Scientists are obsessed with this lake - Nicola Storelli and Daniele Zanzi

962,815 views ใƒป 2024-05-14

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: zeeva livshitz ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
00:06
Roughly 3 billion years ago,
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ืœืคื ื™ ื› -3 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืฉื ื™ื,
00:08
a single-celled photosynthetic bacterium began burping a new chemical
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ื—ื™ื™ื“ืง ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ืชื˜ื™ ื—ื“-ืชืื™ ื”ื—ืœ ืœื’ื”ืง ื›ื™ืžื™ืงืœ ื—ื“ืฉ
00:14
that was poisonous to nearly every species on Earth.
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ืฉื”ื™ื” ืจืขื™ืœ ื›ืžืขื˜ ืœื›ืœ ืžื™ืŸ ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
00:19
Over the following hundreds of millions of years,
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืžืื•ืช ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ื‘ืื•ืช,
00:22
more microorganisms began producing this toxic gas,
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ืžื™ืงืจื•ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ื’ื– ืจืขื™ืœ ื–ื”,
00:27
first saturating Earth's oceans and eventually its atmosphere.
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ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื”ื™ืจื•ื• ืืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื•ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืืช ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืฉืœื•.
00:32
Up here, this chemical changed the composition of pre-existing gases
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ื›ืืŸ ืœืžืขืœื”, ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ืงืœ ื”ื–ื” ืฉื™ื ื” ืืช ื”ืจื›ื‘ ื”ื’ื–ื™ื ื”ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื
00:36
so drastically that it caused a global ice age.
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื“ืจืกื˜ื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ื’ืจื ืœืขื™ื“ืŸ ืงืจื— ืขื•ืœืžื™.
00:40
And the name of this powerful, poisonous, world-changing gas? Oxygen.
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ื•ืฉืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ื’ื– ื”ื—ื–ืง, ื”ืจืขื™ืœ, ื•ืžืฉื ื” ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื–ื”? ื—ืžืฆืŸ.
00:47
In the millions of years since the Great Oxygen Catastrophe,
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ื‘ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ืฉื—ืœืคื• ืžืื– ืืกื•ืŸ ื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ,
00:51
most life, including all multicellular organisms,
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื, ื›ื•ืœืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ืจื‘-ืชืื™ื™ื,
00:55
have evolved to rely on this gas.
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ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ืœื”ืกืชืžืš ืขืœ ื’ื– ื–ื”.
00:57
However, there are some places where oxygen-averse microorganisms,
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ืขื ื–ืืช, ื™ืฉื ื ื›ืžื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืฉื‘ื”ื ืžื™ืงืจื•ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืฉื•ื ืื™ ื—ืžืฆืŸ,
01:02
like those from Earth's earliest days, have re-emerged.
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ื›ืžื• ืืœื” ืžื™ืžื™ื• ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ, ืฆืฆื• ืžื—ื“ืฉ.
01:07
Many of these places are in the ocean depths,
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ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ืžืขืžืงื™ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก,
01:10
beyond the reach of researchers.
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ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื”ื™ืฉื’ ื™ื“ื ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื.
01:12
But there are other bodies of water completely devoid of oxygen,
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉื ื ื’ื•ืคื™ ืžื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื ื˜ื•ืœื™ ื—ืžืฆืŸ ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ,
01:16
yet close enough to the surface to explore.
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ืืš ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ.
01:19
And one such lake is hidden high in the Swiss Alpsโ€™ Piora Valley.
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ื•ืื’ื ืื—ื“ ื›ื–ื” ืžื•ืกืชืจ ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘ืขืžืง ืคื™ื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืืœืคื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ืฆืจื™ื.
01:24
Formed over 10,000 years ago,
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ื ื•ืฆืจ ืœืคื ื™ ืœืžืขืœื” ืž -10,000 ืฉื ื”,
01:27
Lake Cadagno is one of roughly 200 known meromictic lakes,
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ืื’ื ืงื“ื’ื ื•, ื”ื•ื ืื—ื“ ืžื› -200 ืื’ืžื™ื ืžืจื•ืžื™ืงื˜ื™ื™ื ื™ื“ื•ืขื™ื,
01:32
meaning it's actually two distinct bodies of water stacked on top of each other.
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื’ื•ืคื™ ืžื™ื ื ืคืจื“ื™ื ืฉื ืขืจืžื™ื ื–ื” ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื–ื”.
01:38
The top layer functions like a standard body of freshwater.
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ื”ืฉื›ื‘ื” ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื” ืžืชืคืงื“ืช ื›ืžื• ื’ื•ืฃ ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ืžื™ื ืžืชื•ืงื™ื.
01:41
Itโ€™s safe for swimming and known mostly for a plump and plentiful fish population
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ื”ื•ื ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ืœืฉื—ื™ื™ื” ื•ื™ื“ื•ืข ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืช ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ืช ื“ื’ื™ื ืฉืžื ืžื ื” ื•ืฉื•ืคืขืช
01:47
thatโ€™s been the subject of local fishing legends for centuries.
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ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื ื•ืฉื ืœืื’ื“ื•ืช ื”ื“ื™ื™ื’ ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ื•ืช ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื.
01:51
But just 13 meters beneath that bounty is a dense, sulfurous, oxygen-free pool
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ืื‘ืœ ืจืง 13 ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืžืชื—ืช ืœืฉืคืข ื”ื–ื” ื ืžืฆืืช ื‘ืจื™ื›ื” ืฆืคื•ืคื”, ื’ื•ืคืจื™ืชื™ืช ื•ื ื˜ื•ืœืช ื—ืžืฆืŸ
01:58
lethal to any multicellular life forms, fish included.
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ืงื˜ืœื ื™ืช ืœื›ืœ ืฆื•ืจืช ื—ื™ื™ื ืจื‘-ืชืื™ืช, ื›ื•ืœืœ ื“ื’ื™ื.
02:03
In a typical lake, the entire body of water would gradually mix,
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ื‘ืื’ื ื˜ื™ืคื•ืกื™, ื›ืœ ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืžื™ื ื”ื™ื” ืžืชืขืจื‘ื‘ ื‘ื”ื“ืจื’ื”
02:07
diffusing oxygen from the surface throughout.
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ื•ืžืคื–ืจ ื—ืžืฆืŸ ืžืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืœื›ืœ ืื•ืจื›ื•.
02:11
But these two layers never mix, as is the case with any meromictic lake.
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ืืš ืฉืชื™ ื”ืฉื›ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ืœืขื•ืœื ืื™ื ืŸ ืžืชืขืจื‘ื‘ื•ืช, ื›ืžื• ืฉืงื•ืจื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืื’ื ืžืจื•ืžื™ืงื˜ื™.
02:16
And the reason for this divide in Cadagno
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ื•ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœื—ืœื•ืงื” ื–ื• ื‘ืงืื“ื ื™ื•
02:19
is the watersโ€™ unique chemical compositions.
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ื”ื™ื ื”ื”ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ื.
02:22
Both layers are fed by rainwater flowing down the mountains,
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ืฉืชื™ ื”ืฉื›ื‘ื•ืช ืžื•ื–ื ื•ืช ืžืžื™ ื’ืฉืžื™ื ื”ื–ื•ืจืžื™ื ื‘ืžื•ืจื“ ื”ื”ืจื™ื,
02:27
however, this water can take two paths.
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ืื•ืœื ืžื™ื ืืœื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื ื™ ื ืชื™ื‘ื™ื.
02:30
The first is to trickle down the granitic mountain directly into the top layer.
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ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืœื˜ืคื˜ืฃ ื‘ืžื•ืจื“ ื”ื”ืจ ื”ื’ืจื ื™ื˜ื™ ื™ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืœืฉื›ื‘ื” ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื”.
02:35
The second is to seep into the Piora Valleyโ€™s vein of dolomiteโ€”
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ื”ืฉื ื™ ื”ื•ื ืœื—ืœื—ืœ ืœืขื•ืจืง ื”ื“ื•ืœื•ืžื™ื˜ ืฉืœ ืขืžืง ืคื™ื•ืจื” -
02:41
a porous rock full of salts such as sulfate.
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ืกืœืข ื ืงื‘ื•ื‘ื™ ืžืœื ื‘ืžืœื—ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืกื•ืœืคื˜.
02:45
Rainwater that sinks into the dolomite will slowly inch towards the lake,
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ืžื™ ื’ืฉืžื™ื ื”ืฉื•ืงืขื™ื ื‘ื“ื•ืœื•ืžื™ื˜ ื™ื–ืจืžื• ืœืื˜ ืœืื˜ ืœืขื‘ืจ ื”ืื’ื,
02:50
all the while shedding its oxygen and picking up salts.
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ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืžืื‘ื“ื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ ืฉืœื”ื ื•ืื•ืกืคื™ื ืžืœื—ื™ื.
02:54
Finally, this heavier water will cascade from sublacustrine springs
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ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ืžื™ื ื›ื‘ื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืœื” ื™ื–ืจืžื• ื›ืžืคืœ ืžืžืขื™ื™ื ื•ืช ืชืช-ืœืืงื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื ื™ื™ื
03:00
below the lakeโ€™s surface,
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ืžืชื—ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืื’ื,
03:01
forming the dense, salt-rich bottom layer.
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ื•ื™ืฆืจื• ืืช ื”ืฉื›ื‘ื” ื”ืชื—ืชื•ื ื” ื”ืฆืคื•ืคื” ื•ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื” ื‘ืžืœื—.
03:05
This lower layer is anoxic, meaning oxygen free,
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ื”ืฉื›ื‘ื” ื”ืชื—ืชื•ื ื” ื”ื–ื• ื”ื™ื ืื ื•ืงืกื™ืช, ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ื ื˜ื•ืœืช ื—ืžืฆืŸ,
03:09
and will suffocate any oxygen-dependent life.
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ื•ืชื—ื ื•ืง ื›ืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ืชืœื•ื™ื™ ื—ืžืฆืŸ.
03:12
But itโ€™s ideal for the kind of anaerobic bacteria that died off
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืื™ื“ื™ืืœื™ ืœืกื•ื’ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื ื”ืื ืื™ืจื•ื‘ื™ื™ื ืฉืžืชื•
03:16
in the Great Oxygen Catastrophe.
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ื‘ืืกื•ืŸ ื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ.
03:19
The flow from the sublacustrine springs creates microenvironments
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ื”ื–ืจื™ืžื” ืžื”ืžืขื™ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืชืช-ืœืืงื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื ื™ื™ื ื™ื•ืฆืจืช ืžื™ืงืจื•-ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช
03:23
which feed large aggregates of microorganisms
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ื”ืžื–ื™ื ื•ืช ืื’ืจื’ื˜ื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื™ืงืจื•ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื
03:27
that emerge from the lakebed in strange and otherworldly shapes.
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ื”ื™ื•ืฆืื™ื ืžืชื—ืชื™ืช ื”ืื’ื ื‘ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืžื•ื–ืจื•ืช ื•ืื—ืจื•ืช.
03:31
Various anaerobic microorganisms take in the water's sulfate
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ืžื™ืงืจื•ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืื ืื™ืจื•ื‘ื™ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืกื•ืคื’ื™ื ืืช ื”ื’ื•ืคืจื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ื
03:36
and emit toxic sulfide.
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ื•ืคื•ืœื˜ื™ื ื’ื•ืคืจื™ืช ืจืขื™ืœื”.
03:39
And at the border of these layers,
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ื•ื‘ื’ื‘ื•ืœ ื”ืฉื›ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•,
03:41
thereโ€™s a thin blanket mainly composed of pink-bodied Chromatium okenii:
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ื™ืฉื ื” ืฉืžื™ื›ื” ื“ืงื” ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืžื›ืจื•ืžื˜ื™ื•ื ืื•ืงื ื™ื™ ื‘ืขืœ ื’ื•ืฃ ื•ืจื•ื“:
03:46
a photosynthesizing bacterium that relies on this sulfur
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ื—ื™ื™ื“ืง ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ืชื–ื” ืฉืžืกืชืžืš ืขืœ ื”ื’ื•ืคืจื™ืช ื”ื–ื•
03:51
the way most plants rely on oxygen.
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ื›ืžื• ืฉืจื•ื‘ ื”ืฆืžื—ื™ื ืžืกืชืžื›ื™ื ืขืœ ื—ืžืฆืŸ.
03:54
However, while neither water nor organisms move between the layers,
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ืขื ื–ืืช, ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉืœื ืžื™ื ื•ืœื ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื ืขื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื›ื‘ื•ืช,
03:59
these ecosystems arenโ€™t completely out of touch.
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ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืืงื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืืœื” ืื™ื ืŸ ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื—ืกืจื•ืช ืžื’ืข.
04:02
Chromatium okenii live at the top of the bottom layer
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ื›ืจื•ืžื˜ื™ื•ื ืื•ืงื ื™ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื—ืœืง ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื›ื‘ื” ื”ืชื—ืชื•ื ื”
04:06
because they need to be as close to the sun as possible.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ื›ื›ืœ ื”ืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉืžืฉ.
04:10
But while they never cross into the deadly oxygenated waters,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื ืืฃ ืคืขื ืœื ืขื•ื‘ืจื™ื ืœืžื™ื ื”ืžื—ื•ืžืฆื ื™ื ื”ืงื˜ืœื ื™ื™ื,
04:14
theyโ€™re close enough that organisms like zooplankton can dive down,
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ื”ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื›ืžื• ื–ื•ืื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœืฆืœื•ืœ ืœืžื˜ื”,
04:19
eat them, and get back up.
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ืœืื›ื•ืœ ืื•ืชื ื•ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœืžืขืœื”.
04:22
In fact, this relationship forms the bottom of the upper layerโ€™s
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืžืขืจื›ืช ื™ื—ืกื™ื ื–ื• ืžื”ื•ื•ื” ืืช ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ืชื—ืชื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื›ื‘ื” ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื”
04:26
robust food chain
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ืฉืœ ืฉืจืฉืจืช ื”ืžื–ื•ืŸ ื”ื—ื–ืงื”
04:27
supporting the lakeโ€™s legendary fish population.
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ื”ืชื•ืžื›ืช ื‘ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ืช ื”ื“ื’ื™ื ื”ืื’ื“ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืื’ื.
04:31
This unique ecology is more than just a boon for Cadagnoโ€™s fishermen.
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ืืงื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ืช ื–ื• ื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืกืชื ื‘ืจื›ื” ืœื“ื™ื™ื’ื™ื ืฉืœ ืงื“ื ื™ื•.
04:35
Having access to an isolated anaerobic ecosystem
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ื’ื™ืฉื” ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ืืงื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืื ืื™ืจื•ื‘ื™ืช ืžื‘ื•ื“ื“ืช
04:39
allows scientists to model the world before the Great Oxygen Catastrophe.
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ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืœืžื“ืœ ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ืœืคื ื™ ืืกื•ืŸ ื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ.
04:45
For example, when Chromatium okenii form their blanket,
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ื›ืืฉืจ ื›ืจื•ืžื˜ื™ื•ื ืื•ืงื ื™ื™ ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืฉืžื™ื›ื” ืฉืœื”ื,
04:48
they increase the density of that thin layer of water.
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ื”ื ืžื’ื‘ื™ืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืฆืคื™ืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื” ืฉื›ื‘ืช ืžื™ื ื“ืงื”.
04:52
As the water sinks, these microorganisms are forced to swim back up,
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ื›ืฉื”ืžื™ื ืฉื•ืงืขื™ื, ืžื™ืงืจื•ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืืœื” ื ืืœืฆื™ื ืœืฉื—ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื–ืจื” ืœืžืขืœื”,
04:57
creating a minute mixing of water called bioconvection.
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ื•ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืขืจื‘ื•ื‘ ืขื“ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืžื™ื ื”ื ืงืจื ื‘ื™ื•ืงื•ื ื‘ืงืฆื™ื”.
05:01
This billions of years old phenomenon might be a clue
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ืชื•ืคืขื” ื–ื• ื‘ืช ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ ืฉื ื™ื ืขืฉื•ื™ื” ืœื”ื•ื•ืช ืจืžื–
05:05
to how early life evolved the ability to swim.
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ืœืื•ืคืŸ ืฉื‘ื• ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืžื™ื ืคื™ืชื—ื• ืืช ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื”ืฉื—ื™ื™ื”.
05:09
And itโ€™s just one of the many insights that await researchers
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ื•ื–ื• ืจืง ืื—ืช ืžื”ืชื•ื‘ื ื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื•ืช ืฉืžื—ื›ื•ืช ืœื—ื•ืงืจื™ื
05:13
studying Cadagnoโ€™s mysterious depths.
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ื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืขื•ืžืงื™ื ื”ืžืกืชื•ืจื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืงื“ื ื™ื•.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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