Is human evolution speeding up or slowing down? - Laurence Hurst

2,468,860 views ใƒป 2020-09-22

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Matan Ventura ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
00:06
The Tibetan high plateau lies about 4500 meters above sea level,
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ื”ืจืžื” ื”ื˜ื™ื‘ื˜ื™ืช ืฉื•ื›ื ืช ื›-4500 ืžื˜ืจ ืžืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ื™ื,
00:13
with only 60% of the oxygen found below.
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ืขื ืจืง 60% ืžื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ ืฉื ืžืฆื ืœืžื˜ื”.
00:17
While visitors and recent settlers struggle with altitude sickness,
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืžื‘ืงืจื™ื ื•ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื ืื‘ืงื™ื ื‘ืžื—ืœืช ื’ื‘ื”ื™ื,
00:21
native Tibetans sprint up mountains.
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ื™ืœื™ื“ื™ื ื˜ื™ื‘ื˜ื™ื ืจืฆื™ื ื‘ืžืขืœื” ื”ื”ืจื™ื.
00:24
This ability comes not from training or practice,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื–ื• ืœื ื‘ืื” ืžืื™ืžื•ื ื™ื ืื• ืชืจื’ื•ืœ
00:27
but from changes to a few genes that allow their bodies
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ืืœื ืžืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ื›ืžื” ื’ื ื™ื ืฉืžืืคืฉืจื™ื ืœื’ื•ืคื
00:31
to make the most of limited oxygen.
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ืœื”ืคื™ืง ืืช ื”ืžื™ืจื‘ ืžื—ืžืฆืŸ ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœ.
00:34
These differences are apparent from birthโ€”
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ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ื ื™ื›ืจื™ื ืžืœื™ื“ื” --
00:37
Tibetan babies have, on average, higher birth weights,
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ืœืชื™ื ื•ืงื•ืช ื˜ื™ื‘ื˜ื™ื ื™ืฉ ื‘ืžืžื•ืฆืข, ืžืฉืงืœ ืœื™ื“ื” ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ,
00:41
higher oxygen saturation,
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ืจื™ื•ื•ื™ ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื‘ื“ื ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ,
00:43
and are much likelier to survive than other babies born in this environment.
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ื•ื”ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืฉืจื•ื“, ืžืืฉืจ ืชื™ื ื•ืงื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉื ื•ืœื“ื• ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื–ื•.
00:49
These genetic changes are estimated to have evolved
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ืžืขืจื™ื›ื™ื ืฉืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื’ื ื˜ื™ื™ื ืืœื” ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•
00:52
over the last 3,000 years or so, and are ongoing.
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื›-3,000 ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช, ื•ื”ื ื ืžืฉื›ื™ื.
00:57
That may sound like a long time,
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ื–ื” ืื•ืœื™ ื ืฉืžืข ื›ืžื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ื–ืžืŸ,
00:59
but would be the fastest an adaptation has ever evolved in a human population.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื• ื”ื”ืกืชื’ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื”ื™ืจื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื”ืชืคืชื—ื” ืื™ ืคืขื ื‘ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช.
01:05
Itโ€™s clear that human evolution isnโ€™t overโ€”
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ื–ื” ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืฉื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช ืœื ื ื’ืžืจื”
01:08
so what are other recent changes?
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ืื– ืžื”ื ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉืืจืขื• ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื”?
01:10
And will our technological and scientific innovations impact our evolution?
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ื•ื”ืื ื”ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ื ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ืžื“ืขื™ื™ื ื™ืฉืคื™ืขื• ืขืœ ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ืฉืœื ื•?
01:16
In the past few thousand years,
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ื‘ืืœืคื™ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช,
01:18
many populations have evolved genetic adaptations to their local environments.
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ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืคื™ืชื—ื• ื”ืชืืžื•ืช ื’ื ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืœืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
01:23
People in Siberia and the high arctic are uniquely adapted to survive extreme cold.
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืกื™ื‘ื™ืจ ื•ื‘ื—ื•ื’ ื”ืงื•ื˜ื‘ ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™ ืžื•ืชืืžื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ ืœืฉืจื•ื“ ืงื•ืจ ืขื–.
01:29
Theyโ€™re slower to develop frostbite,
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ื”ื ืžืคืชื—ื™ื ื›ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ืงื•ืจ ืœืื˜ ื™ื•ืชืจ,
01:32
and can continue to use their hands in subzero temperatures
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ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื ื‘ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื•ืช ืžืชื—ืช ืœืืคืก
01:36
much longer than most people.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื–ืžืŸ ืžืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื.
01:38
Theyโ€™ve undergone selection for a higher metabolic rate
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ื”ื ืขื‘ืจื• ืกืœืงืฆื™ื” ืœืงืฆื‘ ื—ื™ืœื•ืฃ ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ
01:41
that increases heat production.
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ืฉืžื’ื“ื™ืœ ืืช ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ื—ื•ื.
01:44
Further south, the Bajau people of southeast Asia can dive 70 meters
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ื“ืจื•ืžื” ืžืฉื, ืื ืฉื™ ื‘ืื’'ืื• ืฉืœ ื“ืจื•ื ืžื–ืจื— ืืกื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฆืœื•ืœ 70 ืžื˜ืจ
01:50
and stay underwater for almost fifteen minutes.
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ื•ืœื”ื™ืฉืืจ ืžืชื—ืช ืœืžื™ื ื‘ืžืฉืš ื›ืžืขื˜ ืจื‘ืข ืฉืขื”.
01:54
Over thousands of years living as nomadic hunters at sea,
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ืœืื•ืจืš ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ื›ืฆื™ื™ื“ื™ื ื ื•ื“ื“ื™ื ื‘ื™ื,
01:58
they have genetically-hardwired unusually large spleens that act as oxygen stores,
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ื”ื ื—ื•ื•ื˜ื• ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช ื˜ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื—ืจื™ื’ ื”ืžืฉืžืฉื™ื ื›ืžืื’ืจื™ ื—ืžืฆืŸ,
02:05
enabling them to stay underwater for longerโ€”
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ื”ืžืืคืฉืจื™ื ืœื”ื ืœื”ื™ืฉืืจ ืžืชื—ืช ืœืžื™ื ืœื–ืžืŸ ืืจื•ืš ื™ื•ืชืจ -
02:08
an adaptation similar to that of deep diving seals.
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ื”ืกืชื’ืœื•ืช ื“ื•ืžื” ืœื–ื• ืฉืœ ื›ืœื‘ื™ ื™ื ืฆื•ืœืœื™ื.
02:13
Though it may seem pedestrian by comparison,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื–ื” ืื•ืœื™ ื ืจืื” ื—ืกืจ ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื”,
02:16
the ability to drink milk is another such adaptation.
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ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœืฉืชื•ืช ื—ืœื‘ ื”ื™ื ืขื•ื“ ื”ืกืชื’ืœื•ืช ื›ื–ื•.
02:20
All mammals can drink their motherโ€™s milk as babies.
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ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉืชื•ืช ืืช ื—ืœื‘ ืืžื ื›ืชื™ื ื•ืงื•ืช.
02:23
After weaning they switch off the gene that allows them to digest milk.
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ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื’ืžื™ืœื” ื”ื ืžื›ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื”ื’ืŸ ืฉืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื ืœืขื›ืœ ื—ืœื‘.
02:28
But communities in sub-Saharan Africa, the middle east and northwest Europe
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ืื‘ืœ ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ืืคืจื™ืงื” ืฉืžื“ืจื•ื ืœืกื”ืจื”, ื”ืžื–ืจื— ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ ื•ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืžืขืจื‘ ืื™ืจื•ืคื”
02:33
that used cows for milk have seen a rapid increase in DNA variants
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ืฉื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ืคืจื•ืช ืœื—ืœื‘ ื”ืจืื• ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื—ื“ื” ื‘ื’ืจืกืื•ืช ื”- DNA ื”ืฉื•ื ื•ืช
02:38
that prevent the gene from switching off over the last 7 to 8000 years.
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ืฉืžื•ื ืขื•ืช ืืช ื›ื™ื‘ื•ื™ ื”ื’ืŸ ื‘ืžื”ืœืš 7000 ืขื“ 8000 ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช.
02:44
At least in Europe, milk drinking may have given people a source of calcium
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ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ืฉืชื™ื™ืช ื—ืœื‘ ืขืฉื•ื™ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืœืชืช ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืžืงื•ืจ ืœืกื™ื“ืŸ
02:48
to aid in vitamin D production, as they moved north and sunlight,
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ืžื” ืฉืกื™ื™ืข ื‘ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื•ื™ื˜ืžื™ืŸ D, ื›ืฉื”ื ื ืขื• ืฆืคื•ื ื”, ื•ืื•ืจ ื”ืฉืžืฉ,
02:53
the usual source of vitamin D, decreased.
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ื”ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ืจื’ื™ืœ ืœื•ื•ื™ื˜ืžื™ืŸ D, ื™ืจื“.
02:56
Though not always in obvious ways,
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ืื ื›ื™ ืœื ืชืžื™ื“ ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืžื•ื‘ื ื•ืช ืžืืœื™ื”ืŸ,
02:59
all of these changes improve peopleโ€™s chance of surviving to reproductive ageโ€”
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ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืžืฉืคืจื™ื ืืช ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืœืฉืจื•ื“ ืขื“ ื’ื™ืœ ื”ืจื‘ื™ื™ื” -
03:04
thatโ€™s what drives natural selection,
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ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืžื ื™ืข ืืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืจื” ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช,
03:06
the force behind all these evolutionary changes.
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ื”ื›ื•ื— ืฉืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืœืœื•.
03:10
Modern medicine removes many of these selective pressures
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ื”ืจืคื•ืื” ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช ืžืกื™ืจื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื”ืœื—ืฆื™ื ื”ืกืœืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื™ื ื”ืœืœื•
03:13
by keeping us alive when our genes,
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ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื”ื™ื ืฉื•ืžืจืช ืขืœื™ื ื• ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื’ื ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•
03:16
sometimes combined with infectious diseases,
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ืฉืœืคืขืžื™ื ืžืฉื•ืœื‘ื™ื ืขื ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื–ื™ื”ื•ืžื™ื•ืช,
03:19
would have killed us.
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ื”ื™ื• ื”ื•ืจื’ื™ื ืื•ืชื ื•.
03:20
Antibiotics, vaccines, clean water and good sanitation
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ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”, ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื, ืžื™ื ื ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืชื‘ืจื•ืื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื”
03:25
all make differences between our genes less important.
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ื›ื•ืœื ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืœื›ืš ืฉื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื’ื ื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ืคื—ื•ืช ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื.
03:28
Similarly, our ability to cure childhood cancers,
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื“ื•ืžื”, ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืฉืœื ื• ืœืจืคื ืกืจื˜ืŸ ื‘ื™ืœื“ื•ืช,
03:32
surgically extract inflamed appendixes, and deliver babies
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ืœื—ืœืฅ ื‘ื ื™ืชื•ื— ืชื•ืกืคืชืŸ ืžื•ื“ืœืง, ื•ืœืœื“ืช ืชื™ื ื•ืงื•ืช
03:36
whose mothers have life-threatening pregnancy-specific conditions,
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ืฉืœืืžื”ื•ืชื™ื”ื ื™ืฉ ืชื ืื™ื ืžืกื›ื ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™ืช ืœื”ืจื™ื•ืŸ,
03:41
all tend to stop selection by allowing more people to survive
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ื›ื•ืœื ื ื•ื˜ื™ื ืœืขืฆื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืจื” ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื”ื ืžืืคืฉืจื™ื ืœื™ื•ืชืจ ืื ืฉื™ื ืœืฉืจื•ื“
03:46
to a reproductive age.
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ืœื’ื™ืœ ื”ืจื‘ื™ื™ื”.
03:48
But even if every person on Earth has access to modern medicine,
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ืื‘ืœ ื’ื ืื ืœื›ืœ ืื“ื ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื’ื™ืฉื” ืœืจืคื•ืื” ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช,
03:52
it wonโ€™t spell the end of human evolution.
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ื–ื” ืœื ื™ื‘ื™ื ืืช ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช.
03:55
Thatโ€™s because there are other aspects of evolution besides natural selection.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื™ืฉ ื”ื™ื‘ื˜ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ืžืœื‘ื“ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืจื” ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช.
04:00
Modern medicine makes genetic variation
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ื”ืจืคื•ืื” ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช ืžื™ื™ืฆืจืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช
04:02
that would have been subject to natural selection
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ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื ืชื•ื ื” ืœื‘ืจื™ืจื” ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช
04:05
subject to whatโ€™s called genetic drift instead.
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ื‘ื›ืคื•ืฃ ืœืžื” ืฉืžื›ื•ื ื” ืกื—ืฃ ื’ื ื˜ื™.
04:09
With genetic drift, genetic differences vary randomly within a population.
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ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื”ืกื—ืฃ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™, ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ื™ื ืžืฉืชื ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืืงืจืื™ ื‘ืชื•ืš ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื”.
04:14
On a genetic level, modern medicine might actually increase variety,
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ื‘ืจืžื” ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช, ื”ืจืคื•ืื” ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช ืขืฉื•ื™ื”, ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืœื”ื’ื“ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ,
04:19
because harmful mutations donโ€™t kill people and thus arenโ€™t eliminated.
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ื›ื™ ืžื•ื˜ืฆื™ื•ืช ืžื–ื™ืงื•ืช ืœื ื”ื•ืจื’ื•ืช ืื ืฉื™ื ื•ื›ืš ื”ืŸ ืื™ื ืŸ ื ืžื—ืงื•ืช.
04:24
This variation doesnโ€™t necessarily translate to observable, or phenotypic,
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ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื–ื• ืœื ื‘ื”ื›ืจื— ืžืชื•ืจื’ืžืช ืœื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื ืจืื™ื ืœืขื™ืŸ ืื• ืคื ื•ื˜ื™ืคื™ื,
04:29
differences among people, however.
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ืฉื™ื, ืขื ื–ืืช.
04:32
Researchers have also been investigating whether genetic adaptations
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ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื‘ื“ืงื• ื’ื ืื ื”ืกืชื’ืœื•ืช ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช
04:36
to a specific environment could appear very quickly
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ืœืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืžืกื•ื™ืžืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื•ืคื™ืข ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช
04:40
through epigenetic modification: changes not to genes themselves,
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ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืืคื™ื’ื ื˜ื™: ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืœื ื‘ื’ื ื™ื ืขืฆืžื,
04:44
but to whether and when certain genes are expressed.
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ืืœื ืื ื•ืžืชื™ ื’ื ื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ืื™ื ืœื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™.
04:48
These changes can happen during a lifetime,
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ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืืœื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืงืจื•ืช ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ื—ื™ื™ื,
04:51
and may even be passed to offspringโ€”
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ื•ืืฃ ืขืฉื•ื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืœืฆืืฆืื™ื -
04:54
but so far researchers are conflicted over whether epigenetic modifications
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ืื‘ืœ ืขื“ ื›ื” ื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืื™ื ื ืชืžื™ืžื™ ื“ืขื™ื ื‘ืฉืืœื” ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืืคื™ื’ื ื˜ื™ื™ื
04:58
can really persist over many generations
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืืžืช ืœื”ื™ืžืฉืš ืœืื•ืจืš ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ืจื‘ื™ื
05:02
and lead to lasting changes in populations.
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ื•ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืžืชืžืฉื›ื™ื ื‘ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื•ืช.
05:06
There may also be other contributors to human evolution.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื’ื ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืœื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช.
05:10
Modern medicine and technology are very new,
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ื”ืจืคื•ืื” ื•ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื™ื ื”ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ืžืื•ื“
05:12
even compared to the quickest, most recent changes by natural selectionโ€”
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ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืžื”ื™ืจื™ื ื•ื”ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืจื” ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช
05:17
so only time can tell how our present will shape our future.
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ื›ืš ืฉืจืง ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื’ื™ื“ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ื”ื•ื•ื” ืฉืœื ื• ื™ืขืฆื‘ ืืช ื”ืขืชื™ื“ ืฉืœื ื•.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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