What caused the French Revolution? - Tom Mullaney

4,479,572 views ใƒป 2016-10-27

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Sigal Tifferet
00:06
What rights do people have, and where do they come from?
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ืื™ืœื• ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื™ืฉ ืœืื ืฉื™ื, ื•ืžื”ื™ื›ืŸ ื”ืŸ ืžื’ื™ืขื•ืช?
00:10
Who gets to make decisions for others and on what authority?
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ืœืžื™ ืžื’ื™ืข ืœืงื‘ืœ ื”ื—ืœื˜ื•ืช ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืื—ืจื™ื ื•ื‘ืื™ื–ื• ืกืžื›ื•ืช?
00:14
And how can we organize society to meet people's needs?
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ื•ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืืจื’ืŸ ื—ื‘ืจื” ืฉืชืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ืฆืจื›ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื?
00:19
These questions challenged an entire nation
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ื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ืืชื’ืจื• ืื•ืžื” ืฉืœืžื”
00:21
during the upheaval of the French Revolution.
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ื”ืชืงื•ืžืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช.
00:25
By the end of the 18th century,
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ืขื“ ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžืื” ื” 18,
00:27
Europe had undergone a profound intellectual and cultural shift
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ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ืขื‘ืจื” ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืื™ื ื˜ืœืงื˜ื•ืืœื™ ื•ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™
00:31
known as the Enlightenment.
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ืฉื™ื“ื•ืข ื›ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ื ืื•ืจื•ืช.
00:33
Philosophers and artists promoted reason and human freedom
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ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื ื•ืืžื ื™ื ืงื™ื“ืžื• ื”ื’ื™ื•ืŸ ื•ื—ืจื•ืช ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช
00:37
over tradition and religion.
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ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ืžืกื•ืจืช ื•ื“ืช.
00:40
The rise of a middle class and printed materials
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ืขืœื™ื™ืช ืžืขืžื“ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื”ืžื•ื“ืคืกื™ื
00:42
encouraged political awareness,
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ืขื•ื“ื“ื• ืžื•ื“ืขื•ืช ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช,
00:45
and the American Revolution had turned a former English colony
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ื•ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ืช ืฉื”ืคื›ื” ืงื•ืœื•ื ื™ื” ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืฉืขื‘ืจ
00:48
into an independent republic.
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ืœืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื” ืขืฆืžืื™ืช.
00:51
Yet France, one of the largest and richest countries in Europe
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ืืš ืฆืจืคืช, ืื—ืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื•ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”
00:55
was still governed by an ancient regime of three rigid social classes
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ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื ืฉืœื˜ื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ืขืชื™ืง ืฉืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืžืขืžื“ื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื
00:59
called Estates.
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ืฉื ืงืจืื• ืืกื˜ื™ื™ื˜.
01:02
The monarch King Louis XVI based his authority on divine right
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ื”ืžืœืš ื”ืฉืœื™ื˜ ืœื•ืื™ ื”-16 ื‘ื™ืกืก ืืช ื”ืกืžื›ื•ืช ืฉืœื• ืขืœ ื–ื›ื•ืช ืืœื•ื”ื™ืช
01:06
and granted special privileges to the First and Second Estates,
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ื•ื”ืขื ื™ืง ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ื•ืช ืœืžืขืžื“ื•ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื•ื”ืฉื ื™,
01:11
the Catholic clergy, and the nobles.
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ื”ื›ืžื•ืจื” ื”ืงืชื•ืœื™ืช ื•ื”ืืฆื™ืœื™ื.
01:13
The Third Estate, middle class merchants and craftsmen,
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ืœืžืขืžื“ ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™, ืกื•ื—ืจื™ ืžืขืžื“ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื ื•ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืžืœืื›ื”,
01:17
as well as over 20 million peasants, had far less power
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ื•ื›ืŸ ืžืขืœ 20 ืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ืื™ื›ืจื™ื, ื”ื™ื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคื—ื•ืช ื›ื•ื—
01:21
and they were the only ones who paid taxes,
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ื•ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™ื ืฉืฉื™ืœืžื• ืžื™ืกื™ื,
01:24
not just to the king, but to the other Estates as well.
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ืœื ืจืง ืœืžืœืš ืืœื ื’ื ืœืžืขืžื“ื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื™ื.
01:28
In bad harvest years,
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ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ืงืฆื™ืจ ื’ืจื•ืขื•ืช,
01:30
taxation could leave peasants with almost nothing
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ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื ื”ืฉืื™ืจื• ืืช ื”ืื™ื›ืจื™ื ื›ืžืขื˜ ืœืœื ื›ืœื•ื
01:33
while the king and nobles lived lavishly on their extracted wealth.
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื”ืžืœืš ื•ื”ืืฆื™ืœื™ื ื—ื™ื• ื‘ืคื–ืจื ื•ืช ืžื”ืขื•ืฉืจ ืฉืœืงื—ื•.
01:39
But as France sank into debt due to its support of the American Revolution
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืฉืฆืจืคืช ืฉืงืขื” ืœื—ื•ื‘ ื‘ืฉืœ ืชืžื™ื›ืชื” ื‘ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช
01:43
and its long-running war with England,
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ื•ื”ืžืœื—ืžื” ื”ืžืชืžืฉื›ืช ืฉืœื” ืขื ืื ื’ืœื™ื”,
01:45
change was needed.
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ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ื™ื” ื ื“ืจืฉ.
01:47
King Louis appointed finance minister Jacques Necker,
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ื”ืžืœืš ืœื•ืื™ ืžื™ื ื” ืืช ืฉืจ ื”ืื•ืฆืจ ื–'ืืง ื ืงืจ,
01:50
who pushed for tax reforms
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ืฉื“ื—ืฃ ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื™ืกื™ื
01:52
and won public support by openly publishing the government's finances.
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ื•ื–ื›ื” ื‘ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ืช ื›ืฉืคืจืกื ื‘ืคื•ืžื‘ื™ ืืช ื”ืžืฆื‘ ื”ืคื™ื ื ืกื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื”.
01:57
But the king's advisors strongly opposed these initiatives.
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ื•ืขืฆื™ ื”ืžืœืš ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื• ื‘ื—ื–ืงื” ืœื™ื•ื–ืžื•ืช ื”ืืœื•.
02:00
Desperate for a solution, the king called a meeting of the Estates-General,
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ื ื•ืืฉ ืœืคื™ืชืจื•ืŸ, ื”ืžืœืš ืงืจื ืœืคื’ื™ืฉื” ืฉืœ ืืกืคืช ื”ืžืขืžื“ื•ืช,
02:05
an assembly of representatives from the Three Estates,
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ืืกืคื” ืฉืœ ื ืฆื™ื’ื™ื ืžืฉืœื•ืฉืช ื”ืžืขืžื“ื•ืช,
02:07
for the first time in 175 years.
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ื‘ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘-175 ืฉื ื”.
02:12
Although the Third Estate represented 98% of the French population,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ืžืขืžื“ ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ื™ืฆื’ 98% ืžื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื” ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช,
02:16
its vote was equal to each of the other Estates.
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ื›ื•ื— ื”ื”ืฆื‘ืขื” ืฉืœื• ื”ื™ื” ืฉื•ื•ื” ืœื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืžืขืžื“ื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื™ื.
02:20
And unsurprisingly, both of the upper classes favored keeping their privileges.
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ื•ืฉืœื ื‘ืžืคืชื™ืข, ืฉื ื™ ื”ืžืขืžื“ื•ืช ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื ื”ืขื“ื™ืคื• ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
02:25
Realizing they couldn't get fair representation,
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ื›ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ื• ืฉื”ื ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืงื‘ืœ ื™ืฆื•ื’ ื”ื•ื’ืŸ,
02:28
the Third Estate broke off,
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ื”ืžืขืžื“ ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ืคืจืฉ,
02:29
declared themselves the National Assembly,
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ื”ื›ืจื™ื– ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื• ื›ืืกืคื” ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช,
02:32
and pledged to draft a new constitution with or without the other Estates.
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ื•ื”ืชื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื ืกื— ื—ื•ืงื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืขื ืื• ื‘ืœื™ ื”ืžืขืžื“ื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื™ื.
02:37
King Louis ordered the First and Second Estates
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ื”ืžืœืš ืœื•ืื™ ื”ื•ืจื” ืœืžืขืžื“ื•ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื•ื”ืฉื ื™
02:39
to meet with the National Assembly,
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ืœื”ืคื’ืฉ ืขื ื”ืืกืคื” ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช,
02:41
but he also dismissed Necker, his popular finance minister.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื•ื ื’ื ืคื™ื˜ืจ ืืช ื ืงืจ, ืฉืจ ื”ืื•ืฆืจ ื”ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ ืฉืœื•.
02:45
In response, thousands of outraged Parisians
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ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื”, ืืœืคื™ ืคืจื™ื–ื™ืื ื™ื ื›ืขื•ืกื™ื
02:48
joined with sympathetic soldiers to storm the Bastille prison,
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ื”ืฆื˜ืจืคื• ืœื—ื™ื™ืœื™ื ืื•ื”ื“ื™ื ื‘ื”ืกืชืขืจื•ืช ืขืœ ื›ืœื ื”ื‘ืกื˜ื™ืœื™ื”,
02:53
a symbol of royal power and a large storehouse of weapons.
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ืกืžืœ ืœื›ื•ื— ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืชื™ ื•ืžืื’ืจ ื ืฉืง ื’ื“ื•ืœ.
02:57
The Revolution had begun.
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ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ื—ืœื”.
03:00
As rebellion spread throughout the country,
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ื›ืฉื”ืžืจื“ ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”,
03:02
the feudal system was abolished.
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ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืคืื•ื“ืœื™ืช ื‘ื•ื˜ืœื”.
03:04
The Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
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ื”ื”ื›ืจื–ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืืกืคื” ืขืœ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืื“ื ื•ื”ืื–ืจื—ื™ื
03:07
proclaimed a radical idea for the time --
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ื”ืฆื”ื™ืจื” ืขืœ ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืจื“ื™ืงืœื™ ืœืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ โ€“
03:10
that individual rights and freedoms were fundamental to human nature
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ืฉื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ื—ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ืื™ืฉื™ื•ืช ื”ืŸ ืžื”ื•ืชื™ื•ืช ืœื˜ื‘ืข ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™
03:15
and government existed only to protect them.
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ื•ื”ืžืžืฉืœื•ืช ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ืจืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœื™ื”ืŸ.
03:19
Their privileges gone, many nobles fled abroad,
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ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืชื™ื”ื ื ืขืœืžื•, ืืฆื™ืœื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื• ืžื”ืืจืฅ,
03:22
begging foreign rulers to invade France and restore order.
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ื”ืชื—ื ื ื• ืœืฉืœื™ื˜ื™ื ื–ืจื™ื ืœืคืœื•ืฉ ืœืฆืจืคืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืกื“ืจ.
03:26
And while Louis remained as the figurehead of the constitutional monarchy,
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ื•ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืœื•ืื™ ื ืฉืืจ ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืœื•ื›ื” ื”ื—ื•ืงืชื™ืช,
03:30
he feared for his future.
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ื”ื•ื ืคื—ื“ ืœืขืชื™ื“ื•.
03:32
In 1791, he tried to flee the country but was caught.
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ื‘-1791, ื”ื•ื ื ื™ืกื” ืœื‘ืจื•ื— ืžื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืื‘ืœ ื ืชืคืก.
03:37
The attempted escape shattered people's faith in the king.
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ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื—ื” ื ื™ืคืฅ ืืช ืืžื•ืŸ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืžืœืš.
03:41
The royal family was arrested and the king charged with treason.
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ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื ืขืฆืจื”, ื•ื”ืžืœืš ื”ื•ืืฉื ื‘ื‘ื’ื™ื“ื”.
03:45
After a trial,
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ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜,
03:46
the once-revered king was publicly beheaded,
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ืจืืฉื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžืœืš ืฉืคืขื ื ืขืจืฅ ื ืขืจืฃ ื‘ืคื•ืžื‘ื™,
03:49
signaling the end of one thousand years of monarchy
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ืžื” ืฉืื•ืชืช ืขืœ ืกื•ืคื ืฉืœ ืืœืฃ ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื•ื ืืจื›ื™ื”
03:53
and finalizing the September 21st declaration of the first French republic,
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ื•ืกื™ื›ื ืืช ื”ื”ื›ืจื–ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื” ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ 21 ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ,
03:59
governed by the motto "libertรฉ, รฉgalitรฉ, fraternitรฉ."
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ืฉื ืฉืœื˜ื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืžื•ื˜ื• "ื—ืจื•ืช, ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ, ืื—ื•ื•ื”."
04:03
Nine months later,
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ืชืฉืขื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ,
04:04
Queen Marie Antoinette,
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ื”ืžืœื›ื” ืžืจื™ ืื ื˜ื•ืื ื˜,
04:06
a foreigner long-mocked as "Madame Dรฉficit"
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ื–ืจื” ืฉืœืขื’ื• ืœื” ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘ ื›"ืžื“ืื ื’ืจืขื•ืŸ"
04:09
for her extravagant reputation,
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ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื˜ื™ืŸ ื”ืจืื•ื•ืชื ื™ ืฉืœื”,
04:11
was executed as well.
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ื”ื•ืฆืื” ืœื”ื•ืจื’ ื’ื ื”ื™ื.
04:13
But the Revolution would not end there.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ืœื ื”ืกืชื™ื™ืžื” ืฉื.
04:15
Some leaders, not content with just changing the government,
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ื›ืžื” ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ื, ืœื ื”ืกืชืคืงื• ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ืžืžืฉืœ,
ื•ืจืฆื• ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช โ€“
04:19
sought to completely transform French society --
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04:22
its religion, its street names,
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ื”ื“ืช ืฉืœื”,
ืฉืžื•ืช ื”ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช,
04:24
even its calendar.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ืืช ืœื•ื— ื”ืฉื ื” ืฉืœื”.
04:26
As multiple factions formed,
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ื›ืฉืžืกืคืจ ืคืœื’ื™ื ื ื•ืฆืจื•,
04:28
the extremist Jacobins lead by Maximilien Robespierre
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ื”ื™ืขืงื•ื‘ื™ื ื™ื ื”ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื‘ืœื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืงืกื™ืžื™ืœื™ืืŸ ืจื•ื‘ืกืคื™ื™ืจ
04:32
launched a Reign of Terror
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ืคืชื—ื• ื‘ืžืชืงืคืช ื˜ืจื•ืจ
04:34
to suppress the slightest dissent,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื“ื›ื ืืช ื”ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ ืงื˜ื ื”, ื•ื”ื•ืฆื™ืื• ืœื”ื•ืจื’ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž 20,000 ืื ืฉื™ื
04:36
executing over 20,000 people
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04:39
before the Jacobin's own downfall.
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ืœืคื ื™ ื ืคื™ืœืช ื”ื™ืขืงื•ื‘ื™ืื ื™ื ืขืฆืžื.
04:41
Meanwhile, France found itself at war with neighboring monarchs
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ื‘ื™ื ืชื™ื™ื, ืฆืจืคืช ืžืฆืื” ืืช ืขืฆืžื” ื‘ืžืœื—ืžื” ืขื ืžืœื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื›ื ื•ืช
04:45
seeking to strangle the Revolution before it spread.
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ืฉืจืฆื• ืœื—ื ื•ืง ืืช ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื™ื ืชืชืคืฉื˜.
04:49
Amidst the chaos, a general named Napoleon Bonaparte took charge,
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ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ื›ืื•ืก, ื’ื ืจืœ ื‘ืฉื ื ืคื•ืœื™ืื•ืŸ ื‘ื•ื ืคืจื˜ื” ื”ืฉืชืœื˜
04:54
becoming Emperor as he claimed to defend the Revolution's democratic values.
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ื•ื”ืคืš ืœืงื™ืกืจ ื›ืฉื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืขืจื›ื™ื ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื™ื ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื ื™ื™ื.
04:59
All in all, the Revolution saw three constitutions
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ื‘ืกืš ื”ื›ืœ, ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ืจืืชื” ืฉืœื•ืฉ ื—ื•ืงื•ืช
05:02
and five governments within ten years,
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ื•ื—ืžืฉ ืžืžืฉืœื•ืช ืชื•ืš ืขืฉืจ ืฉื ื™ื,
05:05
followed by decades alternating between monarchy and revolt
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ื•ืื—ืจื™ื” ืขืฉื•ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื™ืœื•ืคื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื•ื ืจื›ื™ื” ื•ื”ืชืžืจื“ื•ืช
05:09
before the next Republic formed in 1871.
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื” ื”ื‘ืื” ื ื•ืฆืจื” ื‘-1871.
05:12
And while we celebrate the French Revolution's ideals,
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ื•ื‘ืขื•ื“ื ื• ื—ื•ื’ื’ื™ื ืืช ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช,
05:15
we still struggle with many of the same basic questions
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื ืื‘ืงื™ื ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืื•ืชืŸ ืฉืืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื•ืช
ืฉื”ื•ืขืœื• ืœืคื ื™ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžืืชื™ื™ื ืฉื ื”.
05:19
raised over two centuries ago.
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ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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