ื•ื”ืกืœืขื™ื ื”ื•ื•ืจื•ื“ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืžืขืœ, ืฉื”ื›ื™ืœื• ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื ืžื”ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื•ื ื™.
05:53
How long did it take to go from one system to the next?
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ื›ืžื” ื–ืžืŸ ืœืงื— ื”ืžืขื‘ืจ ืžืขื™ื“ืŸ ืื—ื“ ืœื‘ื ืื—ืจื™ื•?
05:57
And what they found was something unexpected.
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ื•ื”ื ื’ื™ืœื• ืžืฉื”ื• ื‘ืœืชื™ ืฆืคื•ื™.
05:59
They found in this gap, in between, a very thin clay layer,
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ื”ื ื’ื™ืœื• ื‘ืžืจื•ื•ื— ื”ื–ื”, ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื, ืฉื›ื‘ืช ื—ืจืกื™ืช ื“ืงื” ืžืื•ื“,
06:02
and that clay layer -- this very thin red layer here --
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ื•ืฉื›ื‘ืช ื”ื—ืจืกื™ืช ื”ื–ื• -- ื”ืฉื›ื‘ื” ื”ืžืื•ื“ ื“ืงื” ื•ืื“ื•ืžื” ืคื” --
06:05
is filled with iridium.
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ืžืœืื” ื‘ืื™ืจื™ื“ื™ื•ื.
06:07
And not just iridium; it's filled with glassy spherules,
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ื•ืœื ืจืง ืื™ืจื™ื“ื™ื•ื; ื”ื™ื ืžืœืื” ื‘ื›ื“ื•ืจื™ื ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ื–ื›ื•ื›ื™ืช,
06:10
and it's filled with quartz grains
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืžืœืื” ื‘ื’ืจื’ืจื™ ืงื•ื•ืจืฅ
06:12
that have been subjected to enormous pressure: shock quartz.
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ืฉื ื—ืฉืคื• ืœืœื—ืฅ ืขืฆื•ื: ืงื•ื•ืจืฅ ืฉืœ ื”ืœื.
06:16
Now, in this slide the white is chalk,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื‘ืฉืงื•ืคื™ืช ื”ื–ื• ื”ืœื‘ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืงื™ืจื˜ื•ืŸ,
06:18
and this chalk was deposited in a warm ocean.
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ื•ื”ืงื™ืจื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ืฉืงืข ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื—ื.
06:21
The chalk itself's composed by plankton
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ื”ืงื™ืจื˜ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขืฆืžื• ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ืžืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ
06:23
which has fallen down from the sea surface onto the sea floor,
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ืฉืฆื ื— ืžืคื ื™ ื”ื™ื ืขื“ ืœืงืจืงืขื™ืช,
06:27
so that 90 percent of the sediment here is skeleton of living stuff,
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ื›ืš ืฉ-90 ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ืžื”ืžืฉืงืข ืคื” ื”ื•ื ืฉืœื“ื™ื ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื,
06:30
and then you have that millimeter-thick red layer,
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ื•ืื– ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ืœื™ืžื˜ืจ ื”ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืฉื›ื‘ื” ืื“ื•ืžื”,
06:32
and then you have black rock.
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ื•ืื– ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืกืœืข ืฉื—ื•ืจ.
06:34
And the black rock is the sediment on the sea bottom
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ื•ื”ืกืœืข ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจ ื”ื•ื ื”ืกื“ื™ืžื ื˜ ืฉืœ ืงืจืงืขื™ืช ื”ื™ื
06:37
in the absence of plankton.
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ื‘ื”ืขื“ืจ ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ.
06:39
And that's what happens in an asteroid catastrophe,
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื” ื‘ืืกื•ืŸ ืืกื˜ืจื•ืื™ื“,
06:43
because that's what this was, of course. This is the famous K-T.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื–ื” ืžื” ืฉื–ื” ื”ื™ื”, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ. ื–ื” ื’ื‘ื•ืœ K-T ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกื .
06:46
A 10-kilometer body hit the planet.
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ื’ื•ืฃ ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ 10 ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืคื’ืข ื‘ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
06:48
The effects of it spread this very thin impact layer all over the planet,
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ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืฉืœ ื–ื” ื’ืจื ืœืคื™ื–ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืฉื›ื‘ืช ื”ืคื’ื™ืขื” ื”ื“ืงื” ื”ื–ื• ื‘ื›ืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ,
06:52
and we had very quickly the death of the dinosaurs,
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ื•ื›ืš ืžื”ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ืงื™ื‘ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ื›ื—ื“ืช ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื,
06:55
the death of these beautiful ammonites,
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ื”ื”ื›ื—ื“ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืืžื•ื ื™ื˜ื™ื ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
06:57
Leconteiceras here, and Celaeceras over here,
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ืœืกื•ื ื˜ืื™ืกืจืืก ืคื”, ื•ืกืœืื™ืกืจืืก ื›ืืŸ,
06:59
and so much else.
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ื•ืขื•ื“ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ.
07:01
I mean, it must be true,
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ื–ืืช ืื•ืžืจืช, ื–ื” ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื ื›ื•ืŸ,
07:03
because we've had two Hollywood blockbusters since that time,
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ืฉื ื™ ืฉื•ื‘ืจื™ ืงื•ืคื•ืช ื”ื•ืœื™ื•ื•ื“ื™ื™ื ืžืื– ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ,
07:06
and this paradigm, from 1980 to about 2000,
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ื•ื”ืคืจื“ื™ื’ืžื” ื”ื–ื•, ืž-1980 ืขื“ ื‘ืขืจืš ืฉื ืช 2000,
07:09
totally changed how we geologists thought about catastrophes.
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ืฉื™ื ืชื” ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืืช ื”ื“ืจืš ืฉื‘ื” ืื ื• ื”ื’ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืขืœ ืงื˜ืกื˜ืจื•ืคื•ืช.
07:14
Prior to that, uniformitarianism was the dominant paradigm:
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ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืŸ, ืขืงืจื•ืŸ ื”ืื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื”ื™ื” ื”ืคืจื“ื™ื’ืžื” ื”ืฉืœื˜ืช:
07:17
the fact that if anything happens on the planet in the past,
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ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉืื ืžืฉื”ื• ืงื•ืจื” ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ื–ื” ื‘ืขื‘ืจ,
07:20
there are present-day processes that will explain it.
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ื™ืฉ ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื ืขื›ืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืฉื™ืกื‘ื™ืจื• ืืช ื–ื”.
07:24
But we haven't witnessed a big asteroid impact,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืขื“ื™ื ืœืคื’ื™ืขื” ืฉืœ ืืกื˜ืจื•ืื™ื“ ืขื ืง,
07:27
so this is a type of neo-catastrophism,
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ืื– ื–ื”ื• ืกื•ื’ ื—ื“ืฉ ืฉืœ ื ื™ืื•-ืงื˜ืกื˜ืจื•ืคื™ื–ื,
07:29
and it took about 20 years for the scientific establishment
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ื•ื–ื” ืœืงื— ื‘ืขืจืš 20 ืฉื ื” ืœืžืžืกื“ ื”ืžื“ืขื™
07:32
to finally come to grips: yes, we were hit;
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ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ืืžืช: ืฉื›ืŸ, ืคื’ืขื• ื‘ื ื•;
07:34
and yes, the effects of that hit caused a major mass extinction.
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ื•ื›ืŸ, ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื” ืคื’ื™ืขื” ื™ืฆืจื” ื”ื›ื—ื“ืช ืขื ืง.
07:39
Well, there are five major mass extinctions
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื™ืฉ ื—ืžืฉ ื”ื›ื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืจืืฉื™ื•ืช
07:41
over the last 500 million years, called the Big Five.
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ืขืœ ืคื ื™ 500 ืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช, ืฉื ืงืจืื•ืช ื—ืžืฉืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช.
07:44
They range from 450 million years ago
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ื”ืŸ ื ืขื•ืช ื”ื—ืœ ืž-450 ืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื” ืœืคื ื™ ื–ืžื ื ื•
07:47
to the last, the K-T, number four,
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ืขื“ ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” ืฉื‘ื”ืŸ, ื”-K-T, ืžืกืคืจ ืืจื‘ืข,
07:49
but the biggest of all was the P, or the Permian extinction,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉื‘ื”ืŸ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” P, ืื• ื”ื”ื›ื—ื“ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืคืจื,
07:53
sometimes called the mother of all mass extinctions.
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ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืžื›ื ื™ื ืื•ืชื” ืื ื›ืœ ื”ื”ื›ื—ื“ื•ืช.
07:55
And every one of these has been subsequently blamed
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ื•ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืŸ ื”ื•ืกื‘ืจื” ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘
07:58
on large-body impact.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืคื’ื™ืขื” ืฉืœ ื’ื•ืฃ ื’ื“ื•ืœ.
08:00
But is this true?
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืื ื–ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ?
08:03
The most recent, the Permian, was thought to have been an impact
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ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื”, ืฉืœ ื”ืคืจื, ื ื—ืฉื“ื” ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื ื’ืจืžื” ืžืคื’ื™ืขื”
08:06
because of this beautiful structure on the right.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ื ื”ื–ื” ืคื” ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ.
08:08
This is a Buckminsterfullerene, a carbon-60.
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ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื‘ืงืžื™ื ืกื˜ืจืคื•ืœืจืŸ, ืคื—ืžืŸ-60,
08:11
Because it looks like those terrible geodesic domes
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ื•ื ื ืจืื” ื›ืžื• ื”ื›ื™ืคื•ืช ื”ื’ืื•ื“ื–ื™ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืืœื”
08:14
of my late beloved '60s,
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ืฉืœ ืกื•ืฃ ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืฉื™ืฉื™ื ื”ืื”ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœื™.
08:16
they're called "buckyballs."
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ื”ื ื ืงืจืื™ื "ื›ื“ื•ืจื™ ื‘ืืงื™".
08:18
This evidence was used to suggest
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ื”ืจืื™ื” ื”ื–ื• ืฉื™ืžืฉื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื˜ืขื•ืŸ
08:20
that at the end of the Permian, 250 million years ago, a comet hit us.
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ืฉื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ืคืจื, ืœืคื ื™ 250 ืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื”, ืคื’ืข ื‘ื ื• ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืฉื‘ื™ื˜.
08:24
And when the comet hits, the pressure produces the buckyballs,
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ื•ื›ืฉื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืฉื‘ื™ื˜ ืคื•ื’ืข, ื”ืœื—ืฅ ื™ื•ืฆืจ ืืช ื›ื“ื•ืจื™ ื”ื‘ืืงื™,
08:27
and it captures bits of the comet.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืœื•ื›ื“ ื—ืœืง ืžื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืฉื‘ื™ื˜.
08:29
Helium-3: very rare on the surface of the Earth, very common in space.
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ื”ืœื™ื•ื-3: ืžืื•ื“ ื ื“ื™ืจ ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ, ืžืื•ื“ ื ืคื•ืฅ ื‘ื—ืœืœ.
08:34
But is this true?
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืื ื–ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ?
08:36
In 1990, working on the K-T extinction for 10 years,
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ื‘-1990, ืื—ืจื™ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉืœ 10 ืฉื ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื’ื‘ื•ืœ K-T,
08:40
I moved to South Africa to begin work twice a year
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ืขื‘ืจืชื™ ืœื“ืจื•ื-ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ื‘ืฉื ื”
08:43
in the great Karoo desert.
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ื‘ืžื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืงืืจื• ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ.
08:45
I was so lucky to watch the change of that South Africa
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ืื– ื”ื™ื” ืœื™ ื”ืžื–ืœ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื“ืจื•ื-ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื”ื”ื™ื
08:48
into the new South Africa as I went year by year.
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ืœื“ืจื•ื-ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ื’ืขืชื™ ืœืฉื ืฉื ื” ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื ื”.
08:51
And I worked on this Permian extinction,
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ื•ืขื‘ื“ืชื™ ืขืœ ื”ื”ื›ื—ื“ื” ื”ื–ื• ืฉืœ ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืคืจื,
08:53
camping by this Boer graveyard for months at a time.
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ื•ื—ื ื™ืชื™ ืœื™ื“ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืงื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ื‘ื•ืจื™ ื”ื–ื” ืœืžืฉืš ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื.
08:56
And the fossils are extraordinary.
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ื•ื”ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื ื”ื ื™ื•ืฆืื™ ื“ื•ืคืŸ.
08:59
You know, you're gazing upon your very distant ancestors.
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ืืชื ืฉื•ื–ืคื™ื ืืช ืขื™ื ื™ื›ื ื‘ืื‘ื•ืช ื”ืงื“ืžื•ื ื™ื ื”ืžืื•ื“ ืจื—ื•ืงื™ื ืฉืœื›ื.
09:01
These are mammal-like reptiles.
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ืืœื• ื”ื ื–ื•ื—ืœื™ื ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื.
09:03
They are culturally invisible. We do not make movies about these.
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ื”ื ืœื ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช. ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืขืœื™ื”ื ืกืจื˜ื™ื.
09:06
This is a Gorgonopsian, or a Gorgon.
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ื–ื”ื• ื’ื•ืจื’ื•ื ื•ืคืกื™ืืŸ, ืื• ื’ื•ืจื’ื•ืŸ.
09:08
That's an 18-inch long skull of an animal
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื’ื•ืœื’ื•ืœืช ื‘ืื•ืจืš ืฉืœ 45 ืกื ื˜ื™ืžื˜ืจ ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื”
09:12
that was probably seven or eight feet, sprawled like a lizard,
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ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื›ื ืจืื” ื‘ื’ื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœ 5 ืžื˜ืจ, ืฉืจื•ืขื” ื›ืžื• ืœื˜ืื”,
09:16
probably had a head like a lion.
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ื›ื ืจืื” ื”ื™ื” ืœื” ืจืืฉ ื›ืžื• ืฉืœ ืืจื™ื”.
09:18
This is the top carnivore, the T-Rex of its time.
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ื–ื” ื˜ื•ืจืฃ ื”ืขืœ, ื”ื˜ื™. ืจืงืก ืฉืœ ื–ืžื ื•.
09:20
But there's lots of stuff.
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ื”ืžื•ืŸ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื.
09:22
This is my poor son, Patrick.
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ื–ื” ื”ื‘ืŸ ื”ืžืกื›ืŸ ืฉืœื™, ืคื˜ืจื™ืง.
09:24
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
09:25
This is called paleontological child abuse.
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ื–ื” ื ืงืจื ื”ืชืขืœืœื•ืช ืคืœื™ืื•ื ื˜ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ื‘ื™ืœื“ื™ื.
09:28
Hold still, you're the scale.
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ืืœ ืชื–ื•ื–, ืืชื” ื”ืงื ื”-ืžื™ื“ื”.
09:30
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
09:36
There was big stuff back then.
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ื”ื™ื• ืื– ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื.
09:39
Fifty-five species of mammal-like reptiles.
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55 ืžื™ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื–ื•ื—ืœื™ื ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื.
09:42
The age of mammals had well and truly started
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ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื ื‘ืืžืช ืžืžืฉ ื”ื—ืœ
09:45
250 million years ago ...
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ืœืคื ื™ 250 ืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื”...
09:47
... and then a catastrophe happened.
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...ื•ืื– ื”ืชืจื—ืฉื” ืงื˜ืกื˜ืจื•ืคื”.
09:50
And what happens next is the age of dinosaurs.
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื” ืื—ืจื™ื” ื”ื•ื ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื.
09:52
It was all a mistake; it should have never happened. But it did.
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ื”ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื” ื˜ืขื•ืช; ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืงืจื•ืช. ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืงืจื”.
09:56
Now, luckily,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืœืžื–ืœื ื•,
09:58
this Thrinaxodon, the size of a robin egg here:
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ื”ืชืจื™ืืงืกื•ื“ื•ืŸ, ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ืฆื” ืงื˜ื ื” ืคื”:
10:01
this is a skull I've discovered just before taking this picture --
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ื–ื”ื•ื™ ื’ื•ืœื’ื•ืœืช ืฉื’ื™ืœื™ืชื™ ืžืžืฉ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืฆื™ืœืžืชื™ ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ื–ื• --
10:04
there's a pen for scale; it's really tiny --
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ื™ืฉ ืคื” ืขื˜ ืœืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื”; ื”ื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ืงื˜ื ื” --
10:06
this is in the Lower Triassic, after the mass extinction has finished.
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ื–ื” ื‘ื˜ืจื™ืืก ื”ืชื—ืชื•ืŸ, ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื”ื”ื›ื—ื“ื” ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ืช ื”ืกืชื™ื™ืžื”.
10:10
You can see the eye socket and you can see the little teeth in the front.
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ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ืืจื•ื‘ืช ื”ืขื™ืŸ ื•ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื ืžืงื“ื™ืžื”.
10:13
If that does not survive, I'm not the thing giving this talk.
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ืื ื–ื” ืœื ืฉื•ืจื“, ืื ื™ ืœื ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื ื•ืชืŸ ืืช ื”ื”ืจืฆืื” ื”ื–ื•.
10:18
Something else is, because if that doesn't survive, we are not here;
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ื ื•ืชืŸ ืื•ืชื” ืžืฉื”ื• ืื—ืจ, ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืื ื–ื” ืœื ืฉื•ืจื“, ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ืคื”;
10:22
there are no mammals. It's that close; one species ekes through.
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ืื™ืŸ ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื. ื–ื” ื›ื–ื” ืงืจื•ื‘; ืžื™ืŸ ืื—ื“ ืคื•ืจืฅ ืืช ื”ืžื—ืกื•ื.
10:26
Well, can we say anything about the pattern of who survives and who doesn't?
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื•ืžืจ ืžืฉื”ื• ืขืœ ื”ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžื™ ืฉืฉื•ืจื“ ื•ืžื™ ืฉืœื?
10:29
Here's sort of the end of that 10 years of work.
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ื”ื ื” ื‘ืขืจืš ื”ืกื•ืฃ ืฉืœ 10 ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืฉืœ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”.
10:31
The ranges of stuff -- the red line is the mass extinction.
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ื˜ื•ื•ื— ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื -- ื”ืงื• ื”ืื“ื•ื ื”ื•ื ื”ื”ื›ื—ื“ื” ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ืช.
10:34
But we've got survivors and things that get through,
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืฉื•ืจื“ื™ื ื•ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืžืฆืœื™ื—ื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ,
10:36
and it turns out the things that get through preferentially are cold bloods.
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ื•ื™ื•ืฆื ืฉื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืžืฆืœื™ื—ื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื ื‘ื”ืขื“ืคื” ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืขื ื“ื ืงืจ.
10:40
Warm-blooded animals take a huge hit at this time.
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ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืขื ื“ื ื—ื ื—ื•ื˜ืคื™ื ืžื›ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื–ื”.
10:45
The survivors that do get through
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ื”ืฉื•ืจื“ื™ื ืฉืžืฆืœื™ื—ื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ
10:47
produce this world of crocodile-like creatures.
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ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื–ื” ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ืชื ื™ื ื™ื.
10:50
There's no dinosaurs yet; just this slow, saurian, scaly, nasty,
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ืื™ืŸ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื; ืจืง ื”ืžืงื•ื ื”ืื™ื˜ื™, ื–ื•ื—ืœ, ื‘ืขืœ ืงืฉืงืฉื™ื, ื”ืื›ื–ืจ,
10:54
swampy place with a couple of tiny mammals hiding in the fringes.
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ื”ื–ื” ืขื ื›ืžื” ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื ืžืชื—ื‘ืื™ื ื‘ืฆื“ื“ื™ื.
10:59
And there they would hide for 160 million years,
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ื•ืฉื ื”ื ื™ืชื—ื‘ืื• ื‘ืžืฉืš 160 ืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื”.
11:02
until liberated by that K-T asteroid.
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ืขื“ ืฉื™ืฉื•ื—ืจืจื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื•ืชื• ืืกื˜ืจื•ืื™ื“ ืฉืœ K-T.
11:05
So, if not impact, what?
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ืื– ืื ืœื ืคื’ื™ืขื”, ืžื” ื›ืŸ?
11:07
And the what, I think, is that we returned, over and over again,
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ื•ื”ืžื”, ืœื“ืขืชื™, ื”ื•ื ืฉืื ื• ื—ื–ืจื ื• ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื‘,
11:11
to the Pre-Cambrian world, that first microbial age,
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ืœืขื•ืœื ื”ืคืจื” ืงืžื‘ืจื™, ื”ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืžื™ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ,
11:14
and the microbes are still out there.
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ื•ื”ืžื™ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ.
11:16
They hate we animals.
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ื•ื”ื ืฉื•ื ืื™ื ืื•ืชื ื• ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช.
11:18
They really want their world back.
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ื”ื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ืฉืœื”ื ื‘ื—ื–ืจื”.
11:20
And they've tried over and over and over again.
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ื•ื”ื ื ื™ืกื• ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘.
11:24
This suggests to me that life causing these mass extinctions
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ื•ื–ื” ืžืœืžื“ ืื•ืชื™ ืฉื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืืช ื”ื”ื›ื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ืืœื”
11:27
because it did is inherently anti-Gaian.
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ื•ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื›ืš ื”ื ืœื›ืฉืขืฆืžื ืื ื˜ื™ ื’ืื™ืื ื™ื™ื.
11:30
This whole Gaia idea, that life makes the world better for itself --
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ื›ืœ ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื™ืช ื’ืื™ื”, ืฉื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื˜ื•ื‘ ืœืขืฆืžื• --
11:35
anybody been on a freeway on a Friday afternoon in Los Angeles
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ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืคื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื›ื‘ื™ืฉ ื”ืžื”ื™ืจ ื‘ื™ื•ื ืฉื™ืฉื™ ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืฆื”ืจื™ื™ื ื‘ืœื•ืก ืื ื’'ืœืก
11:39
believing in the Gaia theory? No.
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ื•ื”ืืžื™ืŸ ืื– ื‘ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื™ืช ื’ืื™ื”? ืœื.
11:41
So, I really suspect there's an alternative,
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ืื–, ืื ื™ ืžืื•ื“ ืžืืžื™ืŸ ืฉื™ืฉ ืืœื˜ืจื ื˜ื™ื‘ื”,
11:44
and that life does actually try to do itself in --
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ื•ืฉื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืืžืช ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื”ื–ื™ืง ืœืขืฆืžื --
11:46
not consciously, but just because it does.
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ืœื ื‘ืžื•ื“ืข, ืจืง ืžืขืฆื ื”ืคืขื•ืœื” ืฉืœื”ื.
11:48
And here's the weapon, it seems, that it did so over the last 500 million years.
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ื•ื”ื ื” ื”ื ืฉืง, ื›ืคื™ ื”ื ืจืื”, ืฉืคืขืœ ื‘ืžืฉืš 500 ืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช.
11:52
There are microbes which, through their metabolism,
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ื™ืฉื ื ืžื™ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื, ืฉื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื—ื™ืœื•ืฃ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉืœื”ื,
11:55
produce hydrogen sulfide,
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ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™ (H2S),
11:57
and they do so in large amounts.
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ื•ื”ื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช.
12:00
Hydrogen sulfide is very fatal to we humans.
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ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™ ืžืื•ื“ ืจืขื™ืœ ืœื ื• ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื.
12:03
As small as 200 parts per million will kill you.
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ื›ืžื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื” ืฉืœ 200 ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ืœืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ืชื”ืจื•ื’ ืื•ืชื ื•.
12:09
You only have to go to the Black Sea and a few other places -- some lakes --
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ืขืœื™ื›ื ืจืง ืœืœื›ืช ืœื™ื ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจ ื•ืขื•ื“ ื›ืžื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช -- ื›ืžื” ืื’ืžื™ื --
12:13
and get down, and you'll find that the water itself turns purple.
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ื•ืœืฆืœื•ืœ ืœืžื˜ื”, ื•ืชืžืฆืื• ืฉื ืžื™ื ืกื’ื•ืœื™ื.
12:17
It turns purple from the presence of numerous microbes
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ื”ื ื ืขืฉื™ื ืกื’ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืกืคืจ ืขืฆื•ื ืฉืœ ืžื™ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื
12:20
which have to have sunlight and have to have hydrogen sulfide,
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ืฉื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืื•ืจ ืฉืžืฉ ื•ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™,
12:23
and we can detect their presence today -- we can see them --
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ื•ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืืช ื ื•ื›ื—ื•ืชื ื”ื™ื•ื -- ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืื•ืชื --
12:27
but we can also detect their presence in the past.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื’ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืืช ืงื™ื•ืžื ื‘ืขื‘ืจ.
12:29
And the last three years have seen
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ื•ืฉืœื•ืฉ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืจืื•
12:31
an enormous breakthrough in a brand-new field.
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ืคืจื™ืฆืช ื“ืจืš ืขืฆื•ืžื” ื‘ืฉื“ื” ืžื—ืงืจื™ ืžืกื•ื’ ื—ื“ืฉ.
12:34
I am almost extinct --
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ืื ื™ ื›ืžืขื˜ ื–ืŸ ื ื›ื—ื“ --
12:36
I'm a paleontologist who collects fossils.
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ืื ื™ ืคืœื™ืื•ื ื˜ื•ืœื•ื’ ืฉืื•ืกืฃ ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื.
12:38
But the new wave of paleontologists -- my graduate students --
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ืื‘ืœ ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืคืœื™ืื•ื ื˜ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ื”ื—ื“ืฉ -- ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉืœื™ --
12:41
collect biomarkers.
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ืื•ืกืคื™ื ืกืžื ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื.
12:43
They take the sediment itself, they extract the oil from it,
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ื”ื ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืฉืงืข ืขืฆืžื•, ื”ื ืžื—ืœืฆื™ื ืืช ื”ืฉืžืŸ ืžืžื ื•,
12:47
and from that they can produce compounds
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ื•ืžื–ื” ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืคื™ืง ืชืจื›ื•ื‘ื•ืช
12:49
which turn out to be very specific to particular microbial groups.
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ืฉื”ืŸ ืžืืคื™ื™ืŸ ืกืคื™ืฆื™ืคื™ ืฉืœ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื™ื.
12:53
It's because lipids are so tough, they can get preserved in sediment
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ื–ื” ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืœื™ืคื™ื“ื™ื (ื—ื•ืžืฆื•ืช ืฉื•ืžืŸ) ื”ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืขืžื™ื“ื™ื, ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ืฉืžืจ ื‘ืžืฉืงืข
12:57
and last the hundreds of millions of years necessary,
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ื•ืœืฉืจื•ื“ ืืช ืžืื•ืช ืžืœื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ืฉื ื“ืจืฉื•ืช,
13:00
and be extracted and tell us who was there.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืžื•ืฆื™ื ืžืฉื ื•ืœืกืคืจ ืœื ื• ืžื™ ื”ื™ื” ืฉื.
13:02
And we know who was there. At the end of the Permian,
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžื™ ื”ื™ื” ืฉื. ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ืคืจื,
13:05
at many of these mass extinction boundaries,
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ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ื”ื›ื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•,
13:07
this is what we find: isorenieratene. It's very specific.
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ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื: ืื™ื–ื•ืจื ื™ืืจืชืŸ. ื”ื•ื ืžืื•ื“ ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™.
13:11
It can only occur if the surface of the ocean has no oxygen,
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ื”ื•ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื•ืคื™ืข ืจืง ืื ืื™ืŸ ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก,
13:15
and is totally saturated with hydrogen sulfide --
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ื•ื”ื ืจื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™ --
13:18
enough, for instance, to come out of solution.
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ืžืกืคื™ืง ืจื•ื•ื™ื™ื, ืœืžืฉืœ, ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฆืืช ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืชืžื™ืกื”.
13:21
This led Lee Kump, and others from Penn State and my group,
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ื–ื” ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ืœื™ ืงืืžืค, ื•ืื—ืจื™ื ืžืคืŸ ืกื˜ื™ื™ื˜ ื•ื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืฉืœื™,
13:25
to propose what I call the Kump Hypothesis:
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ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืืช ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื›ื ื•ืช ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืชื–ื” ืฉืœ ืงืืžืค:
13:28
many of the mass extinctions were caused by lowering oxygen,
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืŸ ื”ื”ื›ื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื ื’ืจืžื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืจืžื•ืช ื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ,
13:31
by high CO2. And the worst effect of global warming, it turns out:
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืจืžื•ืช CO2 ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื•ืช. ื•ื”ืืคืงื˜ ื”ื’ืจื•ืข ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ, ื›ื ืจืื”:
13:35
hydrogen sulfide being produced out of the oceans.
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ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™ ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื.
13:38
Well, what's the source of this?
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืžื” ื”ืžืงื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื–ื”?
13:40
In this particular case, the source over and over has been flood basalts.
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ืžืกื•ื™ื ื”ื–ื”, ื”ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ื™ื” ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ื–ืจืžื™ ื‘ื–ืœืช.
13:44
This is a view of the Earth now, if we extract a lot of it.
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ื–ื• ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืื ื ืกืœืง ืžืžื ื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื”ื.
13:47
And each of these looks like a hydrogen bomb;
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ื•ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžืืœื• ื ืจืื” ื›ืžื• ืคืฆืฆืช ืžื™ืžืŸ;
13:49
actually, the effects are even worse.
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ื”ื™ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ื’ืจื•ืขื•ืช.
13:51
This is when deep-Earth material comes to the surface,
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ื–ื” ืงื•ืจื” ื›ืฉื—ื•ืžืจ ืžืขื•ืžืง ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืžื’ื™ืข ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื—,
13:54
spreads out over the surface of the planet.
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ื•ืžืชืคืฉื˜ ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
13:56
Well, it's not the lava that kills anything,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื–ื” ืœื ื”ืœื‘ื” ืฉื”ื•ืจื’ืช,
13:59
it's the carbon dioxide that comes out with it.
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ื–ื” ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืฉืžื’ื™ืข ืื™ืชื”.
14:01
This isn't Volvos; this is volcanoes.
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ื–ื” ืœื ืžื›ื•ื ื™ื•ืช, ืืœื” ื”ืจื™ ื’ืขืฉ.
14:04
But carbon dioxide is carbon dioxide.
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ืื‘ืœ ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื”ื•ื ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™.
14:07
So, these are new data Rob Berner and I -- from Yale -- put together,
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ืื–, ืืœื• ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืฉืจื•ื‘ ื‘ืจื ืจ ื•ืื ื™ -- ืžื™ื™ืœ -- ื”ื‘ืื ื• ื™ื—ื“,
14:10
and what we try to do now is
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื”ื•ื
14:12
track the amount of carbon dioxide in the entire rock record --
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ืœืขืงื•ื‘ ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ืชื›ื•ืœืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื‘ื›ืœ ืชืขื•ื“ ื”ืกืœืขื™ื --
14:15
and we can do this from a variety of means --
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ื•ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ื›ืžื” ืืžืฆืขื™ื --
14:18
and put all the red lines here,
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ื•ืœืฉืจื˜ื˜ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืงื•ื•ื™ื ื”ืื“ื•ืžื™ื ืคื”,
14:20
when these -- what I call greenhouse mass extinctions -- took place.
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ื›ืฉืืœื• -- ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืžื›ื ื” ื”ื›ื—ื“ื•ืช ื—ืžืžื” -- ื”ืชืจื—ืฉื•.
14:23
And there's two things that are really evident here to me,
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืคื” ืฉื ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื”ื ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืชื™ ืจืื™ื™ืชื™ื™ื,
14:25
is that these extinctions take place when CO2 is going up.
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ืฉื”ื”ื›ื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ืงื•ืจื•ืช ื›ืฉืจืžื•ืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ-ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืขื•ืœื•ืช.
14:28
But the second thing that's not shown on here:
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉืœื ืžื•ืฆื’ ืคื”:
14:31
the Earth has never had any ice on it
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ืฉื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืœื ืจืื” ืฉื•ื ืงืจื— ืขืœ ืคื ื™ื•
14:34
when we've had 1,000 parts per million CO2.
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ื›ืฉื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืจื™ื›ื•ื– ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื’ื‘ื•ื” ืž-1000 ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ืœืžืœื™ื•ืŸ.
14:38
We are at 380 and climbing.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘-380 ื•ืžื˜ืคืกื™ื.
14:40
We should be up to a thousand in three centuries at the most,
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ืื ื• ืืžื•ืจื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘-1000 ืชื•ืš ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืžืื•ืช ืฉื ื” ืœื›ืœ ื”ื™ื•ืชืจ,
14:43
but my friend David Battisti in Seattle says he thinks a 100 years.
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ืื‘ืœ ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื“ื™ื•ื•ื™ื“ ื‘ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ ื‘ืกื™ืื˜ืœ ืื•ืžืจ ืฉืœื“ืขืชื• ืชื•ืš 100 ืฉื ื”.
14:47
So, there goes the ice caps,
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ืื–, ื›ืš ื”ื•ืœื›ื•ืช ืœื”ืŸ ื›ื™ืคื•ืช ื”ืงืจื—,
14:49
and there comes 240 feet of sea level rise.
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ื•ื”ื ื” ืžื’ื™ืขื” ืขืœื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ 75 ืžื˜ืจื™ื ื‘ืžืคืœืก ื”ื™ื.
14:53
I live in a view house now;
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ืื ื™ ื’ืจ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื ื•ืฃ ืขื›ืฉื™ื•;
14:55
I'm going to have waterfront.
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ืื ื™ ืื’ื•ืจ ื‘ืงื• ื”ืžื™ื.
14:57
All right, what's the consequence? The oceans probably turn purple.
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ื˜ื•ื‘, ืžื” ื”ืชื•ืฆืื”? ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื ื›ื ืจืื” ื™ื™ืขืฉื• ืกื’ื•ืœื™ื.
15:01
And we think this is the reason that complexity took so long
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ื•ืื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื–ื• ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœืงื— ืœืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื”ืจื‘ื” ื–ืžืŸ
15:04
to take place on planet Earth.
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ืœื”ื•ืคื™ืข ื‘ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
15:06
We had these hydrogen sulfide oceans for a very great long period.
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ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™ ื‘ืžืฉืš ื–ืžืŸ ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืืจื•ืš.
15:09
They stop complex life from existing.
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ื”ื ืžื•ื ืขื™ื ืžื—ื™ื™ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ืชืงื™ื™ื.
15:13
We know hydrogen sulfide is erupting presently a few places on the planet.
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ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื”ื™ื•ื ืฉืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™ ืžืชืคืจืฅ ื‘ื›ืžื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
15:18
And I throw this slide in -- this is me, actually, two months ago --
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ื•ืื ื™ ื–ื•ืจืง ืืช ื”ืฉืงื•ืคื™ืช ื”ื–ื• -- ื–ื” ืื ื™, ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืœืคื ื™ ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื™ื --
15:22
and I throw this slide in because here is my favorite animal, chambered nautilus.
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ื•ืื ื™ ื–ื•ืจืง ืืช ื”ืฉืงื•ืคื™ืช ื”ื–ื• ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื–ื• ื”ื—ื™ื” ื”ืื”ื•ื‘ื” ืขืœื™ื™, ื”ื ืื•ื˜ื™ืœื•ืก.
15:26
It's been on this planet since the animals first started -- 500 million years.
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ื”ื•ื ื ืžืฆื ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืžืื– ืจืืฉื™ืช ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช -- ืœืคื ื™ 500 ืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื”.
15:30
This is a tracking experiment, and any of you scuba divers,
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ื–ื”ื• ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ืžืขืงื‘, ื•ืื ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืžื›ื ื”ืฆื•ืœืœื™ื,
15:33
if you want to get involved in one of the coolest projects ever,
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ืื ืืชื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืขื•ืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื ื”ืžื’ื ื™ื‘ื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ,
15:36
this is off the Great Barrier Reef.
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ื–ื” ืžืฉื•ื ื™ืช ื”ืžื—ืกื•ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”.
15:38
And as we speak now,
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ื ื• ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื,
15:39
these nautilus are tracking out their behaviors to us.
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ื”ื ืื•ื˜ื™ืœื•ืกื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืžืืคืฉืจื™ื ืœื ื• ืœืขืงื•ื‘ ืื—ืจื™ ื”ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
15:42
But the thing about this is that every once in a while
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืคื” ื”ื•ื ืฉืžื“ื™ ืคืขื
15:46
we divers can run into trouble,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื”ืฆื•ืœืœื ื™ื ื ืงืœืขื™ื ืœืฆืจื•ืช,
15:48
so I'm going to do a little thought experiment here.
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ืื– ืื ื™ ืขื•ืžื“ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืคื” ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ืงื˜ืŸ.
15:50
This is a Great White Shark that ate some of my traps.
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ื–ื” ื›ืจื™ืฉ ืœื‘ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืื›ืœ ื›ืžื” ืžืŸ ื”ืžืœื›ื•ื“ื•ืช ืฉืœื™.
15:53
We pulled it up; up it comes. So, it's out there with me at night.
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ืžืฉื›ื ื• ืื•ืชื• ืžืขืœื”; ื”ื•ื ืขื•ืœื”. ื•ื›ืš, ื”ื•ื ืฉื ืื™ืชื™ ื‘ืœื™ืœื”.
15:56
So, I'm swimming along, and it takes off my leg.
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ืื– ืื ื™ ืฉื•ื—ื” ืœื™, ื•ื”ื•ื ื ื•ื’ืก ื•ืžื•ืจื™ื“ ืœื™ ืืช ื”ืจื’ืœ.
15:59
I'm 80 miles from shore, what's going to happen to me?
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ืื ื™ ืžืจื•ื—ืง 130 ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจ ืžื”ื—ื•ืฃ, ืžื” ื™ืงืจื” ืœื™?
16:02
Well now, I die.
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ื˜ื•ื‘ ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืื ื™ ืืžื•ืช.
16:04
Five years from now, this is what I hope happens to me:
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ื—ืžืฉ ืฉื ื™ื ืžื”ื™ื•ื, ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืžืงื•ื•ื” ืฉื™ืงืจื” ืœื™:
16:06
I'm taken back to the boat, I'm given a gas mask:
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ืื ื™ ื ืœืงื— ื—ื–ืจื” ืœืกื™ืจื”, ืžืœื‘ื™ืฉื™ื ืœื™ ืžืกื›ืช ื’ื–:
16:09
80 parts per million hydrogen sulfide.
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80 ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ืœืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™.
16:12
I'm then thrown in an ice pond, I'm cooled 15 degrees lower
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ืื– ืื ื™ ื ื–ืจืง ืœื‘ืจื™ื›ืช ืงืจื—, ื•ืžืงื•ืจืจ ื‘-15 ืžืขืœื•ืช
16:16
and I could be taken to a critical care hospital.
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ื•ืืคืฉืจ ืœืงื—ืช ืื•ืชื™ ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื ืžืจืฅ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื—ื•ืœื™ื.
16:20
And the reason I could do that is because we mammals
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ื•ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืฉืื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื” ื”ื™ื ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื
16:22
have gone through a series of these hydrogen sulfide events,
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ืขื‘ืจื ื• ืกื“ืจื” ืฉืœ ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™ ื›ืืœื”
16:25
and our bodies have adapted.
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ื•ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ืฉืœื ื• ื”ืชืื™ื ืืช ืขืฆืžื•.
16:27
And we can now use this as what I think will be a major medical breakthrough.
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื ืฆืœ ืืช ื–ื” ืœืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืชื”ื™ื” ืคืจื™ืฆืช ื“ืจืš ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ื‘ืจืคื•ืื”.
16:31
This is Mark Roth. He was funded by DARPA.
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ื–ื” ืžืืจืง ืจื•ืช'. ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืžืŸ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืกื•ื›ื ื•ืช ื”ืคื™ืชื•ื— ืฉืœ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื”ื’ื ื”.
16:33
Tried to figure out how to save Americans after battlefield injuries.
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ื‘ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื“ืจืš ืื™ืš ืœื”ืฆื™ืœ ื—ื™ื™ืœื™ื ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื ืžืคืฆื™ืขื•ืช ื‘ืฉื“ื” ื”ืงืจื‘.
16:37
He bleeds out pigs.
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ื”ื•ื ืžื“ืžื ื—ื–ื™ืจื™ื.
16:39
He puts in 80 parts per million hydrogen sulfide --
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ื”ื•ื ืžื›ื ื™ืก ืœื”ื 80 ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ืœืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™ --
16:42
the same stuff that survived these past mass extinctions --
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ืื•ืชื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉืฉืจื“ ืืช ื”ื”ื›ื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• --
16:45
and he turns a mammal into a reptile.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืคืš ืืช ื”ื™ื•ื ืง ืœื–ื•ื—ืœ.
16:47
"I believe we are seeing in this response the result of mammals and reptiles
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"ืื ื™ ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื”ื–ื• ืืช ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉื™ื•ื ืงื™ื ื•ื–ื•ื—ืœื™ื
16:51
having undergone a series of exposures to H2S."
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ื ื—ืฉืคื• ืœืกื“ืจืช ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™".
16:54
I got this email from him two years ago;
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ืงื™ื‘ืœืชื™ ืืช ื”ืžื™ื™ืœ ื”ื–ื” ืžืžื ื• ืœืคื™ ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื;
16:56
he said, "I think I've got an answer to some of your questions."
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ื”ื•ื ืืžืจ, "ื ื“ืžื” ืœื™ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื™ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืœื—ืœืง ืžืฉืืœื•ืชื™ืš".
16:59
So, he now has taken mice down
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ืื–, ื”ื•ื ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืคื™ืœ ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื
17:01
for as many as four hours, sometimes six hours,
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ืœื–ืžืŸ ืฉืœ ืขื“ ืืจื‘ืข ืฉืขื•ืช, ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืฉืฉ ืฉืขื•ืช,
17:05
and these are brand-new data he sent me on the way over here.
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ื•ืืœื• ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ื ืฉืœื— ืœื™ ื‘ื“ืจืš ืœืคื”.
17:07
On the top, now, that is a temperature record of a mouse who has gone through --
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ื‘ื—ืœืง ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ, ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื–ื” ื’ืจืฃ ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขื›ื‘ืจ ืฉืขื‘ืจ --
17:12
the dotted line, the temperatures.
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ื”ืงื• ื”ืžื ื•ืงื“, ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื•ืช.
17:14
So, the temperature starts at 25 centigrade,
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ืื– ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืžืชื—ื™ืœื” ื‘-25 ืžืขืœื•ืช,
17:16
and down it goes, down it goes.
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ื•ืžื˜ื” ื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืจื“ืช, ืžื˜ื” ื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืจื“ืช.
17:17
Six hours later, up goes the temperature.
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ืฉืฉ ืฉืขื•ืช ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืžืขืœื” ืขื•ืœื” ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื”.
17:19
Now, the same mouse is given 80 parts per million hydrogen sulfide
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืื•ืชื• ื”ืขื›ื‘ืจ ืžืงื‘ืœ ืžื ื” ืฉืœ 80 ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ืœืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™
17:24
in this solid graph,
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ื‘ื’ืจืฃ ื”ืจืฆื•ืฃ.
17:26
and look what happens to its temperature.
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ื•ืชืจืื• ืžื” ืงื•ืจื” ืœื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืฉืœื•.
17:28
Its temperature drops.
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ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืฉืœื• ืฆื•ื ื—ืช.
17:30
It goes down to 15 degrees centigrade from 35,
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ื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืจื“ืช ืœ-15 ืžืขืœื•ืช ืž-35,
17:34
and comes out of this perfectly fine.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ืฆื ืžื–ื” ืœืœื ืคื’ืข.
17:37
Here is a way we can get people to critical care.
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ื”ื ื” ื“ืจืš ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืื ืฉื™ื ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื ืžืจืฅ.
17:40
Here's how we can bring people cold enough to last till we get critical care.
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ื”ื ื” ื“ืจืš ืœื”ื•ืจื™ื“ ืืช ื—ื•ื ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืื•ืชื ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื ืžืจืฅ.
17:46
Now, you're all thinking, yeah, what about the brain tissue?
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืืชื ื›ื•ืœื›ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื, ื ื›ื•ืŸ, ืื‘ืœ ืžื” ืขื ืจืงืžืช ื”ืžื•ื—?
17:50
And so this is one of the great challenges that is going to happen.
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ืื– ื–ื” ืื—ื“ ื”ืืชื’ืจื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืฉืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ื‘ืคื ื™ื ื•.
17:53
You're in an accident. You've got two choices:
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ืืชื ื‘ืชืื•ื ื”. ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืฉืชื™ ื‘ืจื™ืจื•ืช:
17:55
you're going to die, or you're going to take the hydrogen sulfide
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ืื• ืฉืชืžื•ืชื•, ืื• ืฉืชื™ืงื—ื• ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™
17:58
and, say, 75 percent of you is saved, mentally.
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ื•ืื–, ืื•ืœื™, 75 ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ืžื›ื ื™ื™ื ืฆืœื•, ื ืคืฉื™ืช.
18:01
What are you going to do?
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ืžื” ืชืขืฉื•?
18:03
Do we all have to have a little button saying, Let me die?
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ื”ืื ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื•ืœื ื• ื›ืคืชื•ืจ ืงื˜ืŸ ืฉืื•ืžืจ, ืชื ื• ืœื™ ืœืžื•ืช?
18:06
This is coming towards us,
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ื–ื” ื‘ื ืœืขื‘ืจื ื•,
18:08
and I think this is going to be a revolution.
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ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื• ืชื”ื™ื” ืžื”ืคื™ื›ื”.
18:10
We're going to save lives, but there's going to be a cost to it.
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ืื ื• ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ืœื”ืฆื™ืœ ื—ื™ื™ื, ืื‘ืœ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื–ื” ืžื—ื™ืจ.
18:13
The new view of mass extinctions is, yes, we were hit,
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ื”ืžื‘ื˜ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ืขืœ ื”ื›ื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ื•ื, ื›ืŸ, ื ืคื’ืขื ื•,
18:15
and, yes, we have to think about the long term,
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ื•ื›ืŸ, ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื”ื˜ื•ื•ื— ื”ืืจื•ืš,
18:17
because we will get hit again.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื ื™ืคื’ืข ืฉื•ื‘.
18:19
But there's a far worse danger confronting us.
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืกื›ื ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื•ืžื“ืช ืœืคืชื—ื ื•.
18:21
We can easily go back to the hydrogen sulfide world.
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ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ื‘ืงืœื•ืช ืœืขื•ืœื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ืžืŸ ื”ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™.
18:24
Give us a few millennia --
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ืชื ื• ืœื ื• ื›ืžื” ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื --
18:26
and we humans should last those few millennia --
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ื•ืื ื• ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื ื ืฉืจื•ื“ ืืช ืืœืคื™ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” --
18:28
will it happen again? If we continue, it'll happen again.
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ื”ืื ื–ื” ื™ืงืจื” ืฉื•ื‘? ืื ื ืžืฉื™ืš ื–ื” ื™ืงืจื” ืฉื•ื‘.
18:32
How many of us flew here?
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ื›ืžื” ืžืื™ืชื ื• ื›ืืŸ ื˜ืกื•?
18:34
How many of us have gone through
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ื›ืžื” ืžืื™ืชื ื• ืคื” ืขื‘ืจื•
18:36
our entire Kyoto quota
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ืืช ื›ืœ ืžื›ืกืช ืงื™ื•ื˜ื• ืฉืœื ื•
18:39
just for flying this year?
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ืจืง ื‘ื˜ื™ืกื•ืช ื”ืฉื ื”?
18:41
How many of you have exceeded it? Yeah, I've certainly exceeded it.
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ื›ืžื” ืžืื™ืชื ื• ื—ืจื’ื• ืžื”ืžื›ืกื”? ื›ืŸ, ืื ื™ ื‘ื•ื“ืื™ ื—ืจื’ืชื™ ืžืžื ื”.
18:44
We have a huge problem facing us as a species.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื‘ืขื™ื” ืขืžื•ืงื” ืœืคื ื™ื ื• ื›ืžื™ืŸ.
18:47
We have to beat this.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืก ืืช ื–ื”.
18:49
I want to be able to go back to this reef. Thank you.
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ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื’ืœ ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœืฉื•ื ื™ืช ื”ื–ื•. ืชื•ื“ื” ืœื›ื.
18:53
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
18:59
Chris Anderson: I've just got one question for you, Peter.
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ื›ืจื™ืก ืื ื“ืจืกื•ืŸ: ื™ืฉ ืœื™ ืจืง ืฉืืœื” ืื—ืช ืืœื™ืš, ืคื™ื˜ืจ.
19:01
Am I understanding you right, that what you're saying here
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ืื ื™ ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชืš ื ื›ื•ืŸ, ืฉืžื” ืฉืืชื” ืื•ืžืจ ืคื”
19:03
is that we have in our own bodies
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื‘ื’ื•ืคื ื•
19:05
a biochemical response to hydrogen sulfide
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ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ื•ื›ื™ืžื™ืช ืœืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™
19:09
that in your mind proves that there have been past mass extinctions
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ืฉื‘ืขื™ื ื™ืš ืžื•ื›ื™ื—ื” ืฉื”ื™ื• ื‘ืขื‘ืจ ื”ื›ื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื•ืช
19:12
due to climate change?
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ืืงืœื™ื?
19:14
Peter Ward: Yeah, every single cell in us
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ืคื™ื˜ืจ ื•ื•ืืจื“: ื›ืŸ, ื›ืœ ืชื ื‘ื’ื•ืคื ื•
19:16
can produce minute quantities of hydrogen sulfide in great crises.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืคื™ืง ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื–ืขืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจืชื™ ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ืช ืžืฉื‘ืจ.
19:20
This is what Roth has found out.
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ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืจื•ืช' ื’ื™ืœื”.
19:21
So, what we're looking at now: does it leave a signal?
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ืื– ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ื•ื“ืงื™ื ื›ืขืช ื”ื•ื: ื”ืื ื–ื” ืžืฉืื™ืจ ืกื™ืžืŸ?
19:23
Does it leave a signal in bone or in plant?
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ื”ืื ื–ื” ืžืฉืื™ืจ ืกื™ืžืŸ ื‘ืขืฆื ืื• ื‘ืฆืžื—?
19:25
And we go back to the fossil record and we could try to detect
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ื–ืจื™ื ืœืชืขื•ื“ ื”ืžืื•ื‘ืŸ ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื‘ืจืจ
19:28
how many of these have happened in the past.
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ื›ืžื” ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ื›ืืœื” ืงืจื• ื‘ืขื‘ืจ.
19:30
CA: It's simultaneously
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ื›"ื: ื–ื” ื‘ื• ื–ืžื ื™ืช
19:32
an incredible medical technique, but also a terrifying ...
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ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื” ืจืื•ืคื™ืช ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื”, ืื‘ืœ ื’ื ืžืคื—ื™ื“...
19:35
PW: Blessing and curse.
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ืค"ื•: ื‘ืจื›ื” ื•ืงืœืœื”
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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