Could a drug prevent depression and PTSD? | Rebecca Brachman

221,093 views ใƒป 2017-01-13

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

00:00
Translator: Joseph Geni Reviewer: Joanna Pietrulewicz
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ืžืชืจื’ื: Zeeva Livshitz ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:13
This is a tuberculosis ward,
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื”ืžื—ืœืงื” ืœื—ื•ืœื™ ืฉื—ืคืช,
00:16
and at the time this picture was taken in the late 1800s,
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ื•ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฆื•ืœืžื” ื‘ืฉืœื”ื™ ื”ืžืื” ื” -19
00:19
one in seven of all people
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ืื—ื“ ืžื›ืœ ืฉื‘ืขื” ืื ืฉื™ื
00:22
died from tuberculosis.
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ืžืช ืžืฉื—ืคืช.
00:24
We had no idea what was causing this disease.
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ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืžื•ืฉื’ ืžื” ื’ืจื ืœืžื—ืœื” ื–ื•.
00:28
The hypothesis was actually
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ื”ื”ืฉืขืจื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœืžืขืฉื”
00:30
it was your constitution that made you susceptible.
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ืฉืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ื’ืจื ืœื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื.
00:33
And it was a highly romanticized disease.
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ื•ื–ื• ื”ื™ืชื” ืžื—ืœื” ืฉืฉื™ื•ื• ืœื” ืื•ืคื™ ืจื•ืžื ื˜ื™.
00:36
It was also called consumption,
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ื”ื™ื ื ืงืจืื” ื’ื ืงื•ื ืกืืžืคืฉืŸ (ืžืื›ืœืช),
00:39
and it was the disorder of poets
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ื•ื–ื• ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืคืจืขื” ืฉืœ ืžืฉื•ืจืจื™ื
00:42
and artists and intellectuals.
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ื•ืืžื ื™ื ื•ืื™ื ื˜ืœืงื˜ื•ืืœื™ื.
00:45
And some people actually thought it gave you heightened sensitivity
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ื•ื›ืžื” ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืืžืช ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืฉื–ื” ื”ืขื ื™ืง ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ื™ืชืจ
00:48
and conferred creative genius.
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ื•ื’ืื•ื ื•ืช ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื™ืช.
00:52
By the 1950s,
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ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”ืงื•ื“ืžืช,
00:54
we instead knew that tuberculosis was caused
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ื™ื“ืขื ื• ื›ื‘ืจ ืฉืฉื—ืคืช ื ื’ืจืžื”
00:57
by a highly contagious bacterial infection,
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื–ื™ื”ื•ื ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ืืœื™ ืžื“ื‘ืง ืžืื•ื“,
01:00
which is slightly less romantic,
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ืฉื–ื” ืคื—ื•ืช ืจื•ืžื ื˜ื™,
01:03
but that had the upside
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ืื‘ืœ ืžืื™ื“ืš
01:05
of us being able to maybe develop drugs to treat it.
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ื–ื” ืื™ืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืื•ืœื™ ืœืคืชื— ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ืžื—ืœื”.
01:08
So doctors had discovered a new drug, iproniazid,
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ืื– ื”ืจื•ืคืื™ื ื’ื™ืœื• ืชืจื•ืคื” ื—ื“ืฉื”, ืื™ืคืจื•ื ื™ืื–ื™ื“,
01:11
that they were optimistic might cure tuberculosis,
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ืฉื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืื•ืคื˜ื™ืžื™ื™ื ืœื’ื‘ื™ื”, ืฉืชื•ื›ืœ ืœืจืคื ืืช ื”ืžื—ืœื”
01:15
and they gave it to patients,
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ื•ื”ื ื ืชื ื• ืื•ืชื” ืœื—ื•ืœื™ื,
01:16
and patients were elated.
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ื•ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืžืฆื‘ ืจื•ื— ืžืจื•ืžื.
01:18
They were more social, more energetic.
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ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืชื™ื™ื, ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื ืจื’ื˜ื™ื™ื.
01:22
One medical report actually says they were "dancing in the halls."
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ื“ื•"ื— ืจืคื•ืื™ ืื—ื“ ื‘ืขืฆื ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ื "ืจืงื“ื• ื‘ืžืกื“ืจื•ื ื•ืช."
01:27
And unfortunately,
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ื•ืœืจื•ืข ื”ืžื–ืœ,
01:29
this was not necessarily because they were getting better.
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ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื”ื›ืจื— ื›ื™ ืžืฆื‘ื ื”ืฉืชืคืจ.
01:32
A lot of them were still dying.
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ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื’ืกืกื•.
01:35
Another medical report describes them as being "inappropriately happy."
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ื“ื•"ื— ืจืคื•ืื™ ืื—ืจ ืžืชืืจ ืื•ืชื ื›"ืžืื•ืฉืจื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ืœืชื™ ื”ื•ืœื."
01:43
And that is how the first antidepressant was discovered.
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ื•ื›ืš ื ื•ื’ื“ ื”ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืชื’ืœื”.
01:47
So accidental discovery is not uncommon in science,
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ืื– ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ืžืงืจื™ ืื™ื ื• ื ื“ื™ืจ ื‘ืžื“ืข,
01:52
but it requires more than just a happy accident.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื“ื•ืจืฉ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืกืชื ืฆื™ืจื•ืฃ ืžืงืจื™ื ืžื•ืฆืœื—.
01:55
You have to be able to recognize it for discovery to occur.
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ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœื–ื”ื•ืช ืื•ืชื• ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ื™ืชืจื—ืฉ.
01:59
As a neuroscientist, I'm going to talk to you a little bit
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ื›ื ื•ื™ืจื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืืจืฆื” ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืื™ืชื›ื ืžืขื˜
02:02
about my firsthand experience
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ืขืœ ื”ื—ื•ื•ื™ื” ื”ืื™ืฉื™ืช ืฉืœื™
02:03
with whatever you want to call the opposite of dumb luck --
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ืขื ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืชืจืฆื• ืœืงืจื•ื ืœื• ื”ื”ืคืš ืžืžื–ืœ ืขื™ื•ื•ืจ---
02:06
let's call it smart luck.
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ื‘ื•ืื• ื ืงืจื ืœื–ื” ืžื–ืœ ื—ื›ื.
02:08
But first, a bit more background.
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ืื‘ืœ ืงื•ื“ื, ืงืฆืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืจืงืข.
02:12
Thankfully, since the 1950s,
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ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืžื–ืœ, ืžืื– ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-50,
02:15
we've developed some other drugs and we can actually now cure tuberculosis.
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ืคื™ืชื—ื ื• ื›ืžื” ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ื•ื›ืขืช ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืœืจืคื ืฉื—ืคืช.
02:19
And at least in the United States, though not necessarily in other countries,
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ื•ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ืื ื›ื™ ืœื ื‘ื”ื›ืจื— ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช,
02:22
we have closed our sanitoriums
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ืกื’ืจื ื• ืืช ื”ืกื ื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืžื™ื
02:24
and probably most of you are not too worried about TB.
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ื•ืจื•ื‘ื›ื ื›ื ืจืื” ืœื ืžื•ื“ืื’ื™ื ืžื“ื™ ืžืฉื—ืคืช.
02:28
But a lot of what was true in the early 1900s
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื
02:31
about infectious disease,
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ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืžื—ืœื” ื–ื™ื”ื•ืžื™ืช,
02:33
we can say now about psychiatric disorders.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื›ืขืช ืœื•ืžืจ ืขืœ ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ืคืกื™ื›ื™ืื˜ืจื™ื•ืช.
02:36
We are in the middle of an epidemic of mood disorders
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ืขื™ืฆื•ืžื” ืฉืœ ืžื’ืคื” ืฉืœ ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ื‘ืžืฆื‘ ื”ืจื•ื—
02:39
like depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, or PTSD.
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ื›ืžื• ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ, ื•ื”ืคืจืขืช ื“ื—ืง ืคื•ืกื˜ ื˜ืจืื•ืžื˜ื™ืช, ืื• PTSD.
02:44
One in four of all adults in the United States
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ืื—ื“ ืžื›ืœ ืืจื‘ืขื” ืžื›ืœืœ ื”ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช
02:48
suffers from mental illness,
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ืกื•ื‘ืœ ืžืžื—ืœืช ื ืคืฉ,
02:50
which means that if you haven't experienced it personally
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ืฉืื ืืชื ืœื ื—ื•ื•ื™ืชื ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืื™ืฉื™
02:53
or someone in your family hasn't,
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ืื• ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืžื‘ื ื™ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื›ื,
02:55
it's still very likely that someone you know has,
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ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืฉืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืฉืืชื ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ื—ื•ื•ื” ื–ืืช,
02:58
though they may not talk about it.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ืื ื”ื ืœื ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื›ืš.
03:02
Depression has actually now surpassed
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ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ืœืžืขืฉื” ืขื‘ืจ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืืช
03:05
HIV/AIDS, malaria, diabetes and war
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ื”ืื™ื™ื“ืก, ื”ืžืœืจื™ื”, ื”ืกื›ืจืช ื•ื”ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช
03:10
as the leading cause of disability worldwide.
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ื›ื’ื•ืจื ื”ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœื ื›ื•ืช ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื.
03:13
And also, like tuberculosis in the 1950s,
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ื•ื’ื, ื›ืžื• ืฉื—ืคืช ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-50,
03:17
we don't know what causes it.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžื” ื’ื•ืจื ืœื–ื”.
03:19
Once it's developed, it's chronic,
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ื›ืฉื–ื” ืžืชืคืชื— ื–ื” ื ืขืฉื” ื›ืจื•ื ื™,
03:21
lasts a lifetime,
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ื ืžืฉืš ืœื›ืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื,
03:22
and there are no known cures.
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ื•ืื™ืŸ ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื›ืจื•ืช ืœืจื™ืคื•ื™.
03:26
The second antidepressant we discovered,
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ื ื•ื’ื“ ื”ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉื’ื™ืœื™ื ื•,
03:28
also by accident, in the 1950s,
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ื’ื ื‘ืืงืจืื™ ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-50,
03:31
from an antihistamine that was making people manic,
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ืžืื ื˜ื™-ื”ื™ืกื˜ืžื™ืŸ ืฉื’ืจื ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืžืื ื™ื”,
03:35
imipramine.
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ืื™ืžื™ืคืจืืžื™ืŸ.
03:38
And in both the case of the tuberculosis ward and the antihistamine,
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ื•ื”ืŸ ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื—ืคืช, ื•ื”ืŸ ื‘ื–ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื ื˜ื™-ื”ื™ืกื˜ืžื™ืŸ
03:41
someone had to be able to recognize
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ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื–ื”ื•ืช
03:43
that a drug that was designed to do one thing --
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ืฉืชืจื•ืคื” ืฉื ื•ืขื“ื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื“ื‘ืจ ืื—ื“ --
03:46
treat tuberculosis or suppress allergies --
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ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ืฉื—ืคืช ืื• ื‘ืืœืจื’ื™ื•ืช --
03:48
could be used to do something very different --
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืฉืžืฉ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ืฉื•ื ื” --
03:51
treat depression.
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ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ.
03:53
And this sort of repurposing is actually quite challenging.
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ื•ืกื•ื’ ื–ื” ืฉืœ ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื”ื•ื ื‘ืขืฆื ื“ื™ ืžืืชื’ืจ.
03:56
When doctors first saw this mood-enhancing effect of iproniazid,
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ื›ืฉืจื•ืคืื™ื ืจืื• ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืืช ื”ืฉืคืขืช ื”ืื™ืคืจื•ื ื™ืื–ื™ื“ ืขืœ ืฉื™ืคื•ืจ ืžืฆื‘ ื”ืจื•ื—,
04:00
they didn't really recognize what they saw.
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ื”ื ืœื ืžืžืฉ ื–ื™ื”ื• ืืช ืžื” ืฉื”ื ืจืื•.
04:02
They were so used to thinking about it
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ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืจื’ื™ืœื™ื ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื–ื”
04:04
from the framework of being a tuberculosis drug
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ื›ืขืœ ืชืจื•ืคื” ื ื’ื“ ืฉื—ืคืช
04:07
that they actually just listed it
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ืฉื”ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืจืฉืžื• ื–ืืช
04:09
as a side effect, an adverse side effect.
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ื›ืชื•ืคืขืช ืœื•ื•ืื™, ืชื•ืคืขืช ืœื•ื•ืื™ ืฉืœื™ืœื™ืช.
04:12
As you can see here,
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ื›ืžื• ืฉืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ื›ืืŸ,
04:13
a lot of these patients in 1954 are experiencing severe euphoria.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ื‘ืฉื ืช 1954 ื—ื•ื•ื™ื ืื•ืคื•ืจื™ื” ื—ืžื•ืจื”.
04:18
And they were worried that this might somehow interfere
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ื•ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืžื•ื“ืื’ื™ื ืฉื–ื” ืขืœื•ืœ ืื™ื›ืฉื”ื• ืœื”ืคืจื™ืข
04:22
with their recovering from tuberculosis.
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ืœื”ื—ืœืžื” ืฉืœื”ื ืžืฉื—ืคืช.
04:25
So they recommended that iproniazid only be used in cases of extreme TB
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ืื– ื”ื ื”ืžืœื™ืฆื• ืฉืื™ืคืจื•ื ื™ืื–ื™ื“ ื™ืฉืžืฉ ืจืง ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืฉื—ืคืช ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ืช
04:31
and in patients that were highly emotionally stable,
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ื•ื‘ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื• ืžืื•ื“ ื™ืฆื™ื‘ื™ื ื ืคืฉื™ืช,
04:36
which is of course the exact opposite of how we use it as an antidepressant.
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ืฉื–ื” ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ื”ื”ื™ืคืš ื”ื’ืžื•ืจ ืžื”ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ื• ืื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื–ื” ื›ื ื•ื’ื“ ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ.
04:40
They were so used to looking at it from the perspective of this one disease,
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ื”ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื”ืชืจื’ืœื• ืœื”ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื” ืžื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืžื‘ื˜ ืฉืœ ืžื—ืœื” ืื—ืช ื–ื•,
04:44
they could not see the larger implications for another disease.
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ืฉื”ื ืœื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืจื—ื‘ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื—ืœื” ืื—ืจืช.
04:49
And to be fair, it's not entirely their fault.
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ื•ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ื•ื’ื ื™ื, ื–ื” ืœื ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื‘ืืฉืžืชื.
04:52
Functional fixedness is a bias that affects all of us.
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ืงื™ื‘ืขื•ืŸ ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™, ื”ื™ื ื• ื”ื”ื˜ื™ื” ืฉืžืฉืคื™ืขื” ืขืœ ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžืื™ืชื ื•.
04:54
It's a tendency to only be able to think of an object
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื ื˜ื™ื™ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื’ืœ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜
04:58
in terms of its traditional use or function.
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ืจืง ื‘ืžื•ื ื—ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื”ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ ืื• ื”ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ ืฉืœื•.
05:01
And mental set is another thing. Right?
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ื•ืžื‘ื ื” ืžื ื˜ืืœื™ ื”ื•ื ื“ื‘ืจ ืื—ืจ. ื ื›ื•ืŸ?
05:03
That's sort of this preconceived framework
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ืกื•ื’ ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืžืกื’ืจืช ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืฉื’ื•ื‘ืฉื” ืžืจืืฉ
05:05
with which we approach problems.
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ืฉืื™ืชื” ืื ื• ื ื™ื’ืฉื™ื ืœื‘ืขื™ื•ืช.
05:07
And that actually makes repurposing pretty hard for all of us,
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ื•ื–ื” ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžืงืฉื” ืžืื•ื“ ืขืœ ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœืคืขื•ืœ ืœืžืขืŸ ื”ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ ืžื—ื“ืฉ.
05:10
which is, I guess, why they gave a TV show to the guy who was,
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ืฉื–ื•, ืื ื™ ืžื ื™ื—ื”, ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืฉื ืชื ื• ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื˜ืœื•ื•ื™ื–ื™ื” ืœืื•ืชื• ื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืฉื”ื™ื”,
05:14
like, really great at repurposing.
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ื›ืื™ืœื•, ื‘ืืžืช ื ื”ื“ืจ ื‘ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ ืžื—ื“ืฉ.
05:16
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
05:19
So the effects in both the case of iproniazid and imipramine,
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ืื– ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ื”ืŸ ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืคืจื•ื ื™ืื–ื™ื“ ื•ื”ืŸ ื‘ื–ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžื™ืคืจืืžื™ืŸ,
05:23
they were so strong --
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ื”ื™ื• ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื—ื–ืงื•ืช.
05:24
there was mania, or people dancing in the halls.
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ื”ื™ืชื” ืžืื ื™ื”, ืื• ืื ืฉื™ื ืจื•ืงื“ื™ื ื‘ืžืกื“ืจื•ื ื•ืช.
05:27
It's actually not that surprising they were caught.
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ื–ื” ื‘ืขืฆื ืœื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืžืคืชื™ืข ืฉื”ื ื ืชืคืกื•.
05:30
But it does make you wonder what else we've missed.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื’ื•ืจื ืœื›ื ืœืชื”ื•ืช ืžื” ืขื•ื“ ืคืกืคืกื ื•.
05:35
So iproniazid and imipramine,
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ืื– ืื™ืคืจื•ื ื™ืื–ื™ื“ ื•ืื™ืžื™ืคืจืืžื™ืŸ,
05:37
they're more than just a case study in repurposing.
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ื”ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืกืชื ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ ืžื—ื“ืฉ.
05:39
They have two other things in common that are really important.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืฉื ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ืฉื”ื ื‘ืืžืช ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื.
05:42
One, they have terrible side effects.
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ืื—ื“, ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืชื•ืคืขื•ืช ืœื•ื•ืื™ ืื™ื•ืžื•ืช.
05:45
That includes liver toxicity,
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ืฉื›ื•ืœืœื•ืช ืจืขื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ื›ื‘ื“,
05:47
weight gain of over 50 pounds,
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ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื‘ืžืฉืงืœ ืฉืœ ืžืขืœ 20 ืง"ื’,
05:50
suicidality.
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ืื•ื‘ื“ื ื•ืช.
05:52
And two, they both increase levels of serotonin,
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ื•ืฉืชื™ื™ื, ืฉืชื™ื”ืŸ ืžืขืœื•ืช ืืช ืจืžืช ื”ืกืจื•ื˜ื•ื ื™ืŸ,
05:56
which is a chemical signal in the brain,
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ืฉื”ื•ื ืื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ ื‘ืžื•ื—,
05:59
or a neurotransmitter.
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ืื• ืžื•ืœื™ืš ืขืฆื‘ื™.
06:01
And those two things together, right, one or the two,
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ื•ืฉื ื™ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ื—ื“, ื ื›ื•ืŸ, ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ืื• ืฉื ื™ื”ื,
06:03
may not have been that important,
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ืื•ืœื™ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื,
06:05
but the two together meant that we had to develop safer drugs,
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ืื‘ืœ ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื™ื—ื“ ืžืฉืžืขื ื”ื™ื” ืฉื”ื™ื” ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœืคืชื— ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ,
06:09
and that serotonin seemed like a pretty good place to start.
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ื•ืฉืกืจื•ื˜ื•ื ื™ืŸ ื ืจืื” ื”ื™ื” ื›ืžืงื•ื ื˜ื•ื‘ ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ื•.
06:13
So we developed drugs to more specifically focus on serotonin,
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ืื– ืคื™ืชื—ื ื• ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืฉื™ืชืžืงื“ื• ื‘ื™ืชืจ ื“ื™ื•ืง ืขืœ ืกืจื•ื˜ื•ื ื™ืŸ,
06:17
the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, so the SSRIs,
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ืžืขื›ื‘ื™ ืงืœื™ื˜ื” ื—ื•ื–ืจืช ื‘ืจืจื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืกืจื•ื˜ื•ื ื™ืŸ, ืื– ื” SSRIs,
06:21
the most famous of which is Prozac.
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ืฉื”ืžืคื•ืจืกื ืฉื‘ื”ื ื”ื•ื ืคืจื•ื–ืืง.
06:24
And that was 30 years ago,
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืœืคื ื™ 30 ืฉื ื”,
06:26
and since then we have mostly just worked on optimizing those drugs.
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ื•ืžืื– ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืขื‘ื“ื ื• ืจืง ืขืœ ื”ืžื™ื˜ื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืืœื•.
06:29
And the SSRIs, they are better than the drugs that came before them,
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ื•ื” SSRIs, ื”ืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืืฉืจ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืฉืงื“ืžื• ืœื”ื,
06:32
but they still have a lot of side effects,
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ืื‘ืœ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืŸ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืชื•ืคืขื•ืช ืœื•ื•ืื™,
06:35
including weight gain, insomnia,
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื‘ืžืฉืงืœ, ื ื“ื•ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื ื”,
06:38
suicidality --
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ืื•ื‘ื“ื ื•ืช --
06:40
and they take a really long time to work,
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ื•ืœื•ืงื— ืœื”ืŸ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื–ืžืŸ ืœื”ืฉืคื™ืข,
06:42
something like four to six weeks in a lot of patients.
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ืžืฉื”ื• ื›ืžื• ืืจื‘ืขื” ืขื“ ืฉื™ืฉื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืืฆืœ ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื.
06:45
And that's in the patients where they do work.
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ื•ื–ื” ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ืฉื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช.
06:47
There are a lot of patients where these drugs don't work.
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ื™ืฉ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื˜ื•ืคืœื™ื ืฉืขืœื™ื”ื ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืื™ื ืŸ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช.
06:50
And that means now, in 2016,
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ื•ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื›ืขืช, ื‘ 2016,
06:53
we still have no cures for any mood disorders,
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ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœืจืคื ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ื‘ืžืฆื‘ื™ ืจื•ื—,
06:57
just drugs that suppress symptoms,
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ืืœื ืจืง ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื›ืื•ืช ืกื™ืžืคื˜ื•ืžื™ื,
06:59
which is kind of the difference between taking a painkiller for an infection
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ืฉื–ื” ื“ื•ืžื” ืœื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื ื˜ื™ืœืช ืžืฉื›ืš ื›ืื‘ื™ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื“ืœืงืช
07:03
versus an antibiotic.
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ืœืขื•ืžืช ืžืชืŸ ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”.
07:04
A painkiller will make you feel better,
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ืžืฉื›ื›ื™ ื›ืื‘ื™ื ื™ื’ืจืžื• ืœื›ื ืœื”ืจื’ื™ืฉ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ,
07:06
but is not going to do anything to treat that underlying disease.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื ืœื ื™ืขืฉื• ื“ื‘ืจ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ืžื—ืœื” ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช.
07:10
And it was this flexibility in our thinking
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ื•ื”ื™ืชื” ื–ื• ื”ื’ืžื™ืฉื•ืช ืฉื‘ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœื ื•
07:13
that let us recognize that iproniazid and imipramine
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ืฉืื™ืคืฉืจื” ืœื ื• ืœื”ื›ื™ืจ ื‘ื›ืš ืฉืื™ืคืจื•ื ื™ืื–ื™ื“ ื•ืื™ืžืคืจืืžื™ืŸ
07:16
could be repurposed in this way,
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ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื™ืขื•ื“ ื‘ื“ืจืš ื–ื•,
07:18
which led us to the serotonin hypothesis,
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ืฉื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื” ืื•ืชื ื• ืœื”ื™ืคื•ืชื™ื–ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืกืจื•ื˜ื•ื ื™ืŸ,
07:20
which we then, ironically, fixated on.
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ืฉืขืœื™ื”, ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืื™ืจื•ื ื™ื”, ืื ื• ืžืงื•ื‘ืขื™ื.
07:23
This is brain signaling, serotonin,
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ื–ื”ื• ืžื•ื— ืฉืžืื•ืชืช, ืกืจื•ื˜ื•ื ื™ืŸ,
07:26
from an SSRI commercial.
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ืžืชื•ืš ืชืฉื“ื™ืจ ืคืจืกื•ืžืช ืœ SSRI.
07:27
In case you're not clear, this is a dramatization.
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ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ื•ื–ื” ืœื ื‘ืจื•ืจ, ื–ื• ื“ืจืžื˜ื™ื–ืฆื™ื”.
07:30
And in science, we try and remove our bias, right,
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ื•ื‘ืžื“ืข, ืื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื”ืกื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื”ื˜ื™ื” ืฉืœื ื•,
07:34
by running double-blinded experiments
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืคืขืœืช ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ ืกืžื™ื•ืช-ื›ืคื•ืœื”
07:37
or being statistically agnostic as to what our results will be.
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ืื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื’ื ื•ืกื˜ื™ื ืกื˜ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืžื” ืชื”ื™ื™ื ื” ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
07:40
But bias creeps in more insidiously in what we choose to study
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื˜ื™ื™ื” ื–ื•ื—ืœืช ืคื ื™ืžื” ื‘ื™ืชืจ ืขื•ืจืžื” ืœืชื•ืš ืžื” ืฉืื ื• ื‘ื•ื—ืจื™ื ืœื—ืงื•ืจ
07:45
and how we choose to study it.
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ื•ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืื ื• ื‘ื•ื—ืจื™ื ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ื–ืืช.
07:48
So we've focused on serotonin now for the past 30 years,
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ืื– ื”ืชืžืงื“ื ื• ืขืœ ืกืจื•ื˜ื•ื ื™ืŸ ื‘ืžืฉืš 30 ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช,
07:51
often to the exclusion of other things.
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ืœืขืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ื”ืชืขืœืžื•ืช ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
07:54
We still have no cures,
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ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ืžืจืคื,
07:57
and what if serotonin isn't all there is to depression?
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ื•ืžื” ืื ืกืจื•ื˜ื•ื ื™ืŸ ืื™ื ื• ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ?
08:00
What if it's not even the key part of it?
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ืžื” ืื ื–ื” ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื ื—ืœืง ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ืžืžื ื•?
08:02
That means no matter how much time
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ืœื ืžืฉื ื” ื›ืžื” ื–ืžืŸ
08:04
or money or effort we put into it,
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ืื• ื›ืกืฃ ืื• ืžืืžืฅ ื”ืฉืงืขื ื• ื‘ื•,
08:07
it will never lead to a cure.
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ื–ื” ืืฃ ืคืขื ืœื ื™ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืžืจืคื.
08:10
In the past few years, doctors have discovered
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ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช, ืจื•ืคืื™ื ื’ื™ืœื•
08:13
probably what is the first truly new antidepressant since the SSRIs,
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ื›ื ืจืื” ืžื”ื• ื ื•ื’ื“ ื”ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื•ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ื‘ืืžืช ืžืื– ื” SSRI,
08:18
Calypsol,
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ืงืœื™ืคืกื•ืœ,
08:19
and this drug works very quickly, within a few hours or a day,
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ื•ืชืจื•ืคื” ื–ื• ืคื•ืขืœืช ืžื”ืจ ืžืื•ื“, ืชื•ืš ืžืกืคืจ ืฉืขื•ืช, ืื• ื™ื•ื ืื—ื“,
08:23
and it doesn't work on serotonin.
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ื•ื–ื” ืœื ืขื•ื‘ื“ ืขืœ ืกืจื•ื˜ื•ื ื™ืŸ
08:25
It works on glutamate, which is another neurotransmitter.
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ื–ื” ืขื•ื‘ื“ ืขืœ ื’ืœื•ื˜ืžื˜, ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื•ืœื™ืš ืขืฆื‘ื™ ืื—ืจ.
08:28
And it's also repurposed.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื’ื ืขื‘ืจ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื™ืขื•ื“.
08:29
It was traditionally used as anesthesia in surgery.
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื™ืžืฉ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ ื›ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืจื“ืžื” ื‘ื ื™ืชื•ื—ื™ื.
08:33
But unlike those other drugs,
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ืื‘ืœ ืฉืœื ื›ืžื• ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ืช,
08:35
which were recognized pretty quickly,
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ืฉื–ื•ื”ื• ื“ื™ ืžื”ืจ,
08:37
it took us 20 years
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ืœืงื— ืœื ื• 20 ืฉื ื”
08:38
to realize that Calypsol was an antidepressant,
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ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืงืœื™ืคืกื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ื ื•ื’ื“ ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ,
08:41
despite the fact that it's actually a better antidepressant,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉื–ื” ืœืžืขืฉื” ื ื•ื’ื“ ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ,
08:44
probably, than those other drugs.
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ื›ื›ืœ ื”ื ืจืื” ืžืฉืืจ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ืช.
08:45
It's actually probably because of the fact that it's a better antidepressant
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ื›ื›ืœ ื”ื ืจืื” ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉื–ื” ื ื•ื’ื“ ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ
08:50
that it was harder for us to recognize.
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ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืงืฉื” ืœื–ื”ื•ืช ืื•ืชื•.
08:52
There was no mania to signal its effects.
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ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ืžืื ื™ื” ืฉืื•ืชืชื” ืขืœ ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืชื™ื•,
08:54
So in 2013, up at Columbia University,
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ืื– ื‘ 2013, ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืงื•ืœื•ืžื‘ื™ื”,
08:57
I was working with my colleague,
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ืขื‘ื“ืชื™ ืขื ื”ืขืžื™ืชื™ื ืฉืœื™,
08:59
Dr. Christine Ann Denny,
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ื“"ืจ ื›ืจื™ืกื˜ื™ืŸ ืืŸ ื“ื ื™,
09:01
and we were studying Calypsol as an antidepressant in mice.
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ื•ื—ืงืจื ื• ืืช ื”ืงืœื™ืคืกื•ืœ ื›ื ื•ื’ื“ ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื.
09:05
And Calypsol has, like, a really short half-life,
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ื•ืœืงืœื™ืคืกื•ืœ ื™ืฉ ื–ืžืŸ ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ื—ื™ื™ื ืงืฆืจ ื‘ืืžืช,
09:08
which means it's out of your body within a few hours.
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ืžื” ืฉืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ื•ืฆื ืžื”ื’ื•ืฃ ืฉืœื›ื ืชื•ืš ืฉืขื•ืช ืื—ื“ื•ืช.
09:11
And we were just piloting.
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืจืง ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ืžืงื“ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•.
09:13
So we would give an injection to mice,
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ืื– ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื ื•ืชื ื™ื ื–ืจื™ืงื” ืœืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื,
09:15
and then we'd wait a week,
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ื•ืื– ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžื—ื›ื™ื ืฉื‘ื•ืข,
09:16
and then we'd run another experiment to save money.
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ื•ืื– ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืขื•ืจื›ื™ื ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ื ื•ืกืฃ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืกื•ืš ื›ืกืฃ.
09:20
And one of the experiments I was running,
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ื•ื‘ืื—ื“ ื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืขืจื›ืชื™,
09:22
we would stress the mice,
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืœื—ื™ืฆื™ื ืืช ื”ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื,
09:23
and we used that as a model of depression.
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ื•ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื ื• ื‘ื–ื” ื›ืžื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ.
09:26
And at first it kind of just looked like it didn't really work at all.
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ื•ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื” ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื ืจืื” ื›ืื™ืœื• ื–ื” ืœื ืžืžืฉ ืขื‘ื“.
09:29
So we could have stopped there.
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ืื– ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœืขืฆื•ืจ ืฉื.
09:31
But I have run this model of depression for years,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ืขืจื›ืชื™ ืžื•ื“ืœ ื–ื” ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ืœืื•ืจืš ืฉื ื™ื,
09:34
and the data just looked kind of weird.
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ื•ื”ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื ืจืื• ืงืฆืช ืžื•ื–ืจื™ื.
09:36
It didn't really look right to me.
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ื–ื” ืžืžืฉ ืœื ื ืจืื” ืœื™ ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
09:38
So I went back,
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ืื– ื—ื–ืจืชื™,
09:39
and we reanalyzed it
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ื•ืฉื‘ื ื• ื•ื ื™ืชื—ื ื• ืืช ื–ื”
09:41
based on whether or not they had gotten that one injection of Calypsol
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ื‘ื”ืชื‘ืกืก ืขืœ ื”ืฉืืœื” ื‘ืื ื”ื ืงื™ื‘ืœื•, ืื• ืœื, ืืช ืื•ืชื” ื–ืจื™ืงื” ืื—ืช ืฉืœ ืงืœื™ืคืกื•ืœ
09:44
a week beforehand.
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ืฉื‘ื•ืข ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืŸ.
09:46
And it looked kind of like this.
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื ืจืื” ื›ืžื• ืžืฉื”ื• ื›ื–ื”.
09:48
So if you look at the far left,
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ืื– ืื ืชืกืชื›ืœื• ืจื—ื•ืง ืฉืžืืœื”,
09:51
if you put a mouse in a new space,
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ืื ืชืฉื™ืžื• ืขื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘ ื—ื“ืฉ,
09:53
this is the box, it's very exciting,
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ื–ื• ื”ื™ื ื”ืงื•ืคืกื”, ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืจื’ืฉ,
09:55
a mouse will walk around and explore,
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ืขื›ื‘ืจ ื™ืกืชื•ื‘ื‘ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื•ื™ื—ืงื•ืจ,
09:58
and you can see that pink line is actually the measure of them walking.
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ื•ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื”ืงื• ื”ื•ืจื•ื“ ื”ื•ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžื“ื™ื“ื” ืฉืœ ืื™ืš ื”ื ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื.
10:02
And we also give it another mouse in a pencil cup
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื’ื ื ื•ืชื ื™ื ืœื• ืขื›ื‘ืจ ืื—ืจ ื‘ืชื•ืš ื›ื•ืก ืขืคืจื•ื ื•ืช
10:05
that it can decide to interact with.
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ื›ืš ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืงื™ื™ื ืื™ืชื• ืื™ื ื˜ืจืืงืฆื™ื”.
10:07
This is also a dramatization, in case that's not clear.
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื’ื ื“ืจืžื˜ื™ื–ืฆื™ื” ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉื–ื” ืœื ื‘ืจื•ืจ.
10:10
And a normal mouse will explore.
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ื•ืขื›ื‘ืจ ืจื’ื™ืœ ื™ื—ืงื•ืจ.
10:14
It will be social.
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ื”ื•ื ื™ื”ื™ื” ื—ื‘ืจื•ืชื™.
10:16
Check out what's going on.
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ืฉื™ืžื• ืœื‘ ืžื” ืงื•ืจื”.
10:18
If you stress a mouse in this depression model,
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ืื ืืชื ืžืœื—ื™ืฆื™ื ืขื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ืžื•ื“ืœ ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ื–ื”,
10:20
which is the middle box,
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ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ืงื•ืคืกื” ื”ืืžืฆืขื™ืช,
10:23
they aren't social, they don't explore.
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ื”ื ืœื ื—ื‘ืจื•ืชื™ื™ื, ื”ื ืื™ื ื ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื.
10:25
They mostly just kind of hide in that back corner, behind a cup.
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ื”ื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืจืง ืžืกืชืชืจื™ื ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืคื™ื ื” ืื—ื•ืจื™ืช, ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ื›ื•ืก.
10:29
Yet the mice that had gotten that one injection of Calypsol,
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ืื•ืœื ื”ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืืช ืื•ืชื” ื–ืจื™ืงื” ืื—ืช ืฉืœ ืงืœื™ืคืกื•ืœ,
10:32
here on your right,
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ื›ืืŸ ืžื™ืžื™ื ื›ื,
10:34
they were exploring, they were social.
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ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื—ืงืจื ื™ื, ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื—ื‘ืจื•ืชื™ื™ื
10:36
They looked like they had never been stressed at all,
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ื”ื ื ืจืื• ื›ืื™ืœื• ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืœื—ื•ืฆื™ื ืžืขื•ืœื,
10:40
which is impossible.
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ืฉื–ื” ื‘ืœืชื™ ืืคืฉืจื™.
10:42
So we could have just stopped there,
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ืื– ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืœืขืฆื•ืจ ืฉื,
10:44
but Christine had also used Calypsol before as anesthesia,
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ืื‘ืœ ืงืจื™ืกื˜ื™ืŸ ื’ื ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื” ื‘ืงืœื™ืคืกื•ืœ ื›ื‘ืกื ื”ืจื“ืžื”,
10:49
and a few years ago she had seen
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ื•ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืžื” ืฉื ื™ื ื”ื™ื ืจืืชื”
10:50
that it seemed to have some weird effects on cells
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ืฉื ืจืื” ื”ื™ื” ืฉื”ื™ื• ืœื• ื›ืžื” ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ืžื•ื–ืจื•ืช ืขืœ ืชืื™ื
10:53
and some other behavior
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ื•ื’ืจื ืœื›ืžื” ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ื™ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช
10:54
that also seemed to last long after the drug,
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ืฉื ืจืื” ื”ื™ื” ืฉื ืžืฉื›ื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ืœืื—ืจ ืžืชืŸ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื”,
10:57
maybe a few weeks.
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ืื•ืœื™ ื›ืžื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช.
10:58
So we were like, OK,
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ืื– ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืœืขืฆืžื ื•, ื‘ืกื“ืจ,
10:59
maybe this is not completely impossible,
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ืื•ืœื™ ื–ื” ืœื ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื‘ืœืชื™ ืืคืฉืจื™,
11:02
but we were really skeptical.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืžืฉ ืกืคืงื ื™ื.
11:03
So we did what you do in science when you're not sure,
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ืื– ืขืฉื™ื ื• ืืช ืžื” ืฉืขื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ืžื“ืข ื›ืืฉืจ ืœื ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื™ื,
11:06
and we ran it again.
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ื•ื”ืจืฆื ื• ืืช ื–ื” ืฉื•ื‘.
11:08
And I remember being in the animal room,
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ื•ืื ื™ ื–ื•ื›ืจืช ืืช ืขืฆืžื™ ื‘ื—ื“ืจ ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช,
11:11
moving mice from box to box to test them,
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ืžื–ื™ื–ื” ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืงื•ืคืกื ืœืงื•ืคืกื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืื•ืชื,
11:15
and Christine was actually sitting on the floor with the computer in her lap
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ื•ื›ืจื™ืกื˜ื™ืŸ ื™ืฉื‘ื” ืœืžืขืฉื‘ ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆืคื” ืขื ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ ื‘ื—ื™ืงื”
11:18
so the mice couldn't see her,
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ื›ืš ืฉื”ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื ืœื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืื•ืชื”,
11:20
and she was analyzing the data in real time.
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ื•ื”ื™ื ื ื™ืชื—ื” ืืช ื”ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืืžืช.
11:22
And I remember us yelling,
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ื•ืื ื™ ื–ื•ื›ืจืช ืื•ืชื ื• ืฆื•ืจื—ื•ืช,
11:23
which you're not supposed to do in an animal room where you're testing,
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ืžื” ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืืžื•ืจื•ืช ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื‘ื—ื“ืจ ื—ื™ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื” ืขื•ืจื›ื™ื ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื,
11:27
because it had worked.
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ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื–ื” ืขื‘ื“.
11:28
It seemed like these mice were protected against stress,
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ื ืจืื” ื”ื™ื” ืฉืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื ืืœื” ื”ื™ื• ืžื•ื’ื ื™ื ืžืคื ื™ ืžืชื—,
11:33
or they were inappropriately happy, however you want to call it.
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ืื• ืฉื”ื ืฉืžื—ื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ืœืชื™ ื”ื•ืœื, ืื™ืš ืฉืชืจืฆื• ืœืงืจื•ื ืœื–ื”.
11:36
And we were really excited.
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ื•ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืžืฉ ื ืจื’ืฉื•ืช.
11:39
And then we were really skeptical, because it was too good to be true.
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ื•ืื– ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืžืฉ ืกืงืคื˜ื™ื•ืช, ื›ื™ ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื˜ื•ื‘ ืžื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืืžื™ืชื™.
11:43
So we ran it again.
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ืื– ื”ืจืฆื ื• ืืช ื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ืฉื•ื‘.
11:45
And then we ran it again in a PTSD model,
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ื•ืื– ื”ืจืฆื ื• ืื•ืชื• ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ืžื•ื“ืœ PTSD,
11:48
and we ran it again in a physiological model,
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ื•ื”ืจืฆื ื• ืืช ื–ื” ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ืžื•ื“ืœ ืคื™ื–ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™,
11:50
where all we did was give stress hormones.
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ื›ืฉื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืขืฉื™ื ื• ื”ื™ื” ืœืชืช ื”ื•ืจืžื•ื ื™ ื“ื—ืง.
11:53
And we had our undergrads run it.
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ื•ื ืชื ื• ืœืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ืœื”ืจื™ืฅ ืืช ื–ื”.
11:54
And then we had our collaborators halfway across the world in France run it.
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ื•ืื– ื”ืขืžื™ืชื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื™ื ื‘ืฆืจืคืช ื”ืจื™ืฆื• ืืช ื–ื”.
11:59
And every time someone ran it, they confirmed the same thing.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื”ืจื™ืฅ ืืช ื–ื”, ื”ื•ื ืื™ืฉืจ ืืช ืื•ืชื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจ.
12:03
It seemed like this one injection of Calypsol
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ื ืจืื” ื”ื™ื” ืฉื”ื–ืจื™ืงื” ื”ืื—ืช ื”ื–ื• ืฉืœ ืงืœื™ืคืกื•ืœ
12:05
was somehow protecting against stress for weeks.
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ื”ื’ื ื” ืื™ื›ืฉื”ื• ื›ื ื’ื“ ืœื—ืฅ ืœืžืฉืš ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช,
12:09
And we only published this a year ago,
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืคื™ืจืกืžื ื• ืืช ื–ื” ืจืง ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื ื”,
12:11
but since then other labs have independently confirmed this effect.
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ืื‘ืœ ืžืื– ืžืขื‘ื“ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ืืฉืจื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืขืฆืžืื™ ืืช ื”ืืคืงื˜ ื”ื–ื”.
12:15
So we don't know what causes depression,
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžื” ื’ื•ืจื ืœื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ,
12:18
but we do know that stress is the initial trigger
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืŸ ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื›ื™ ืฉื“ื—ืง ื”ื•ื ื”ืœื—ื™ืฆื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ืช ืขืœ ื”ื”ื“ืง ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™
12:22
in 80 percent of cases,
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ื‘-80 ืื—ื•ื– ืžื”ืžืงืจื™ื,
12:24
and depression and PTSD are different diseases,
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ื•ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ื• PTSD ื”ืŸ ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช,
12:26
but this is something they share in common.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื”ืŸ ื—ื•ืœืงื•ืช ื‘ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ.
12:28
Right? It is traumatic stress
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ื ื›ื•ืŸ? ื–ื”ื• ื“ื—ืง ื˜ืจืื•ืžื˜ื™
12:30
like active combat or natural disasters
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ื›ืžื• ื”ืœื ืงืจื‘ ืื• ืืกื•ื ื•ืช ื˜ื‘ืข
12:33
or community violence or sexual assault
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ืื• ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ืงื”ื™ืœื” ืื• ืชืงื™ืคื” ืžื™ื ื™ืช
12:36
that causes post-traumatic stress disorder,
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ืฉื’ื•ืจืžืช ืœื”ืคืจืขืช ื“ื—ืง ืคื•ืกื˜ ื˜ืจืื•ืžื˜ื™ืช,
12:38
and not everyone that is exposed to stress develops a mood disorder.
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ื•ืœื ื›ืœ ืžื™ ืฉื—ืฉื•ืฃ ืœืœื—ืฅ ืžืคืชื— ื”ืคืจืขืช ืžืฆื‘ ืจื•ื—.
12:44
And this ability to experience stress and be resilient
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ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื–ื• ืœื—ื•ื•ืช ืžืชื— ื•ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื’ืžื™ืฉ
12:47
and bounce back and not develop depression or PTSD
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ื•ืœืงืคื•ืฅ ืื—ื•ืจื” ื•ืœื ืœืคืชื— ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ืื• PTSD
12:52
is known as stress resilience,
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ื™ื“ื•ืข ื›ื—ืกื™ื ื•ืช ืœื“ื—ืง,
12:54
and it varies between people.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžืฉืชื ื” ืืฆืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื.
12:56
And we have always thought of it as just sort of this passive property.
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืชืžื™ื“ ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืขืœ ื–ื” ื›ืขืœ ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืชื›ื•ื ื” ืคืกื™ื‘ื™ืช.
13:00
It's the absence of susceptibility factors
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ืขื“ืจ ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื
13:02
and risk factors for these disorders.
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ื•ื’ื•ืจืžื™ ืกื™ื›ื•ืŸ ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ืืœื•.
13:05
But what if it were active?
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื” ืื ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืคืขื™ืœ?
13:08
Maybe we could enhance it,
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ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื—ื–ืง ื–ืืช,
13:09
sort of akin to putting on armor.
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ื‘ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืœื‘ื™ืฉืช ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ.
13:13
We had accidentally discovered the first resilience-enhancing drug.
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ื‘ื˜ืขื•ืช ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ืชืจื•ืคื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืœืฉื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ื—ื•ืกืŸ.
13:18
And like I said, we only gave a tiny amount of the drug,
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ื•ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืžืจืชื™, ื ืชื ื• ืจืง ื›ืžื•ืช ื–ืขื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื”.
13:21
and it lasted for weeks,
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ื•ื–ื” ื ืžืฉืš ืœืื•ืจืš ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช,
13:23
and that's not like anything you see with antidepressants.
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ื•ื–ื” ืœื ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืฉื•ื ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืขื ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื ื•ื’ื“ื•ืช ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ.
13:26
But it is actually kind of similar to what you see in immune vaccines.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื‘ืขืฆื ื“ื•ืžื” ืื™ื›ืฉื”ื• ืœืžื” ืฉืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ืช.
13:31
So in immune vaccines, you'll get your shots,
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ืื– ื‘ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ืช ืชืงื‘ืœื• ื–ืจื™ืงื•ืช,
13:34
and then weeks, months, years later,
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ื•ืื– ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช, ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื, ืฉื ื™ื ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ,
13:37
when you're actually exposed to bacteria,
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ื›ืฉื ื—ืฉืคื™ื ืžืžืฉ ืœื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื
13:39
it's not the vaccine in your body that protects you.
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ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื—ื™ืกื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ื’ื•ืคื›ื ืฉืžื’ืŸ ืขืœื™ื›ื.
13:42
It's your own immune system
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ื–ื• ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœื›ื
13:43
that's developed resistance and resilience to this bacteria that fights it off,
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ืฉืคื™ืชื—ื” ืขืžื™ื“ื•ืช ื•ื—ื•ืกืŸ ื›ื ื’ื“ ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื ืืœื” ื•ื ืœื—ืžืช ื‘ื”ื,
13:47
and you actually never get the infection,
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ื•ืื™ื ื›ื ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืืช ื”ื–ื™ื”ื•ื,
13:50
which is very different from, say, our treatments. Right?
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ื•ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืฉื•ื ื” ืžื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœื™ื ืฉืœื ื•. ื ื›ื•ืŸ?
13:53
In that case, you get the infection, you're exposed to the bacteria,
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื–ื”, ืืชื ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืืช ื”ื–ื™ื”ื•ื, ืืชื ื ื—ืฉืคื™ื ืœื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื,
13:57
you're sick, and then you take, say, an antibiotic which cures it,
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ืืชื ื—ื•ืœื™ื, ื•ืื– ืืชื ื ื•ื˜ืœื™ื, ืœืžืฉืœ, ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื” ืฉืžืจืคืืช ืืช ื–ื”,
14:00
and those drugs are actually working to kill the bacteria.
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ื•ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืืœื• ืคื•ืขืœื•ืช ื‘ืขืฆื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืจื•ื’ ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื.
14:04
Or similar to as I said before, with this palliative,
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ืื• ื‘ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืืžืจืชื™ ืงื•ื“ื, ืขื ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืคืœื™ืื˜ื™ื‘ื™ (ืชื•ืžืš) ื–ื”,
14:07
you'll take something that will suppress the symptoms,
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ืชื™ืงื—ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื™ื“ื›ื ืืช ื”ืกื™ืžืคื˜ื•ืžื™ื,
14:10
but it won't treat the underlying infection,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื ื™ื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื–ื™ื”ื•ื ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™,
14:12
and you'll only feel better during the time in which you're taking it,
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ื•ืืชื ืจืง ืชืจื’ื™ืฉื• ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื‘ื• ืืชื ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืืช ื–ื”,
14:16
which is why you have to keep taking it.
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ืฉื–ื• ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืฉืืชื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืœืงื—ืช ื–ืืช.
14:18
And in depression and PTSD --
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ื•ื‘ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ื•- PTSD --
14:20
here we have your stress exposure --
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ื›ืืŸ ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ื—ืฉื™ืคื” ืฉืœื›ื ืœื“ื—ืง --
14:22
we only have palliative care.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืจืง ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืคืœื™ืื˜ื™ื‘ื™.
14:25
Antidepressants only suppress symptoms,
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ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื ื•ื’ื“ื•ืช ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ืจืง ืžื“ื›ืื•ืช ืกื™ืžืคื˜ื•ืžื™ื,
14:28
and that is why you basically have to keep taking them
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ื•ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื–ื” ืืชื ื‘ืขืฆื ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืœืงื—ืช ืื•ืชื
14:30
for the life of the disease,
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ืœื›ืœ ืื•ืจืš ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื—ืœื”,
14:32
which is often the length of your own life.
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ืืฉืจ ืœืขืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ื ืื•ืจืš ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื›ื.
14:35
So we're calling our resilience-enhancing drugs "paravaccines,"
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืœืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืžืฉืคืจื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ืกืŸ ืฉืœื ื• ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช "paravaccines" (ืžืกื™ื™ืขื•ืช ื—ื™ืกื•ืŸ),
14:40
which means vaccine-like,
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ืฉืžืฉืžืขื• ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช-ื—ื™ืกื•ืŸ
14:41
because it seems like they might have the potential
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ื›ื™ ื ืจืื” ืฉืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืœื”ืŸ ื”ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœ
14:44
to protect against stress
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ืœื”ื’ืŸ ื›ื ื’ื“ ืœื—ืฅ
14:46
and prevent mice from developing
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ื•ืœืžื ื•ืข ืžืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื ืœืคืชื—
14:49
depression and post-traumatic stress disorder.
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ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ื•ื”ืคืจืขืช ื“ื—ืง ืคื•ืกื˜ ื˜ืจืื•ืžื˜ื™ืช.
14:52
Also, not all antidepressants are also paravaccines.
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ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ, ืœื ื›ืœ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื ื•ื’ื“ื•ืช ื”ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ื”ืŸ ื’ื ืžืกื™ื™ืขื•ืช ื—ื™ืกื•ืŸ.
14:57
We tried Prozac as well,
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ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ื’ื ืคืจื•ื–ืืง,
14:58
and that had no effect.
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ื•ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื• ื›ืœ ื”ืฉืคืขื”.
15:01
So if this were to translate into humans,
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ืื– ืื ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžืชื•ืจื’ื ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื
15:04
we might be able to protect people
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ืื ื• ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ืื ืฉื™ื
15:06
who are predictably at risk
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ืฉืฆืคื•ื™ื™ื ืœืกื™ื›ื•ืŸ
15:08
against stress-induced disorders like depression and PTSD.
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ื›ื ื’ื“ ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ืฉืžืงื•ืจืŸ ื‘ื“ื—ืง ื›ืžื• ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ื• PTSD.
15:12
So that's first responders and firefighters,
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ืื– ืืœื” ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ ืžื’ื™ืฉื™ ืฉืจื•ืชื™ ื—ื™ืจื•ื, ื›ื‘ืื™ื,
15:16
refugees, prisoners and prison guards,
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ืคืœื™ื˜ื™ื, ืืกื™ืจื™ื ื•ื”ืกื•ื”ืจื™ื ืฉืœื”ื,
15:20
soldiers, you name it.
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ื—ื™ื™ืœื™ื, ื•ื›ื•'.
15:23
And to give you a sense of the scale of these diseases,
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ื•ื›ื“ื™ ืœืชืช ืœื›ื ืชื—ื•ืฉื” ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืงืฃ ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื”ืืœื•,
15:27
in 2010, the global burden of disease
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ื‘ืฉื ืช 2010, ื”ื ื˜ืœ ื”ื›ืกืคื™ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื—ืœื”
15:30
was estimated at 2.5 trillion dollars,
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ื ืืžื“ ื‘ -2.5 ื˜ืจื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื•ืœืจ,
15:35
and since they are chronic,
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ื•ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื™ื ื›ืจื•ื ื™ืช,
15:36
that cost is compounding and is therefore expected to rise
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ื”ืขืœื•ืช ื”ื™ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ื•ืœืคื™ื›ืš ืฆืคื•ื™ื” ืœืขืœื•ืช
15:39
up to six trillion dollars in just the next 15 years.
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ืขื“ ืฉื™ืฉื” ื˜ืจื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืจืง ื‘ -15 ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ื‘ืื•ืช.
15:44
As I mentioned before,
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ื›ืคื™ ืฉืฆื™ื™ื ืชื™ ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ,
15:46
repurposing can be challenging because of our prior biases.
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ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืืชื’ืจ ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ื”ื˜ื™ื•ืช ื”ืงื•ื“ืžื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
15:50
Calypsol has another name,
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ืœืงืœื™ืคืกื•ืœ ื™ืฉ ื’ื ืฉื ืื—ืจ,
15:53
ketamine,
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ืงื˜ืืžื™ืŸ.
15:55
which also goes by another name,
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ืฉื’ื ืœื• ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ืฉื ืื—ืจ
15:57
Special K,
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ืกืคื™ื™ืฉืœ K.
15:58
which is a club drug and drug of abuse.
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ืฉื”ื•ื ืกื ืžื•ืขื“ื•ื ื™ื ื•ืกื ื”ืชืขืœืœื•ืช.
16:02
It's still used across the world as an anesthetic.
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ื–ื” ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืฉืžืฉ ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื›ืกื ื”ืจื“ืžื”.
16:05
It's used in children. We use it on the battlefield.
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ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื• ื‘ื™ืœื“ื™ื, ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื• ื‘ืฉื“ื” ื”ืงืจื‘.
16:08
It's actually the drug of choice in a lot of developing nations,
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ื–ื• ื‘ืขืฆื ืชืจื•ืคื” ืžื•ืขื“ืคืช ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืžืชืคืชื—ื•ืช,
16:11
because it doesn't affect breathing.
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ื›ื™ ืื™ื ื” ืžืฉืคื™ืขื” ืขืœ ื”ื ืฉื™ืžื”.
16:13
It is on the World Health Organization list of most essential medicines.
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ื”ื™ื ื‘ืจืฉื™ืžืช ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™
16:18
If we had discovered ketamine as a paravaccine first,
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ืœื• ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžื’ืœื™ื ื‘ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืืช ื”ืงื˜ืืžื™ืŸ ื›ืžืฉืคืจ-ื—ื™ืกื•ืŸ,
16:22
it'd be pretty easy for us to develop it,
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžืงืœ ืขืœื™ื ื• ืžืื•ื“ ืœืคืชื— ืื•ืชื•,
16:25
but as is, we have to compete with our functional fixedness
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ืื•ืœื ื›ืคื™ ืฉืงื•ืจื”, ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืชื—ืจื•ืช ืขื ื”ืขืงืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ืช ืฉืœื ื•
16:29
and mental set that kind of interfere.
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ื•ื”ืžืขืจืš ื”ืžื ื˜ืืœื™ ืฉืื™ื›ืฉื”ื• ืžืคืจื™ืข.
16:33
Fortunately, it's not the only compound we have discovered
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ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืžื–ืœ, ื–ื• ืœื ื”ืชืจื›ื•ื‘ืช ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืฉื’ื™ืœื™ื ื•
16:37
that has these prophylactic, paravaccine qualities,
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื” ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ืžื ื™ืขื” ืืœื•, ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ืžืฉืคืจื•ืช ื—ื™ืกื•ืŸ,
16:41
but all of the other drugs we've discovered,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืœ ืฉืืจ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืฉื’ื™ืœื™ื ื•,
16:44
or compounds if you will, they're totally new,
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ืื• ืชืจื›ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืื ืชืจืฆื•, ื”ืŸ ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืœื’ืžืจื™,
16:46
they have to go through the entire FDA approval process --
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ื”ืŸ ืฆืจื™ื›ื•ืช ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืืช ื›ืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืื™ืฉื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื”- FDA
16:50
if they make it before they can ever be used in humans.
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ืื ื–ื” ื™ืงืจื”, ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœืฉืžืฉ ืื™ ืคืขื ื‘ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื
16:54
And that will be years.
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ื•ื–ื” ื™ืงื— ืฉื ื™ื.
16:55
So if we wanted something sooner,
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ืื– ืœื• ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืžืฉื”ื• ืžื•ืงื“ื ื™ื•ืชืจ,
16:58
ketamine is already FDA-approved.
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ืงื˜ืืžื™ืŸ ืื•ืฉืจ ื›ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื” FDA.
17:00
It's generic, it's available.
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ื–ื” ื’ื ืจื™, ื–ื” ื–ืžื™ืŸ
17:03
We could develop it for a fraction of the price and a fraction of the time.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœืคืชื— ืืช ื–ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื—ืœืง ืงื˜ืŸ ืžื”ืžื—ื™ืจ ื•ื›ืŸ ื‘ืฉื‘ืจื™ืจ ืžื”ื–ืžืŸ.
17:08
But actually, beyond functional fixedness and mental set,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืขืงืฉื ื•ืช ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ืช ื•ืžืขืจืš ืžื ื˜ืœื™,
17:12
there's a real other challenge to repurposing drugs,
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ื™ืฉ ืืชื’ืจ ืืžื™ืชื™ ืื—ืจ ืœืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืขื ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ ืžื—ื“ืฉ,
17:16
which is policy.
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ืฉื–ื” ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช.
17:18
There are no incentives in place
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ืื™ืŸ ืชืžืจื™ืฆื™ื
17:20
once a drug is generic and off patent and no longer exclusive
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ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉืชืจื•ืคื” ื”ื™ื ื’ื ืจื™ืช ื•ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืคื˜ื ื˜, ื•ืื™ื ื” ืขื•ื“ ื‘ืœืขื“ื™ืช
17:24
to encourage pharma companies to develop them,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืคืืจืžื” ืœืคืชื— ืื•ืชืŸ,
17:26
because they don't make money.
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ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ืŸ ืœื ืขื•ืฉื•ืช ื›ืกืฃ.
17:28
And that's not true for just ketamine. That is true for all drugs.
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ื•ื–ื” ืœื ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืจืง ืœืงื˜ืžื™ืŸ. ื–ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื›ืœ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช.
17:32
Regardless, the idea itself is completely novel in psychiatry,
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงืจื”, ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืขืฆืžื• ื”ื•ื ื—ื“ื™ืฉ ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื‘ืคืกื™ื›ื™ืื˜ืจื™ื”.
17:38
to use drugs to prevent mental illness
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ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžื ื•ืข ืžื—ืœืช ื ืคืฉ
17:42
as opposed to just treat it.
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ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืกืชื ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื”.
17:44
It is possible that 20, 50, 100 years from now,
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ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉ 20, 50, 100 ืฉื ื™ื ืžื”ื™ื•ื,
17:49
we will look back now at depression and PTSD
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ื ืกืชื›ืœ ืื—ื•ืจื” ืขืœ ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ื• PTSD
17:53
the way we look back at tuberculosis sanitoriums
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ื‘ื“ืจืš ื‘ื” ืื ื• ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืขืœ ืกื ื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืžื™ื ืœืฉื—ืคืช
17:57
as a thing of the past.
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ื›ืขืœ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื”ื•ื ื ื—ืœืช ื”ืขื‘ืจ.
17:59
This could be the beginning of the end of the mental health epidemic.
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ื–ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืกื•ืฃ ืฉืœ ืžื’ื™ืคืช ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ื ืคืฉ.
18:05
But as a great scientist once said,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืžื• ืฉืืžืจ ืคืขื ืžื“ืขืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ,
18:09
"Only a fool is sure of anything.
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"ืจืง ื˜ื™ืคืฉ ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ื‘ืžืฉื”ื•.
18:12
A wise man keeps on guessing."
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ืื“ื ื—ื›ื ืžืžืฉื™ืš ืœื ื—ืฉ."
18:16
Thank you, guys.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืœื›ื,
18:17
(Applause)
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(ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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