Esther Duflo: Social experiments to fight poverty

468,900 views ・ 2010-05-04

TED


Please double-click on the English subtitles below to play the video.

00:18
So here it is. You can check: I am short, I'm French,
0
18260
2000
00:20
I have a pretty strong French accent,
1
20260
2000
00:22
so that's going to be clear in a moment.
2
22260
3000
00:26
Maybe a sobering thought
3
26260
2000
00:28
and something you all know about.
4
28260
2000
00:30
And I suspect many of you gave
5
30260
2000
00:32
something to the people of Haiti this year.
6
32260
3000
00:35
And there is something else
7
35260
2000
00:37
I believe in the back of your mind
8
37260
2000
00:39
you also know.
9
39260
2000
00:41
That is, every day,
10
41260
2000
00:43
25,000 children die
11
43260
2000
00:45
of entirely preventable causes.
12
45260
3000
00:48
That's a Haiti earthquake every eight days.
13
48260
3000
00:51
And I suspect many of you probably gave something
14
51260
2000
00:53
towards that problem as well,
15
53260
2000
00:55
but somehow it doesn't happen
16
55260
2000
00:57
with the same intensity.
17
57260
2000
00:59
So why is that?
18
59260
2000
01:02
Well, here is a thought experiment for you.
19
62260
3000
01:05
Imagine you have a few million dollars that you've raised --
20
65260
2000
01:07
maybe you're a politician in a developing country
21
67260
3000
01:10
and you have a budget to spend. You want to spend it on the poor:
22
70260
3000
01:13
How do you go about it?
23
73260
3000
01:16
Do you believe the people who tell you
24
76260
2000
01:18
that all we need to do is to spend money?
25
78260
2000
01:20
That we know how to eradicate poverty,
26
80260
3000
01:23
we just need to do more?
27
83260
2000
01:25
Or do you believe the people who tell you that
28
85260
2000
01:27
aid is not going to help, on the contrary it might hurt,
29
87260
3000
01:30
it might exacerbate corruption, dependence, etc.?
30
90260
3000
01:34
Or maybe you turn to the past.
31
94260
2000
01:36
After all, we have spent billions of dollars on aid.
32
96260
3000
01:39
Maybe you look at the past and see.
33
99260
2000
01:41
Has it done any good?
34
101260
2000
01:43
And, sadly, we don't know.
35
103260
2000
01:45
And worst of all, we will never know.
36
105260
3000
01:49
And the reason is that -- take Africa for example.
37
109260
2000
01:51
Africans have already got a lot of aid.
38
111260
2000
01:53
These are the blue bars.
39
113260
2000
01:55
And the GDP in Africa is not making much progress.
40
115260
3000
01:58
Okay, fine. How do you know what
41
118260
2000
02:00
would have happened without the aid?
42
120260
2000
02:02
Maybe it would have been much worse,
43
122260
3000
02:05
or maybe it would have been better.
44
125260
2000
02:07
We have no idea. We don't know what the counterfactual is.
45
127260
3000
02:10
There's only one Africa.
46
130260
2000
02:12
So what do you do?
47
132260
2000
02:14
To give the aid, and hope and pray that something comes out of it?
48
134260
3000
02:18
Or do you focus on your everyday life
49
138260
3000
02:21
and let the earthquake every eight days
50
141260
2000
02:23
continue to happen?
51
143260
2000
02:25
The thing is, if we don't know
52
145260
2000
02:27
whether we are doing any good,
53
147260
2000
02:29
we are not any better
54
149260
2000
02:31
than the Medieval doctors and their leeches.
55
151260
3000
02:34
Sometimes the patient gets better, sometimes the patient dies.
56
154260
3000
02:37
Is it the leeches? Is it something else?
57
157260
3000
02:40
We don't know.
58
160260
2000
02:42
So here are some other questions.
59
162260
2000
02:44
They're smaller questions,
60
164260
2000
02:46
but they are not that small.
61
166260
2000
02:48
Immunization, that's the cheapest way
62
168260
3000
02:51
to save a child's life.
63
171260
2000
02:53
And the world has spent a lot of money on it:
64
173260
2000
02:55
The GAVI and the Gates Foundations
65
175260
2000
02:57
are each pledging a lot of money towards it,
66
177260
2000
02:59
and developing countries themselves have been doing a lot of effort.
67
179260
3000
03:02
And yet, every year
68
182260
2000
03:04
at least 25 million children
69
184260
2000
03:06
do not get the immunization they should get.
70
186260
3000
03:09
So this is what you call a "last mile problem."
71
189260
3000
03:12
The technology is there,
72
192260
2000
03:14
the infrastructure is there,
73
194260
2000
03:16
and yet it doesn't happen.
74
196260
2000
03:18
So you have your million.
75
198260
2000
03:20
How do you use your million
76
200260
2000
03:22
to solve this last mile problem?
77
202260
2000
03:24
And here's another question:
78
204260
2000
03:26
Malaria. Malaria kills almost
79
206260
3000
03:29
900,000 people every year,
80
209260
3000
03:32
most of them in Sub-Saharan Africa,
81
212260
2000
03:34
most of them under five.
82
214260
2000
03:36
In fact, that is the leading cause of under-five mortality.
83
216260
3000
03:39
We already know how to kill malaria,
84
219260
3000
03:42
but some people come to you and say,
85
222260
2000
03:44
"You have your millions. How about bed nets?"
86
224260
3000
03:47
Bed nets are very cheap.
87
227260
2000
03:49
For 10 dollars, you can manufacture and ship
88
229260
3000
03:52
an insecticide treated bed net
89
232260
2000
03:54
and you can teach someone to use them.
90
234260
2000
03:56
And, not only do they protect the people who sleep under them,
91
236260
3000
03:59
but they have these great contagion benefits.
92
239260
2000
04:01
If half of a community sleeps under a net,
93
241260
3000
04:04
the other half also benefits
94
244260
2000
04:06
because the contagion of the disease spread.
95
246260
3000
04:09
And yet, only a quarter of kids at risk sleep under a net.
96
249260
3000
04:12
Societies should be willing to go out
97
252260
2000
04:14
and subsidize the net, give them for free,
98
254260
2000
04:16
or, for that matter, pay people to use them
99
256260
2000
04:18
because of those contagion benefits.
100
258260
2000
04:20
"Not so fast," say other people.
101
260260
2000
04:22
"If you give the nets for free,
102
262260
2000
04:24
people are not going to value them.
103
264260
2000
04:26
They're not going to use them,
104
266260
2000
04:28
or at least they're not going to use them as bed nets,
105
268260
2000
04:30
maybe as fishing nets."
106
270260
2000
04:32
So, what do you do?
107
272260
2000
04:34
Do you give the nets for free to maximize coverage,
108
274260
2000
04:36
or do you make people pay
109
276260
2000
04:38
in order to make sure that they really value them?
110
278260
2000
04:40
How do you know?
111
280260
2000
04:42
And a third question: Education.
112
282260
2000
04:44
Maybe that's the solution, maybe we should send kids to school.
113
284260
2000
04:46
But how do you do that?
114
286260
2000
04:48
Do you hire teachers? Do you build more schools?
115
288260
2000
04:50
Do you provide school lunch?
116
290260
2000
04:52
How do you know?
117
292260
2000
04:54
So here is the thing.
118
294260
2000
04:56
I cannot answer the big question,
119
296260
2000
04:58
whether aid did any good or not.
120
298260
2000
05:00
But these three questions, I can answer them.
121
300260
3000
05:04
It's not the Middle Ages anymore,
122
304260
2000
05:06
it's the 21st century.
123
306260
2000
05:08
And in the 20th century,
124
308260
2000
05:10
randomized, controlled trials
125
310260
2000
05:12
have revolutionized medicine
126
312260
2000
05:14
by allowing us to distinguish
127
314260
2000
05:16
between drugs that work
128
316260
2000
05:18
and drugs that don't work.
129
318260
2000
05:20
And you can do the same
130
320260
2000
05:22
randomized, controlled trial for social policy.
131
322260
3000
05:25
You can put social innovation to the same
132
325260
2000
05:27
rigorous, scientific tests
133
327260
2000
05:29
that we use for drugs.
134
329260
2000
05:31
And in this way, you can take the guesswork
135
331260
3000
05:34
out of policy-making
136
334260
2000
05:36
by knowing what works,
137
336260
2000
05:38
what doesn't work and why.
138
338260
2000
05:40
And I'll give you some examples with those three questions.
139
340260
3000
05:44
So I start with immunization.
140
344260
2000
05:46
Here's Udaipur District, Rajasthan. Beautiful.
141
346260
3000
05:49
Well, when I started working there,
142
349260
2000
05:51
about one percent of children
143
351260
2000
05:53
were fully immunized.
144
353260
2000
05:55
That's bad, but there are places like that.
145
355260
3000
05:58
Now, it's not because the vaccines are not there --
146
358260
2000
06:00
they are there and they are free --
147
360260
2000
06:02
and it's not because parents do not care about their kids.
148
362260
3000
06:05
The same child that is not immunized against measles,
149
365260
3000
06:08
if they do get measles, parents will spend
150
368260
2000
06:10
thousands of rupees to help them.
151
370260
2000
06:12
So you get these empty village subcenters
152
372260
2000
06:14
and crowded hospitals.
153
374260
2000
06:16
So what is the problem?
154
376260
2000
06:18
Well, part of the problem, surely, is people do not fully understand.
155
378260
3000
06:21
After all, in this country as well,
156
381260
2000
06:23
all sorts of myths and misconceptions
157
383260
2000
06:25
go around immunization.
158
385260
3000
06:28
So if that's the case, that's difficult,
159
388260
2000
06:30
because persuasion is really difficult.
160
390260
3000
06:33
But maybe there is another problem as well.
161
393260
2000
06:35
It's going from intention to action.
162
395260
3000
06:38
Imagine you are a mother
163
398260
2000
06:40
in Udaipur District, Rajasthan.
164
400260
2000
06:42
You have to walk a few kilometers to get your kids immunized.
165
402260
3000
06:45
And maybe when you get there, what you find is this:
166
405260
2000
06:47
The subcenter is closed. Ao you have to come back,
167
407260
2000
06:49
and you are so busy and you have so many other things to do,
168
409260
3000
06:52
you will always tend to postpone and postpone,
169
412260
2000
06:54
and eventually it gets too late.
170
414260
2000
06:56
Well, if that's the problem, then that's much easier.
171
416260
3000
06:59
Because A, we can make it easy,
172
419260
3000
07:02
and B, we can maybe
173
422260
2000
07:04
give people a reason to act today,
174
424260
2000
07:06
rather than wait till tomorrow.
175
426260
2000
07:08
So these are simple ideas, but we didn't know.
176
428260
2000
07:10
So let's try them.
177
430260
2000
07:12
So what we did is we did a randomized, controlled trial
178
432260
3000
07:15
in 134 villages in Udaipur Districts.
179
435260
2000
07:17
So the blue dots
180
437260
2000
07:19
are selected randomly.
181
439260
2000
07:21
We made it easy -- I'll tell you how in a moment.
182
441260
3000
07:24
In the red dots, we made it easy
183
444260
2000
07:26
and gave people a reason to act now.
184
446260
2000
07:28
The white dots are comparisons, nothing changed.
185
448260
3000
07:31
So we make it easy by organizing
186
451260
2000
07:33
this monthly camp where people can
187
453260
2000
07:35
get their kids immunized.
188
455260
2000
07:37
And then you make it easy
189
457260
2000
07:39
and give a reason to act now
190
459260
2000
07:41
by adding a kilo of lentils for each immunization.
191
461260
3000
07:44
Now, a kilo of lentils is tiny.
192
464260
3000
07:47
It's never going to convince anybody
193
467260
2000
07:49
to do something that they don't want to do.
194
469260
2000
07:51
On the other hand, if your problem is you tend to postpone,
195
471260
3000
07:54
then it might give you a reason to act today
196
474260
2000
07:56
rather than later.
197
476260
2000
07:58
So what do we find?
198
478260
2000
08:00
Well, beforehand, everything is the same.
199
480260
2000
08:02
That's the beauty of randomization.
200
482260
2000
08:04
Afterwards,
201
484260
2000
08:06
the camp -- just having the camp --
202
486260
2000
08:08
increases immunization from six percent to 17 percent.
203
488260
2000
08:10
That's full immunization.
204
490260
2000
08:12
That's not bad, that's a good improvement.
205
492260
2000
08:14
Add the lentils and you reach to 38 percent.
206
494260
3000
08:17
So here you've got your answer.
207
497260
2000
08:19
Make it easy and give a kilo of lentils,
208
499260
2000
08:21
you multiply immunization rate by six.
209
501260
3000
08:24
Now, you might say, "Well, but it's not sustainable.
210
504260
2000
08:26
We cannot keep giving lentils to people."
211
506260
2000
08:28
Well, it turns out it's wrong economics,
212
508260
2000
08:30
because it is cheaper
213
510260
2000
08:32
to give lentils than not to give them.
214
512260
2000
08:34
Since you have to pay for the nurse anyway,
215
514260
2000
08:36
the cost per immunization
216
516260
2000
08:38
ends up being cheaper if you give incentives than if you don't.
217
518260
3000
08:42
How about bed nets?
218
522260
2000
08:44
Should you give them for free, or should you ask people to pay for them?
219
524260
3000
08:47
So the answer hinges
220
527260
2000
08:49
on the answer to three simple questions.
221
529260
2000
08:51
One is: If people must pay for a bed net,
222
531260
3000
08:54
are they going to purchase them?
223
534260
2000
08:56
The second one is:
224
536260
2000
08:58
If I give bed nets for free,
225
538260
2000
09:00
are people going to use them?
226
540260
2000
09:02
And the third one is:
227
542260
2000
09:04
Do free bed nets discourage future purchase?
228
544260
2000
09:06
The third one is important
229
546260
2000
09:08
because if we think people get used to handouts,
230
548260
3000
09:11
it might destroy markets to distribute free bed nets.
231
551260
3000
09:14
Now this is a debate that has generated
232
554260
2000
09:16
a lot of emotion and angry rhetoric.
233
556260
3000
09:19
It's more ideological than practical,
234
559260
2000
09:21
but it turns out it's an easy question.
235
561260
2000
09:23
We can know the answer to this question.
236
563260
2000
09:25
We can just run an experiment.
237
565260
2000
09:27
And many experiments have been run, and they all have the same results,
238
567260
2000
09:29
so I'm just going to talk to you about one.
239
569260
3000
09:32
And this one that was in Kenya,
240
572260
2000
09:34
they went around and distributed to people
241
574260
2000
09:36
vouchers, discount vouchers.
242
576260
2000
09:38
So people with their voucher
243
578260
2000
09:40
could get the bed net in the local pharmacy.
244
580260
2000
09:42
And some people get 100 percent discount,
245
582260
3000
09:45
and some people get 20 percent discounts,
246
585260
2000
09:47
and some people get 50 percent discount, etc.
247
587260
3000
09:50
And now we can see what happens.
248
590260
2000
09:52
So, how about the purchasing?
249
592260
2000
09:54
Well, what you can see is that
250
594260
2000
09:56
when people have to pay for their bed nets,
251
596260
2000
09:58
the coverage rate really falls down a lot.
252
598260
3000
10:01
So even with partial subsidy,
253
601260
2000
10:03
three dollars is still not the full cost of a bed net,
254
603260
3000
10:06
and now you only have 20 percent of the people with the bed nets,
255
606260
2000
10:08
you lose the health immunity, that's not great.
256
608260
3000
10:11
Second thing is, how about the use?
257
611260
2000
10:13
Well, the good news is, people, if they have the bed nets,
258
613260
2000
10:15
will use the bed nets regardless of how they got it.
259
615260
3000
10:18
If they get it for free, they use it.
260
618260
2000
10:20
If they have to pay for it, they use it.
261
620260
2000
10:22
How about the long term?
262
622260
2000
10:24
In the long term,
263
624260
2000
10:26
people who got the free bed nets,
264
626260
2000
10:28
one year later, were offered the option
265
628260
2000
10:30
to purchase a bed net at two dollars.
266
630260
3000
10:33
And people who got the free one
267
633260
2000
10:35
were actually more likely to purchase the second one
268
635260
3000
10:38
than people who didn't get a free one.
269
638260
2000
10:40
So people do not get used to handouts; they get used to nets.
270
640260
3000
10:43
Maybe we need to give them a little bit more credit.
271
643260
3000
10:48
So, that's for bed nets. So you will think, "That's great.
272
648260
2000
10:50
You know how to immunize kids, you know how to give bed nets."
273
650260
3000
10:53
But what politicians need is a range of options.
274
653260
3000
10:56
They need to know: Out of all the things I could do,
275
656260
3000
10:59
what is the best way to achieve my goals?
276
659260
3000
11:02
So suppose your goal is to get kids into school.
277
662260
3000
11:05
There are so many things you could do. You could pay for uniforms,
278
665260
3000
11:08
you could eliminate fees, you could build latrines,
279
668260
2000
11:10
you could give girls sanitary pads, etc., etc.
280
670260
3000
11:13
So what's the best?
281
673260
2000
11:15
Well, at some level, we think
282
675260
2000
11:17
all of these things should work.
283
677260
2000
11:19
So, is that sufficient? If we think they should work intuitively,
284
679260
2000
11:21
should we go for them?
285
681260
2000
11:23
Well, in business, that's certainly not the way we would go about it.
286
683260
3000
11:27
Consider for example
287
687260
2000
11:29
transporting goods.
288
689260
2000
11:31
Before the canals were invented
289
691260
2000
11:33
in Britain before the Industrial Revolution,
290
693260
3000
11:36
goods used to go on horse carts.
291
696260
2000
11:38
And then canals were built,
292
698260
2000
11:40
and with the same horseman and the same horse,
293
700260
3000
11:43
you could carry ten times as much cargo.
294
703260
3000
11:46
So should they have continued
295
706260
2000
11:48
to carry the goods on the horse carts, on the ground,
296
708260
3000
11:51
that they would eventually get there?
297
711260
2000
11:53
Well, if that had been the case,
298
713260
2000
11:55
there would have been no Industrial Revolution.
299
715260
2000
11:57
So why shouldn't we do the same with social policy?
300
717260
3000
12:00
In technology, we spend so much time
301
720260
2000
12:02
experimenting, fine-tuning,
302
722260
2000
12:04
getting the absolute cheapest way to do something,
303
724260
2000
12:06
so why aren't we doing that with social policy?
304
726260
3000
12:09
Well, with experiments, what you can do
305
729260
2000
12:11
is answer a simple question.
306
731260
2000
12:13
Suppose you have 100 dollars to spend
307
733260
2000
12:15
on various interventions.
308
735260
2000
12:17
How many extra years of education
309
737260
2000
12:19
do you get for your hundred dollars?
310
739260
2000
12:21
Now I'm going to show you
311
741260
2000
12:23
what we get with various education interventions.
312
743260
3000
12:27
So the first ones are if you want the usual suspects,
313
747260
2000
12:29
hire teachers, school meals,
314
749260
2000
12:31
school uniforms, scholarships.
315
751260
2000
12:33
And that's not bad. For your hundred dollars,
316
753260
2000
12:35
you get between one and three extra years of education.
317
755260
3000
12:39
Things that don't work so well is bribing parents,
318
759260
2000
12:41
just because so many kids are already going to school
319
761260
3000
12:44
that you end up spending a lot of money.
320
764260
2000
12:46
And here are the most surprising results.
321
766260
3000
12:49
Tell people the benefits of education,
322
769260
3000
12:52
that's very cheap to do.
323
772260
2000
12:54
So for every hundred dollars you spend doing that,
324
774260
3000
12:57
you get 40 extra years of education.
325
777260
3000
13:00
And, in places where there are worms,
326
780260
2000
13:02
intestinal worms,
327
782260
2000
13:04
cure the kids of their worms.
328
784260
2000
13:06
And for every hundred dollars,
329
786260
2000
13:08
you get almost 30 extra years of education.
330
788260
3000
13:11
So this is not your intuition,
331
791260
2000
13:13
this is not what people would have gone for,
332
793260
2000
13:15
and yet, these are the programs that work.
333
795260
3000
13:18
We need that kind of information, we need more of it,
334
798260
2000
13:20
and then we need to guide policy.
335
800260
2000
13:24
So now, I started from the big problem, and I couldn't answer it.
336
804260
3000
13:27
And I cut it into smaller questions,
337
807260
3000
13:30
and I have the answer to these smaller questions.
338
810260
2000
13:32
And they are good, scientific, robust answers.
339
812260
3000
13:36
So let's go back to Haiti for a moment.
340
816260
2000
13:39
In Haiti, about 200,000 people died --
341
819260
3000
13:43
actually, a bit more by the latest estimate.
342
823260
2000
13:45
And the response of the world was great:
343
825260
2000
13:47
Two billion dollars got pledged just last month,
344
827260
3000
13:51
so that's about 10,000 dollars per death.
345
831260
2000
13:53
That doesn't sound like that much when you think about it.
346
833260
3000
13:56
But if we were willing to spend 10,000 dollars
347
836260
3000
13:59
for every child under five who dies,
348
839260
3000
14:02
that would be 90 billion per year
349
842260
3000
14:05
just for that problem.
350
845260
2000
14:07
And yet it doesn't happen.
351
847260
2000
14:09
So, why is that?
352
849260
2000
14:11
Well, I think what part of the problem is that,
353
851260
2000
14:13
in Haiti, although the problem is huge,
354
853260
2000
14:15
somehow we understand it, it's localized.
355
855260
2000
14:17
You give your money to Doctors Without Borders,
356
857260
2000
14:19
you give your money to Partners In Health,
357
859260
2000
14:21
and they'll send in the doctors, and they'll send in the lumber,
358
861260
3000
14:24
and they'll helicopter things out and in.
359
864260
3000
14:27
And the problem of poverty is not like that.
360
867260
2000
14:29
So, first, it's mostly invisible;
361
869260
2000
14:31
second, it's huge;
362
871260
2000
14:33
and third, we don't know whether we are doing the right thing.
363
873260
3000
14:36
There's no silver bullet.
364
876260
2000
14:38
You cannot helicopter people out of poverty.
365
878260
2000
14:40
And that's very frustrating.
366
880260
2000
14:42
But look what we just did today.
367
882260
3000
14:45
I gave you three simple answers to three questions:
368
885260
3000
14:48
Give lentils to immunize people,
369
888260
2000
14:50
provide free bed nets, deworm children.
370
890260
2000
14:52
With immunization or bed nets,
371
892260
2000
14:54
you can save a life for 300 dollars per life saved.
372
894260
3000
14:57
With deworming, you can get
373
897260
2000
14:59
an extra year of education for three dollars.
374
899260
2000
15:02
So we cannot eradicate poverty just yet,
375
902260
3000
15:05
but we can get started.
376
905260
2000
15:07
And maybe we can get started small
377
907260
2000
15:09
with things that we know are effective.
378
909260
3000
15:12
Here's an example of how this can be powerful.
379
912260
2000
15:14
Deworming.
380
914260
2000
15:16
Worms have a little bit of a problem grabbing the headlines.
381
916260
2000
15:18
They are not beautiful and don't kill anybody.
382
918260
3000
15:21
And yet, when the young global leader in Davos
383
921260
2000
15:23
showed the numbers I gave you,
384
923260
2000
15:25
they started Deworm the World.
385
925260
2000
15:27
And thanks to Deworm the World,
386
927260
2000
15:29
and the effort of many country governments and foundations,
387
929260
2000
15:31
20 million school-aged children got dewormed in 2009.
388
931260
3000
15:34
So this evidence is powerful.
389
934260
2000
15:36
It can prompt action.
390
936260
2000
15:38
So we should get started now.
391
938260
2000
15:40
It's not going to be easy.
392
940260
2000
15:42
It's a very slow process.
393
942260
2000
15:44
You have to keep experimenting, and sometimes ideology
394
944260
2000
15:46
has to be trumped by practicality.
395
946260
2000
15:48
And sometimes what works somewhere doesn't work elsewhere.
396
948260
3000
15:51
So it's a slow process,
397
951260
2000
15:53
but there is no other way.
398
953260
2000
15:55
These economics I'm proposing,
399
955260
2000
15:57
it's like 20th century medicine.
400
957260
2000
15:59
It's a slow, deliberative process
401
959260
2000
16:01
of discovery.
402
961260
2000
16:03
There is no miracle cure,
403
963260
2000
16:05
but modern medicine is saving
404
965260
2000
16:07
millions of lives every year,
405
967260
2000
16:09
and we can do the same thing.
406
969260
2000
16:13
And now, maybe, we can go back to the bigger question
407
973260
3000
16:16
that I started with at the beginning.
408
976260
3000
16:19
I cannot tell you
409
979260
2000
16:21
whether the aid we have spent in the past has made a difference,
410
981260
3000
16:24
but can we come back here in 30 years
411
984260
3000
16:27
and say, "What we have done,
412
987260
3000
16:30
it really prompted a change for the better."
413
990260
3000
16:33
I believe we can and I hope we will.
414
993260
2000
16:35
Thank you.
415
995260
2000
16:37
(Applause)
416
997260
2000
About this website

This site will introduce you to YouTube videos that are useful for learning English. You will see English lessons taught by top-notch teachers from around the world. Double-click on the English subtitles displayed on each video page to play the video from there. The subtitles scroll in sync with the video playback. If you have any comments or requests, please contact us using this contact form.

https://forms.gle/WvT1wiN1qDtmnspy7