Not all scientific studies are created equal - David H. Schwartz

590,140 views ใƒป 2014-04-28

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Tal Dekkers
00:06
Studies have shown that
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ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ื”ืจืื•
00:07
taking vitamins is good for your health
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ืฉืœืงื™ื—ืช ื•ื™ื˜ืžื™ื ื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ืœื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช
00:10
and bad for your health.
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ื•ืจืขื” ืœื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช.
00:11
That newly discovered herb can improve your memory
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ืฆืžื— ื—ื“ืฉ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืฉืคืจ ืืช ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœื›ื
00:14
or destroy your liver.
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ืื• ืœื”ืฉืžื™ื“ ืืช ื”ื›ื‘ื“ ืฉืœื›ื.
00:16
Headlines proclaim a promising new cancer treatment
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ื›ื•ืชืจื•ืช ื˜ื•ืขื ื•ืช ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืžื‘ื˜ื™ื— ื—ื“ืฉ ืœืกืจื˜ืŸ
00:18
and never mention it again.
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ื•ืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ืžื–ื›ื™ืจื•ืช ืื•ืชื• ืฉื•ื‘.
00:20
On a daily basis,
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ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ื™ื•ื ื™ื•ืžื™,
00:21
we are bombarded with attention-grabbing news,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ืคืฆืฆื™ื ื‘ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืจื•ืขืฉื•ืช,
00:23
backed up by scientific studies,
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ืžื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืžื“ืขื™ื™ื,
00:25
but what are these studies?
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื” ื”ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”?
00:27
How are they performed?
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ืื™ืš ื”ื ืžื‘ื•ืฆืขื™ื?
00:28
And how do we know whether they're reliable?
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ื•ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืื ื”ื ืืžื™ื ื™ื?
00:30
When it comes to dietary or medical information,
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ื›ืฉื–ื” ืžื’ื™ืข ืœืžื™ื“ืข ืชื–ื•ื ืชื™ ืื• ืจืคื•ืื™,
00:32
the first thing to remember
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื–ื›ื•ืจ
00:34
is that while studies on animals or individual cells
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื‘ืขื•ื“ ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืขืœ ื—ื™ื•ืช ืื• ืชืื™ื ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื
00:37
can point the way towards further research,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฆื‘ื™ืข ืขืœ ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืœืžื—ืงืจ ื ื•ืกืฃ,
00:39
the only way to know how something will affect humans
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ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืœื“ืขืช ืื™ืš ืžืฉื”ื• ื™ืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ืื ืฉื™ื
00:41
is through a study involving human subjects.
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ื”ื™ื ื“ืจืš ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉื›ื•ืœืœ ื ื‘ื“ืงื™ื ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื.
00:44
And when it comes to human studies,
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ื•ื›ืฉื–ื” ืžื’ื™ืข ืœืžื—ืงืจ ื‘ืื ืฉื™ื,
00:46
the scientific gold standard is
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ืชืงืŸ ื”ื–ื”ื‘ ื”ืžื“ืขื™
00:48
the randomized clinical trial, or RCT.
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ื”ื•ื ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ืงืœื™ื ื™ ืืงืจืื™, ืื• RCT.
00:51
The key to RCTs is that the subjects are randomly assigned
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ื”ืžืคืชื— ืœ RCT ื”ื•ื ืฉื”ื ื‘ื“ืงื™ื ืžื—ื•ืœืงื™ื ืจื ื“ื•ืžืœื™ืช
00:54
to their study groups.
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ืœืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉืœื”ื.
00:55
They are often blinded to make them more rigorous.
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ื•ื‘ื“"ื› ื’ื ืœืœื ื™ื“ื™ืขืชื, ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืคืจ ืืช ื”ืžื—ืงืจ.
00:57
This process attempts to ensure
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ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื” ืžื ืกื” ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื—
00:59
that the only difference between the groups
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ืฉื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช
01:01
is the one the researchers are attempting to study.
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ื”ื•ื ื–ื” ืฉื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื—ืงื•ืจ.
01:03
For example,
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”,
01:04
when testing a new headache medication,
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ื›ืฉื‘ื•ื“ืงื™ื ืชืจื•ืคื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืœื›ืื‘ ืจืืฉ,
01:06
a large pool of people with headaches
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ืžืื’ืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืขื ื›ืื‘ื™ ืจืืฉ
01:08
would be randomly divided into two groups,
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ื™ื—ื•ืœืง ืืงืจืื™ืช ืœืฉืชื™ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช,
01:10
one receiving the medication
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ืื—ืช ืžืงื‘ืœืช ืืช ื”ืชืจื•ืคื”
01:12
and another receiving a placebo.
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ื•ื”ืฉื ื™ื” ืคืœืฆื‘ื•.
01:14
With proper randomization,
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ืขื ื”ื—ืœื•ืงื” ืœืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ื”ื™ื ืื›ืŸ ืืงืจืื™ืช,
01:15
the only significant overall difference
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ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ื”ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™
01:17
between the two groups
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืชื™ ื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช
01:19
will be whether or not they received the medication,
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ื™ื”ื™ื” ืื ื”ื ืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืืช ื”ืชืจื•ืคื” ืื• ืœื,
01:21
rather than other differences that could affect results.
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ื•ืœื ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช.
01:24
Randomized clinical trials are incredible tools,
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ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ืงืœื™ื ื™ื™ื ืจื ื“ื•ืžืœื™ื™ื ื”ื ื›ืœื™ ืžื“ื”ื™ื,
01:26
and, in fact, the US Food and Drug Administration
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ื•ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืžื™ื ื”ืœ ื”ืื•ื›ืœ ื•ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™
01:29
often requires at least two to be conducted
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ื‘ื“"ื› ื“ื•ืจืฉ ืฉื™ื™ืขืจื›ื• ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื™ื
01:32
before a new drug can be marketed.
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืชืจื•ืคื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืชืฉื•ื•ืง.
01:34
But the problem is that an RCT is not possible
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉ RCT ืื™ื ื• ืืคืฉืจื™
01:37
in many cases,
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ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืงืจื™ื,
01:38
either because it's not practical
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ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ื•ื ืœื ืคืจืงื˜ื™
01:40
or would require too many volunteers.
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ืื• ืฉื™ื“ืจื•ืฉ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื.
01:42
In such cases,
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ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ื›ืืœื”,
01:43
scientists use an epidemiological study,
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ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ืืคื™ื“ืžื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™,
01:46
which simply observes people going about their usual behavior,
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ืฉืคืฉื•ื˜ ื‘ื•ื—ืŸ ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ื”ืจื’ื™ืœื” ืฉืœื”ื,
01:49
rather than randomly assigning active participants
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื—ืœื•ืงื” ืจื ื“ื•ืžืœื™ืช ืฉืœ ื ื‘ื“ืงื™ื
01:52
to control invariable groups.
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ืฉืฉื•ืœื˜ืช ื‘ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช.
01:54
Let's say we wanted to study
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ื ื’ื™ื“ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื—ืงื•ืจ
01:55
whether an herbal ingredient on the market
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ืื ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ ืฆืžื—ื™ ื‘ืฉื•ืง
01:57
causes nausea.
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ื’ื•ืจื ืœื‘ื—ื™ืœื”.
01:58
Rather than deliberately giving people something
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœืชืช ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืžืฉื”ื• ื‘ื›ื•ื•ื ื”
02:00
that might make them nauseated,
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ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื™ื’ืจื•ื ืœื”ื ื‘ื—ื™ืœื”,
02:01
we would find those who already take the ingredient
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ื ืžืฆื ืืช ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ืฆืžื—
02:03
in their everyday lives.
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืฉื’ืจืชื™.
02:05
This group is called the cohort.
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ื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ื”ื–ื• ื ืงืจืืช ืขื•ืงื‘ื”.
02:07
We would also need a comparison group
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ื ืฆื˜ืจืš ื’ื ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื”
02:09
of people who do not have exposure to the ingredient.
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ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืœื ื ื—ืฉืคื• ืœืฆืžื—.
02:11
And we would then compare statistics.
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ื•ืื– ื ืฉื•ื•ื” ืืช ื”ื ืชื•ื ื™ื.
02:13
If the rate of nausea is higher in the herbal cohort,
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ืื ืฉื›ื™ื—ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืœื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืขื•ืงื‘ื” ื”ืฆืžื—ื™ืช,
02:16
it suggests an association
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ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืงืฉืจ
02:18
between the herbal supplement and nausea.
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืชื•ืกืฃ ื”ืฆืžื—ื™ ืœื‘ื—ื™ืœื”.
02:20
Epidemiological studies are great tools
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ืžื—ืงืจ ืืคื™ื“ืžื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื”ื•ื ื“ืจืš ืžืฆื•ื™ื™ื ืช
02:22
to study the health effects of almost anything,
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ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ืžืขื˜ ื”ื›ืœ,
02:24
without directly interfering in people's lives
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ืžื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ืชืขืจื‘ ื™ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ื—ื™ื™ ืื ืฉื™ื
02:27
or assigning them to potentially dangerous exposures.
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ืื• ืœืฉื™ื ืื•ืชื ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืขื ื—ืฉื™ืคื” ืžืกื•ื›ื ืช.
02:29
So, why can't we rely on these studies
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ืื– ืœืžื” ืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœืกืžื•ืš ืขืœ ื”ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”
02:31
to establish causal relationships
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ื™ื—ืก ืกื™ื‘ืชื™
02:33
between substances and their effects on health?
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื•ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ื”ืจืคื•ืื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื?
02:35
The problem is
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ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื
02:36
that even the best conducted epidemiological studies
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ืฉื’ื ื‘ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืืคื™ื“ืžื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ืฉื ืขืจื›ื• ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ื›ื™ ื˜ื•ื‘ื”
02:38
have inherent flaws.
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ื™ืฉ ื›ืฉืœื™ื ืžื•ื‘ื ื™ื.
02:40
Precisely because the test subjects
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ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ื ื‘ื“ืงื™ื
02:42
are not randomly assigned to their groups.
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ืœื ืžื•ืงืฆื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืืงืจืื™ ืœืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
02:44
For example, if the cohort in our herbal study
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ืื ื”ืขื•ืงื‘ื” ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืฆืžื—ื™ ืฉืœื ื•
02:47
consisted of people who took the supplement
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ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ืžืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ืฆืžื—
02:49
for health reasons,
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ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช,
02:50
they may have already had higher rates of nausea
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ืื•ืœื™ ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื• ืœื”ื ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ื ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื‘ื—ื™ืœื”
02:52
than the other people in the sample.
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ืžืฉืืจ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืžื“ื’ื.
02:54
Or the cohort group could've been composed of
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ื”ืขื•ืงื‘ื” ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช
02:56
people who shop at health food stores
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ืžืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืงื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื—ื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช
02:58
and have different diets
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืชื–ื•ื ื” ืื—ืจืช
03:00
or better access to healthcare.
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ืื• ื’ื™ืฉื” ืœืจื•ืคืื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ.
03:02
These factors that can affect results,
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ื”ืžืฉืชื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช,
03:03
in addition to the factor being studied,
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ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืžืฉืชื ื” ื”ื ื—ืงืจ,
03:05
are known as confounding variables.
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ื ืงืจืื™ื ืžืฉืชื ื™ื ืžืชืขืจื‘ื™ื.
03:07
These two major pitfalls,
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ืฉื ื™ ื”ื—ืกืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
03:09
combined with more general dangers,
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ื‘ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ืขื ืกื›ื ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ,
03:10
such as conflicts of interest or selective use of data,
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ื›ืžื• ืื™ื ื˜ืจืกื™ื ืื• ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืกืœืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ ื‘ื ืชื•ื ื™ื,
03:13
can make the findings of any particular epidemiological study suspect,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืคื’ื•ืข ื‘ืืžื™ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืžื—ืงืจ ืืคื™ื“ืžื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™,
03:17
and a good study must go out of its way
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ื•ื—ื•ืงืจ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœืฆืืช ืžื’ื“ืจื•
03:19
to prove that its authors have taken steps
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื•ื›ื™ื— ืฉื ื ืงื˜ื• ืฆืขื“ื™ื
03:21
to eliminate these types of errors.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžื ื•ืข ื˜ืขื•ื™ื•ืช ืืœื”.
03:23
But even when this has been done,
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ืื‘ืœ ืืคื™ืœื• ื›ืฉื–ื” ื ืขืฉื”,
03:25
the very nature of epidemiological studies,
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ื˜ื‘ืขื ืฉืœ ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืืคื™ื“ืžื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื,
03:27
which examine differences between preexisting groups,
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ืฉื‘ื•ื—ื ื™ื ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช,
03:29
rather than deliberately inducing changes within the same individuals,
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ื•ืœื ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืžื›ื•ื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืชื ืื ืฉื™ื,
03:33
means that a single study
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ืื•ืžืจ ืฉืžื—ืงืจ ื™ื—ื™ื“
03:34
can only demonstrate a correlation
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืจืง ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืžืชืื
03:36
between a substance and a health outcome,
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ื—ื•ืžืจ ืœืชื•ืฆืื” ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืชื™ืช,
03:38
rather than a true cause and effect relationship.
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ื•ืœื ื™ื—ืก ืกื™ื‘ืชื™ ืืžื™ืชื™.
03:41
At the end of the day,
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ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ,
03:42
epidemiological studies have served as excellent guides to public health,
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ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืืคื™ื“ืžื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืื•ืชื ื• ื”ื™ื˜ื‘,
03:46
alerting us to critical health hazards,
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ื•ืœื”ืชืจื™ืข ืขืœ ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืชื™ื™ื™ื ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ื™ื,
03:47
such as smoking, asbestos, lead, and many more.
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ื›ืžื• ืขื™ืฉื•ืŸ, ืืกื‘ืกื˜, ืขื•ืคืจืช, ื•ืขื•ื“.
03:51
But these were demonstrated through
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ืื‘ืœ ืืœื” ื”ื•ื“ื’ืžื• ื“ืจืš
03:53
multiple, well-conducted epidemiological studies,
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ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืืคื™ื“ืžื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื•ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื,
03:55
all pointing in the same direction.
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ื•ื›ื•ืœื ื”ืฆื‘ื™ืขื• ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื”ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ.
03:57
So, the next time you see a headline
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ืื– ื‘ืคืขื ื”ื‘ืื” ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ื›ื•ืชืจืช
03:59
about a new miracle cure
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ืขืœ ืชืจื•ืคืช ืคืœื ื—ื“ืฉื”,
04:00
or the terrible danger posed by an everyday substance,
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ืื• ืขืœ ื”ืกื›ื ื” ื”ื ื•ืจืื™ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืžืจ ืžื•ื›ืจ,
04:03
try to learn more about the original study
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ื ืกื• ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืขื•ื“ ืขืœ ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ืžื—ืงืจ
04:05
and the limitations inherent in any epidemiological study or clinical trial
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ื•ื”ืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ื”ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ืžื—ืงืจ ืืคื™ื“ืžื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ืื• ืงืœื™ื ื™
04:09
before jumping to conclusions.
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืชืกื™ืงื• ืžืกืงื ื•ืช.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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