Ugly History: The U.S. Syphilis Experiment - Susan M. Reverby

619,935 views ใƒป 2021-06-08

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Naama Lieberman
00:08
In the 1930s, the United States was ravaged by syphilis.
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ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-30 ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20, ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืจื•ืกื” ืžืขื’ื‘ืช.
00:11
This sexually transmitted infection afflicted nearly 1 in 10 Americans,
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ื”ืžื—ืœื” ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจืช ืžื™ื ื™ืช ืคื’ืขื” ื‘ื›ืžืขื˜ 1 ืžื›ืœ 10 ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื,
00:15
producing painful sores and rashes that persisted for roughly two years.
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ื”ื™ื ื™ืฆืจื” ื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ื›ื•ืื‘ื™ื ื•ืคืจื™ื—ื•ืช ืฉื ืžืฉื›ื• ื‘ืขืจืš ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื.
00:20
After these initial symptoms, late-stage syphilis was known to cause organ damage,
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ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืชืกืžื™ื ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืืœื”, ืขื’ื‘ืช ื‘ืฉืœื‘ื™ื ืžืชืงื“ืžื™ื ื’ืจืžื” ื ื–ืง ืœืื™ื‘ืจื™ื,
00:25
heart and brain disorders, and even blindness.
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ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ืœื‘ ื•ืžื•ื—, ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืขื™ื•ื•ืจื•ืŸ.
00:28
It was incredibly difficult to slow the diseaseโ€™s spread.
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ื”ื™ื” ืงืฉื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื”ืื˜ ืืช ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื”ืžื—ืœื”.
00:32
Experts cautioned against unprotected sex,
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ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื ื”ื–ื”ื™ืจื• ืžืกืงืก ืœื ืžื•ื’ืŸ,
00:35
but the infection could also be passed during childbirth.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืžื—ืœื” ื™ื›ืœื” ื’ื ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืœื™ื“ื”.
00:38
Worse still, existing treatments like mercury and bismuth
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ื•ื’ืจื•ืข ืžื–ื”, ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœื™ื ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ื›ืžื• ื›ืกืคื™ืช ื•ื‘ื™ืกืžื•ื˜
00:42
were considered unreliable at best and potentially harmful at worst.
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ื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืœืœื ืืžื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ื•ืžื–ื™ืงื™ื ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ืจืข.
00:47
Today these heavy metals are classified as toxic,
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ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ืžืชื›ื•ืช ื”ื›ื‘ื“ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ืžื•ื’ื“ืจื•ืช ื›ืจืขื™ืœื•ืช,
00:51
but at the time, doctors were still uncovering their dangerous side effects.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื–ืžื ื•, ืจื•ืคืื™ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื—ืฉืคื• ืืช ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ื”ืœื•ื•ืื™ ื”ืžืกื•ื›ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
00:55
Amidst the uncertainty, health care professionals had two key questions.
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ื‘ืชื•ืš ืื™ ื”ื•ื•ื“ืื•ืช, ืœืžื•ืžื—ื™ ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ื™ื• ืฉืชื™ ืฉืืœื•ืช ืขื™ืงืจื™ื•ืช.
01:00
Did late-stage syphilis warrant the risks of existing treatments?
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ื”ืื ืขื’ื‘ืช ืžืชืงื“ืžืช ืžืฆื“ื™ืงื” ืืช ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœื™ื ื”ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื?
01:04
And, did the infected individualโ€™s race change how the disease progressed?
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ื•ื”ืื ื’ื–ืข ื”ื ื“ื‘ืงื™ื ืฉื™ื ื” ืืช ื”ืฆื•ืจื” ืฉื‘ื” ื”ืžื—ืœื” ืžืชืงื“ืžืช?
01:08
Many physicians were convinced syphilis affected
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ืจื•ืคืื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืžืฉื•ื›ื ืขื™ื ืฉืขื’ื‘ืช ื”ืฉืคื™ืขื”
01:11
the neurological systems of white patients
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ืขืœ ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืขืฆื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ื ื™ื
01:13
and the cardiovascular systems of Black patients.
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ื•ืขืœ ืžืขืจื›ืช ื›ืœื™ ื”ื“ื ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื.
01:16
There was little evidence for this theory,
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ื”ื™ื• ืžืขื˜ ืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ืœืชืื•ืจื™ื” ื”ื–ื•,
01:18
but the U.S. Public Health Service was determined to investigate further.
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ืื‘ืœ ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ื”ื™ื” ื ื—ื•ืฉ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืขื•ื“.
01:22
In 1932 they launched a massive experiment in Tuskegee, Alabama.
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ื‘-1932 ื”ื ืคืชื—ื• ื‘ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื˜ืกืงื™ื’ื™, ืืœื‘ืžื”.
01:27
The town had already possessed a small hospital,
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ื‘ืขื™ืจ ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ืช ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืงื˜ืŸ,
01:30
and the area was home to a large population of potential participants.
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ื•ื”ืื–ื•ืจ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ืช ืœืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœื™ื.
01:34
The PHS collaborated with local doctors and nurses
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ื”-PHS ืฉื™ืชืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื” ืขื ืจื•ืคืื™ื ื•ืื—ื™ื•ืช ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื
01:37
to recruit roughly 400 Black men presumed to have noncontagious late-stage syphilis,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื’ื™ื™ืก ื‘ืขืจืš 400 ื’ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื ื”ื—ืฉื•ื“ื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืขื’ื‘ืช ืžืชืงื“ืžืช ืœื ืžื“ื‘ืงืช,
01:43
as well as 200 non-syphilitic Black men for their control group.
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ื›ืžื• ื’ื 200 ื’ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื ืœืœื ืขื’ื‘ืช ื›ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช.
01:48
But their recruitment plan centered on a lie.
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ืื‘ืœ ืชื›ื ื™ืช ื”ื’ื™ื•ืก ืฉืœื”ื ื ืฉืขื ื” ืขืœ ืฉืงืจ.
01:50
While the researchers planned to observe how syphilis
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืชื›ื ื ื• ืœืฆืคื•ืช ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ืขื’ื‘ืช
01:53
would progress with minimal treatment,
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ืžืชืงื“ืžืช ืขื ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ืžืœื™,
01:55
participants were told they would receive free drugs and care for their condition.
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ืœืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ื ืืžืจ ืฉื”ื ื™ืงื‘ืœื• ื‘ื—ื™ื ื ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื•ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœื™ื ืœืžื—ืœื” ืฉืœื”ื.
01:59
At first, researchers gave the men existing treatments,
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ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื”, ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื ืชื ื• ืœื’ื‘ืจื™ื ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœื™ื ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื,
02:03
but these were soon replaced with placebos.
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ืื‘ืœ ืืœื• ื”ื•ื—ืœืคื• ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ืคืœืกื‘ื•.
02:06
Under the false pretense of providing a special remedy,
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ื‘ืžืกื•ื•ื” ืฉืงืจื™ ืฉืœ ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“,
02:09
researchers performed painful and invasive spinal taps
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ื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื‘ื™ืฆืขื• ื“ื™ืงื•ืจื™ ืขืžื•ื“ ืฉื“ืจื” ื›ื•ืื‘ื™ื ื•ื—ื•ื“ืจื ื™ื™ื
02:12
to investigate the diseaseโ€™s neurological consequences.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ื”ื ื•ื™ืจื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื—ืœื”.
02:15
When patients died, the PHS would swoop in to study the body
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ื›ืฉื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืžืชื•, ื”-PHS ืžื™ื”ืจื• ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื’ื•ืคื”
02:19
by funding funerals in exchange for autopsies.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ื”ืงื‘ื•ืจื” ืชืžื•ืจืช ื ืชื™ื—ื”.
02:23
In their published studies, they listed the men as volunteers
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ื‘ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืฉืคืจืกืžื•, ื”ื ืชืืจื• ืืช ื”ื’ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื
02:26
to obscure the circumstances under which theyโ€™d been recruited.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืกืชื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื”ืŸ ื”ื ื’ื•ื™ืกื•.
02:30
Outside Alabama, syphilis treatment was advancing.
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ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืืœื‘ืžื”, ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ืขื’ื‘ืช ื”ืชืงื“ื.
02:33
A decade after the study began,
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ืขืฉื•ืจ ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ื—ืœ,
02:35
clinical trials confirmed that penicillin effectively cured the disease
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ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ืงืœื™ื ื™ื™ื ืื™ืฉืจื• ืฉืคื ื™ืฆื™ืœื™ืŸ ืจื™ืคื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื™ืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืžื—ืœื”
02:38
in its early stages.
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ื‘ืฉืœื‘ื™ื ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืžื™ื ืฉืœื”.
02:40
But in Tuskegee, researchers were determined to keep pursuing
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื˜ืกืงื™ื’ื™, ื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื ื—ื•ืฉื™ื ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš
02:43
what they considered vital research.
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ื‘ืžื” ืฉื”ื ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื• ืžื—ืงืจ ื—ื™ื•ื ื™.
02:46
They had yet to confirm their theories about racial difference,
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ื”ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื”ื•ื›ื™ื—ื• ืืช ื”ืชืื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœื”ื ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื’ื–ืขื™ื™ื,
02:49
and they believed they would never have another opportunity
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ื•ื”ื ื”ืืžื™ื ื• ืฉืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ืชื”ื™ื” ืขื•ื“ ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช
02:52
to observe the long-term effects of untreated syphilis.
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ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ืœื˜ื•ื•ื— ืืจื•ืš ืฉืœ ืขื’ื‘ืช ืœื ืžื˜ื•ืคืœืช.
02:55
The studyโ€™s leadership decided to withhold knowledge of new treatments
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ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœื™ ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ื• ืœืžื ื•ืข ืžื™ื“ืข ืขืœ ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื
02:58
from their subjects.
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ืžื ื•ืฉืื™ ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉืœื”ื.
02:59
During World War II, researchers convinced the local draft board
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื”, ื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืฉื›ื ืขื• ืืช ื•ืขื“ืช ื”ื’ื™ื•ืก ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ืช
03:03
to exempt men from their study,
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ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื’ื‘ืจื™ื ืžื”ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉืœื”ื,
03:05
preventing them from enlisting and potentially accessing penicillin.
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ื•ืžื ืขื• ืžื”ื ืœื”ืชื’ื™ื™ืก ื•ืืช ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœืงื‘ืœ ื‘ืฆื‘ื ืคื ื™ืฆื™ืœื™ืŸ.
03:09
The study even continued through the 1950s
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ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ืžืฉื™ืš ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-50
03:11
when penicillin was shown to help manage late-stage syphilis.
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ื›ืฉื”ื•ื›ื— ืฉืคื ื™ืฆื™ืœื™ืŸ ืขื•ื–ืจ ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ืขื’ื‘ืช ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ืžืชืงื“ื.
03:15
By todayโ€™s bioethical standards,
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ืœืคื™ ื”ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ื ื”ื‘ื™ื•-ืืชื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื•ื,
03:17
withholding treatment in a research study without a patientโ€™s informed consent
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ืžื ื™ืขืช ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ื‘ืœื™ ื”ืกื›ืžื” ืžื“ืขืช ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื•ืœื”
03:21
is morally abhorrent.
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ืืกื•ืจื” ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ืžื•ืกืจื™ืช.
03:23
But for a large part of the 20th century, this practice was not uncommon.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื—ืœืง ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20, ื”ื ื•ื”ื’ ื”ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื ื“ื™ืจ.
03:27
In the 1940s, US led studies in Guatemala infected
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ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-40, ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ื’ื•ืื˜ืžืœื” ื”ื“ื‘ื™ืงื•
03:31
numerous prisoners, sex workers, soldiers, and mental health patients
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ืื™ืŸ ืกืคื•ืจ ืืกื™ืจื™ื, ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ ืžื™ืŸ, ื—ื™ื™ืœื™ื, ื•ื—ื•ืœื™ ื ืคืฉ
03:35
with sexually transmitted infections to study potential treatments.
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ื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืžื™ืŸ ืžื“ื‘ืงื•ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœื™ื ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœื™ื.
03:40
And other studies throughout the 50s and 60s
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ื•ื‘ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-50 ื•ื”-60
03:42
saw doctors secretly infecting patients with viral hepatitis or even cancer cells.
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ืจื•ืคืื™ื ื”ื“ื‘ื™ืงื• ื‘ื—ืฉืื™ ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ื“ืœืงืช ื›ื‘ื“ ื ื’ื™ืคื™ืช ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืชืื™ ืกืจื˜ืŸ.
03:48
Eventually, researchers began objecting to these unjust experiments.
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ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื• ืœื”ืชื ื’ื“ ืœื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืœื ืžื•ืกืจื™ื™ื ื”ืืœื”.
03:52
In the late 1960s, an STI contact tracer named Peter Buxtun
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ื‘ืฉืœื”ื™ ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-60, ื—ื•ืงืจ ืžื’ืขื™ื ื‘ืฉื ืคื™ื˜ืจ ื‘ืงืกื˜ื•ืŸ
03:56
convinced the PHS to consider ending the study.
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ืฉื›ื ืข ืืช ื”-PHS ืœืฉืงื•ืœ ืœื”ืคืกื™ืง ืืช ื”ืžื—ืงืจ.
04:00
But after leadership decided against it, Buxtun sent his concerns to the press.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื”ื”ื ื”ืœื” ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ื” ื ื’ื“, ื‘ืงืกื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ืฉืฉื•ืช ืฉืœื• ืœืขื™ืชื•ื ื•ืช.
04:04
In July of 1972, an exposรฉ of the Tuskegee study made headlines across the country.
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ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 1972, ื›ืชื‘ืช ืชื—ืงื™ืจ ืขืœ ืžื—ืงืจ ื˜ืกืงื™ื’ื™ ืขืœืชื” ืœื›ื•ืชืจื•ืช ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”.
04:11
Following public outcry, a federal investigation, and a lawsuit,
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ืื—ืจื™ ื–ืขืงื” ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ืช, ื—ืงื™ืจื” ืคื“ืจืœื™ืช, ื•ืชื‘ื™ืขื”,
04:15
the study was finally shut down in 1972โ€” 40 years after it began
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ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื ืกื’ืจ ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื‘-1972 -- 40 ืฉื ื” ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื”ื—ืœ
04:21
and 30 after a treatment for syphilis had been found.
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ื•-30 ืฉื ื” ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืœืขื’ื‘ืช ื ืžืฆื.
04:24
No evidence of any racial difference was discovered.
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ืœื ื”ืชื’ืœื• ื›ืœ ืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ืœื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื’ื–ืขื™ื™ื.
04:28
When the study ended, only 74 of the original 600 men were alive.
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ื›ืฉื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืกืชื™ื™ื, ืจืง 74 ืž-600 ื”ื’ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื.
04:33
40 of their wives and 19 of their children had contracted syphilis,
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40 ืžื ืฉื•ืชื™ื”ื ื•-19 ืžื™ืœื“ื™ื”ื ื ื“ื‘ืงื• ื‘ืขื’ื‘ืช,
04:37
presumably from their husbands and fathers.
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ื›ื ืจืื” ืžื‘ืขืœื™ื”ืŸ ื•ืžืื‘ื•ืชื™ื”ื.
04:39
In the wake of this tragedy, and concerns about similar experiments,
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ืื—ืจื™ ื”ื˜ืจื’ื“ื™ื”, ื•ืžืชื•ืš ื—ืฉืฉ ืžื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื“ื•ืžื™ื,
04:43
Congress passed new regulations for ethical research and informed consent.
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ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืชืงื ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ืืชื™ืงื” ืžื—ืงืจื™ืช ื•ื”ืกื›ืžื” ืžื“ืขืช.
04:47
But systemic racism continues to permeate medical care and research
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ืื‘ืœ ื’ื–ืขื ื•ืช ืžืขืจื›ืชื™ืช ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื” ืœื”ืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื”ืจืคื•ืื™ ื•ื”ืžื—ืงืจ
04:51
throughout the US.
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ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช.
04:52
To truly address these issues,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ื‘ืืžืช ืขื ื”ื‘ืขื™ื”,
04:54
the need for structural change, better access to care,
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ื”ืฆื•ืจืš ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืžื‘ื ื™, ื’ื™ืฉื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ,
04:57
and transparency in research remains urgent.
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ื•ืฉืงื™ืคื•ืช ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื“ื—ื•ืคื™ื.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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