The beautiful, mysterious science of how you hear | Jim Hudspeth

109,002 views ใƒป 2020-04-15

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

00:00
Transcriber: Joseph Geni Reviewer: Camille Martรญnez
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ืชืจื’ื•ื: hila scherba ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
00:15
Can you hear me OK?
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ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉืžื•ืข ืื•ืชื™?
00:16
Audience: Yes.
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ืงื”ืœ: ื›ืŸ.
00:17
Jim Hudspeth: OK. Well, if you can, it's really amazing,
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ื’ืณื™ื ื”ืื“ืกืคืชืณ: ื‘ืกื“ืจ, ืื–, ืื ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื, ื–ื” ืžืžืฉ ืžื“ื”ื™ื,
00:20
because my voice is changing the air pressure where you sit
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ื›ื™ ื”ืงื•ืœ ืฉืœื™ ืžืฉื ื” ืืช ืœื—ืฅ ื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืฉืืชื ื™ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื
00:24
by just a few billionths of the atmospheric level,
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ื‘ืžืžืฉ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ืช ืžืจืžืช ื”ืœื—ืฅ ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื™,
00:28
yet we take it for granted
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ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืœื ื• ืžืืœื™ื• ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื ื•
00:29
that your ears can capture that infinitesimal signal
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ืฉื”ืื•ื–ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื›ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœืœื›ื•ื“ ืืช ื”ืื•ืช ื”ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืื™ื ืกื•ืคื™
00:33
and use it to signal to the brain the full range of auditory experiences:
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ื•ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื–ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœืื•ืชืช ืœืžื•ื— ืฉืœื ื• ืืช ื”ื˜ื•ื•ื— ื”ืžืœื ืฉืœ ื—ื•ื•ื™ืช ื”ืฉืžื™ืขื”:
00:37
the human voice, music, the natural world.
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ื”ืงื•ืœ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™, ืžื•ื–ื™ืงื”, ืขื•ืœื ื”ื˜ื‘ืข.
00:42
How does your ear do that?
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ืื™ืš ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ ืฉืœื›ื ืขื•ืฉื” ืืช ื–ื”?
00:44
And the answer to that is:
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ื•ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื:
00:45
through the cells that are the real hero of this presentation --
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ื“ืจืš ื”ืชืื™ื ืฉื”ื ื”ื’ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ื”ืืžื™ืชื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฆื’ืช ื”ื–ื• --
00:49
the ear's sensory receptors,
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ื”ืงื•ืœื˜ื ื™ื ื”ื—ื•ืฉื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ,
00:51
which are called "hair cells."
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ืฉื ืงืจืื™ื ืดืชืื™ ืฉืขืจื”ืด.
00:53
Now, these hair cells are unfortunately named,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ืฉื ืฉืœ ืชืื™ ื”ืฉืขืจื” ื”ืืœื• ืœื ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืื•ืชื ื›ืžื• ืฉืฆืจื™ืš,
00:57
because they have nothing at all to do with the kind of hair
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ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื”ื ืฉื•ื ืงืฉืจ ืœืกื•ื’ ื”ืฉื™ืขืจ
01:00
of which I have less and less.
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ืฉืœื™ ื™ืฉ ืคื—ื•ืช ื•ืคื—ื•ืช.
01:02
These cells were originally named that by early microscopists,
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ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื• ืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืืช ื”ืฉื ื‘ืžืงื•ืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉื”ืกืชื›ืœื• ื‘ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืค,
01:07
who noticed that emanating from one end of the cell
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ืฉืฉืžื• ืœื‘ ืฉืžืงืฆื” ืื—ื“ ืฉืœ ื”ืชื
01:10
was a little cluster of bristles.
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ื ื•ื‘ืข ืžืงื‘ืฅ ืฉืœ ื–ื™ืคื™ื.
01:13
With modern electron microscopy, we can see much better
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ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื” ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ืช ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื˜ื•ื‘
01:16
the nature of the special feature that gives the hair cell its name.
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ืืช ื”ื˜ื‘ืข ืฉืœ ื”ืชื›ื•ื ื” ื”ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ืช ืฉื ื•ืชื ืช ืœืชื ื”ืฉืขืจื” ืืช ืฉืžื•.
01:20
That's the hair bundle.
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ื–ื” ืžืงื‘ืฅ ื”ืฉื™ืขืจ.
01:22
It's this cluster of 20 to several hundred fine cylindrical rods
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ื–ื” ืžืงื‘ืฅ ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ 20 ืœื›ืžื” ืžืื•ืช ื’ืœื™ืœื™ื
01:28
that stand upright at the top end of the cell.
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ืฉืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ื–ืงื•ืคื™ื ื‘ืฆื“ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืชื.
01:31
And this apparatus is what is responsible for your hearing me right this instant.
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ื•ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื–ื• ื”ื™ื ืžื” ืฉืื—ืจืื™ ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉืืชื ืฉื•ืžืขื™ื ืื•ืชื™ ื‘ืจื’ืข ื–ื”.
01:38
Now, I must say that I am somewhat in love with these cells.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืื ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ื’ื™ื“ ืฉืื ื™ ื“ื™ ืžืื•ื”ื‘ ื‘ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื•.
01:41
I've spent 45 years in their company --
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ืื ื™ ื‘ื™ืœื™ืชื™ 45 ืฉื ื” ื‘ื—ื‘ืจืชื --
01:44
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
01:45
and part of the reason is that they're really beautiful.
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ื•ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ื–ื” ืฉื”ื ืžืžืฉ ื™ืคื™ื.
01:48
There's an aesthetic component to it.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ ืืกืชื˜ื™.
01:50
Here, for example, are the cells
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ื›ืืŸ, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื, ื”ืชืื™ื
01:52
with which an ordinary chicken conducts its hearing.
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ืฉืื™ืชื ืชืจื ื’ื•ืœืช ืจื’ื™ืœื” ืžื ื”ืœืช ืืช ื”ืฉืžื™ืขื” ืฉืœื”.
01:55
These are the cells that a bat uses for its sonar.
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ืืœื• ื”ืชืื™ื ืฉืขื˜ืœืฃ ืžืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื”ื ืœืกื•ื ืจ ืฉืœื•.
01:59
We use these large hair cells from a frog for many of our experiments.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืชืื™ ื”ืฉืขืจื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืžืฆืคืจื“ืข ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•.
02:03
Hair cells are found all the way down to the most primitive of fishes,
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ืชืื™ ืฉืขืจื” ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื›ืœ ื”ื“ืจืš ืœืžื˜ื” ืขื“ ืœื“ื’ ื”ืคืจื™ืžื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ,
02:07
and those of reptiles often have this really beautiful,
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ื•ืœืืœื• ืฉืœ ื–ื•ื—ืœื™ื ื™ืฉ ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช
02:11
almost crystalline, order.
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ืกื“ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ื™ืคื”, ื›ืžืขื˜ ืงืจื™ืกื˜ืœื™.
02:13
But above and beyond its beauty,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื™ื•ืคื™ ืฉืœ ื–ื”,
02:15
the hair bundle is an antenna.
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ืžืงื‘ืฅ ื”ืฉื™ืขืจื•ืช ื”ื•ื ืื ื˜ื ื”.
02:18
It's a machine for converting sound vibrations into electrical responses
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ื–ื” ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ืœื”ืžื™ืจ ืฆืœื™ืœ ืœืื•ืชื•ืช ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื™ื
02:23
that the brain can then interpret.
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ืฉื”ืžื•ื— ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืคืจืฉ.
02:26
At the top of each hair bundle, as you can see in this image,
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ื‘ืงืฆื” ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืžืงื‘ืฅ ืฉื™ืขืจ, ื›ืžื• ืฉืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื”,
02:30
there's a fine filament connecting each of the little hairs,
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ื™ืฉ ืกื™ื‘ ื“ืง ืฉืžื—ื‘ืจ ื›ืœ ืื—ืช ืžื”ืฉืขืจื•ืช ื”ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•,
02:33
the stereocilia.
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ื”ืกื˜ืจื™ืื•ืกื™ืœื™ื”.
02:35
It's here marked with a little red triangle.
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ื›ืืŸ ื–ื” ืžืกื•ืžืŸ ื‘ืžืฉื•ืœืฉ ืื“ื•ื ืงื˜ืŸ.
02:38
And this filament has at its base a couple of ion channels,
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ื•ืœืกื™ื‘ ื”ื–ื” ื™ืฉ ื‘ื‘ืกื™ืกื• ืฉืชื™ ืชืขืœื•ืช ื™ื•ื ื™ื,
02:41
which are proteins that span the membrane.
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ืฉื”ื ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื ืฉืžื›ืกื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืžื‘ืจื ื”.
02:44
And here's how it works.
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ื•ื›ื›ื” ื–ื” ืขื•ื‘ื“.
02:47
This rat trap represents an ion channel.
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ืžืœื›ื•ื“ืช ื”ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ื–ื• ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ืช ืชืขืœืช ื™ื•ื ื™ื.
02:50
It has a pore that passes potassium ions and calcium ions.
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ื™ืฉ ื‘ื” ื—ื•ืจ ืฉืžืขื‘ื™ืจ ื™ื•ื ื™ ืืฉืœื’ืŸ ื•ื™ื•ื ื™ ืกื™ื“ืŸ.
02:54
It has a little molecular gate that can be open, or it can be closed.
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ื™ืฉ ืฉืขืจ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืจื™ ืงื˜ืŸ ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ืคืชื—, ืื• ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ืกื’ืจ.
02:58
And its status is set by this elastic band which represents that protein filament.
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ื•ื”ืžืฆื‘ ืฉืœื• ืžื•ื’ื“ืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืจืฆื•ืขื” ื’ืžื™ืฉื” ืฉืžื™ื™ืฆื’ืช ืืช ืกื™ื‘ ื”ื—ืœื‘ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื”.
03:05
Now, imagine that this arm represents one stereocilium
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ืฉื”ื–ืจื•ืข ื”ื–ื• ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ืช ืกื˜ืจื™ืื•ืกื™ืœื™ื•ื ืื—ื“
03:09
and this arm represents the adjacent, shorter one
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ื•ื”ื–ืจื•ืข ื”ื–ื• ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ืช ืืช ื”ืงืฆืจ ื”ืกืžื•ืš ืœื•
03:12
with the elastic band between them.
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ืขื ื”ืจืฆื•ืขื” ื”ื’ืžื™ืฉื” ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื.
03:14
When sound energy impinges upon the hair bundle,
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ื›ืฉืื ืจื’ื™ื™ืช ืงื•ืœ ืžืชื ื’ืฉืช ื‘ืงื•ื•ืฆืช ื”ืฉื™ืขืจ ื”ื–ื•,
03:17
it pushes it in the direction towards its taller edge.
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ื”ื™ื ื“ื•ื—ืคืช ืื•ืชื” ื‘ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื” ืฉืœื”.
03:20
The sliding of the stereocilia puts tension in the link
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ื”ื’ืœื™ืฉื” ืฉืœ ื”ืกื˜ืจื™ืื•ืกื™ืœื™ื” ื™ื•ืฆืจืช ืžืชื— ืขืœ ื”ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ
03:23
until the channels open and ions rush into the cell.
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ืขื“ ืฉื”ืชืขืœื•ืช ื ืคืชื—ื•ืช ื•ื™ื•ื ื™ื ื ื›ื ืกื™ื ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืชื.
03:27
When the hair bundle is pushed in the opposite direction,
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ื›ืฉืงืฆื•ื•ืช ื”ืฉื™ืขืจ ื”ื–ื• ื ื“ื—ืคืช ื‘ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ื”ืคื•ืš,
03:29
the channels close.
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ื”ืชืขืœื•ืช ื ืกื’ืจื•ืช.
03:31
And, most importantly,
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ื•ื”ื›ื™ ื—ืฉื•ื‘,
03:32
a back-and-forth motion of the hair bundle,
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ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืœื•ืš-ื—ื–ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืงื•ื•ืฆืช ื”ืฉื™ืขืจ,
03:35
as ensues during the application of acoustic waves,
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ืฉื ื’ืจืžืช ื‘ืงื‘ืœื” ืฉืœ ื’ืœื™ื ืืงื•ืกื˜ื™ื,
03:39
alternately opens and closes the channel,
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ืคื•ืชื—ืช ื•ืกื•ื’ืจืช ืœืกื™ืจื•ื’ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืชืขืœื”,
03:42
and each opening admits millions and millions of ions into the cell.
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ื•ื›ืœ ืคืชื™ื—ื” ืžื›ื ื™ืกื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื™ื•ื ื™ื ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืชื.
03:47
Those ions constitute an electrical current
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ื”ื™ื•ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื• ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื ื–ืจื ื—ืฉืžืœื™
03:49
that excites the cell.
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ืฉืžืขื•ืจืจ ืืช ื”ืชื.
03:51
The excitation is passed to a nerve fiber,
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ื”ืขื™ืจื•ืจ ืžื•ืขื‘ืจ ืœืกื™ื‘ ืขืฆื‘ื™,
03:53
and then propagates into the brain.
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ื•ืื– ืžื•ืขื‘ืจ ืœืžื•ื—.
03:57
Notice that the intensity of the sound
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ืฉื™ืžื• ืœื‘ ืฉืขื•ืฆืžืช ื”ืฆืœื™ืœ
03:59
is represented by the magnitude of this response.
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ืžื™ื•ืฆื’ืช ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื”ื–ื•.
04:01
A louder sound pushes the hair bundle farther,
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ืฆืœื™ืœ ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื“ื•ื—ืฃ ืืช ืงื•ื•ืฆืช ื”ืฉื™ืขืจ ืจื—ื•ืง ื™ื•ืชืจ,
04:04
opens the channel longer,
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ืคื•ืชื— ืืช ื”ืชืขืœื” ืœื–ืžืŸ ืืจื•ืš ื™ื•ืชืจ,
04:06
lets more ions in
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ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ื•ืชืจ ื™ื•ื ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก
04:07
and gives rise to a bigger response.
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ื•ื ื•ืชืŸ ื“ื—ื™ืคื” ืœืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื—ื–ืงื” ื™ื•ืชืจ.
04:12
Now, this mode of operation has the advantage of great speed.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืœืฆื•ืจืช ื”ืคืขื•ืœื” ื”ื–ื• ื™ืฉ ื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ืœืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื™ื•ืชืจ.
04:16
Some of our senses, such as vision,
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ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื—ื•ืฉื™ื ืฉืœื ื•, ื›ืžื• ืจืื™ื™ื”,
04:19
use chemical reactions that take time.
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ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื•ืงื—ื•ืช ื–ืžืŸ.
04:22
And as a consequence of that,
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ื•ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื–ื”,
04:23
if I show you a series of pictures at intervals of 20 or 30 per second,
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ืื ืื ื™ ืืจืื” ืœื›ื ืกื“ืจืช ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืคืจืงื™ ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืœ 20 ืื• 30 ื‘ืฉื ื™ื”,
04:27
you get the sense of a continuous image.
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ืืชื ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืืช ื”ื”ืจื’ืฉื” ืฉืœ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืžืชืžืฉื›ืช.
04:30
Because it doesn't use reactions,
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ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื ืœื ืžืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช,
04:32
the hair cell is fully 1,000 times faster than our other senses.
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ืชื ื”ืฉื™ืขืจ ืžื”ื™ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืคื™ 1,000 ืžืฉืืจ ื”ื—ื•ืฉื™ื ืฉืœื ื•.
04:37
We can hear sounds at frequencies as great as 20,000 cycles per second,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉืžื•ืข ืฆืœื™ืœื™ื ื‘ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืื“ื™ืจื” ื›ืžื• 20,000 ืžื—ื–ื•ืจื™ื ืœืฉื ื™ื”,
04:42
and some animals have ever faster ears.
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ื•ืœื—ืœืง ืžื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื™ืฉ ืืคื™ืœื• ืื•ื–ื ื™ื™ื ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ.
04:44
The ears of bats and whales, for example, can respond to their sonar pulses
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ื”ืื•ื–ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืขื˜ืœืคื™ื ื•ืœื•ื•ื™ืชื ื™ื, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื, ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ื‘ ืœืคืขื™ืžื•ืช ื”ืกื•ื ืืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื
04:49
at 150,000 cycles a second.
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ื‘-150,000 ืžื—ื–ื•ืจื™ื ืœืฉื ื™ื”.
04:53
But this speed doesn't entirely explain why the ear performs so well.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืœื ืžืกื‘ื™ืจื” ืœื‘ื“ื” ืœืžื” ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ ืžืชืคืงื“ืช ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื˜ื•ื‘.
04:59
And it turns out that our hearing benefits from an amplifier,
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ื•ืžืชื‘ืจืจ ืฉื”ืฉืžื™ืขื” ืฉืœื ื• ื ืขื–ืจืช ื‘ืžื’ื‘ื™ืจ,
05:03
something called the "active process."
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ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื ืงืจื ืดืชื”ืœื™ืš ืคืขื™ืœืด.
05:07
The active process enhances our hearing
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ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืžื’ื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืฉืžื™ืขื” ืฉืœื ื•
05:09
and makes possible all the remarkable features that I've already mentioned.
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ื•ืžืืคืฉืจ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืžืืคื™ื™ื ื™ื ื”ื‘ืœืชื™ ืจื’ื™ืœื™ื ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ืฆื™ื™ื ืชื™.
05:15
Let me tell you how it works.
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ื‘ื•ืื• ืื ื™ ืืกืคืจ ืœื›ื ืื™ืš ื–ื” ืขื•ื‘ื“.
05:17
First of all, the active process amplifies sound,
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ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ, ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืžื’ื‘ื™ืจ ืฆืœื™ืœ,
05:21
so you can hear, at threshold, sounds that move the hair bundle
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ืื– ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉืžื•ืข, ื‘ืกืฃ, ืฆืœื™ืœื™ื ืฉืžื–ื™ื–ื™ื ืืช ืงื•ื•ืฆืช ื”ืฉื™ืขืจ
05:26
by a distance of only about three-tenths of a nanometer.
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ืžืจื—ืง ืฉืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ื ื ื•ืžื˜ืจ.
05:29
That's the diameter of one water molecule.
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ื–ื” ื”ืงื•ื˜ืจ ืฉืœ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืช ืžื™ื ืื—ืช.
05:31
It's really astonishing.
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ื–ื” ืžืžืฉ ืžื“ื”ื™ื.
05:33
The system can also operate
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ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ื’ื ืœืคืขื•ืœ
05:38
over an enormously wide dynamic range.
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ื‘ื˜ื•ื•ื— ื“ื™ื ืžื™ ืžืื•ื“ ืจื—ื‘.
05:41
Why do we need this amplification?
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ืœืžื” ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืืช ื”ื”ื’ื‘ืจื” ื”ื–ื•?
05:43
The amplification, in ancient times, was useful
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ื”ื”ื’ื‘ืจื” ื”ื–ื•, ื‘ืขืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”, ื”ื™ืชื” ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉื™ืช
05:47
because it was valuable for us to hear the tiger before the tiger could hear us.
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ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžืฉืชืœื ืขื‘ื•ืจื ื• ืœืฉืžื•ืข ืืช ื”ื ืžืจ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื ืžืจ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืฉืžื•ืข ืื•ืชื ื•.
05:51
And these days, it's essential as a distant early warning system.
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ื•ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ืืœื•, ื–ื” ื”ื›ืจื—ื™ ื›ืžืขืจื›ืช ืื–ื”ืจื” ืžื•ืงื“ืžืช ืจื—ื•ืงื”.
05:56
It's valuable to be able to hear fire alarms
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ื–ื” ืžืฉืชืœื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœืฉืžื•ืข ืื–ืขืงื•ืช ืืฉ
05:59
or contemporary dangerous such as speeding fire engines or police cars or the like.
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ืื• ืกื›ื ื•ืช ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ื›ื‘ืื™ื•ืช ืื• ื ื™ื™ื“ื•ืช ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื“ื•ื”ืจื•ืช.
06:06
When the amplification fails, our hearing's sensitivity plummets,
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ื›ืฉื”ื”ื’ื‘ืจื” ื ื›ืฉืœืช, ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ื”ืฉืžื™ืขื” ืฉืœื ื• ืฆื•ื ื—ืช,
06:11
and an individual may then need an electronic hearing aid
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ื•ืื“ื ื™ืฆื˜ืจืš ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื›ื–ื” ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ืฉืžื™ืขื” ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™
06:16
to supplant the damaged biological one.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื—ืœื™ืฃ ืืช ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื”ืคื’ื•ื.
06:19
This active process also enhances our frequency selectivity.
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ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืžื’ื‘ื™ืจ ื’ื ืืช ื‘ืจืจื ื•ืช ื”ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
06:24
Even an untrained individual can distinguish two tones
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ืืคื™ืœื• ืื“ื ืœื ืžื™ื•ืžืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื“ื™ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื™ ื˜ื•ื ื™ื
06:27
that differ by only two-tenths of a percent,
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ืฉืฉื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืฉืชื™ ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืื—ื•ื– ื‘ืœื‘ื“,
06:30
which is one-thirtieth of the difference between two piano notes,
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ืฉื–ื” ืื—ื“ ื—ืœืงื™ ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืขืฉืจื” ืžื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื™ ืชื•ื™ื ื‘ืคืกื ืชืจ
06:34
and a trained musician can do even better.
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ื•ืžื•ื–ื™ืงืื™ ืžื™ื•ืžืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื“ื™ืœ ืืคื™ืœื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ื˜ื•ื‘.
06:37
This fine discrimination is useful
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ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœื” ื”ื“ืงื” ื”ื–ื• ื”ื™ื ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉื™ืช
06:39
in our ability to distinguish different voices
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ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืฉืœื ื• ืœื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืงื•ืœื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื™ื
06:42
and to understand the nuances of speech.
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ื•ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื ื™ื•ืื ืกื™ื ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ.
06:44
And, again, if the active process deteriorates,
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ื•ืฉื•ื‘, ืื ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืžืชื ื•ื•ืŸ,
06:47
it becomes harder to carry out verbal communication.
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ื–ื” ื”ื•ืคืš ืœืงืฉื” ืœื‘ืฆืข ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ื•ืจื‘ืืœื™ืช.
06:51
Finally, the active process is valuable in setting the very broad range
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ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืคืขื™ืœ ื‘ืขืœ ืขืจืš ื‘ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืืช ื”ื˜ื•ื•ื— ื”ืžืื•ื“ ืจื—ื‘
06:55
of sound intensities that our ears can tolerate,
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ืฉืœ ืขื•ืฆืžื•ืช ืฆืœื™ืœ ืฉื”ืื•ื–ืŸ ืฉืœื ื• ืžืกื•ื’ืœืช ืœืงืœื•ื˜,
06:59
from the very faintest sound that you can hear, such as a dropped pen,
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ืžื”ืฆืœื™ืœ ื”ื›ื™ ืขืžื•ื ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉืžื•ืข, ื›ืžื• ืขื˜ ื ื•ืคืœ,
07:03
to the loudest sound that you can stand --
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ืœืฆืœื™ืœ ื”ื—ื–ืง ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ื• --
07:05
say, a jackhammer or a jet plane.
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ื‘ื•ืื• ื ื’ื™ื“, ืคื˜ื™ืฉ ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ืื• ืžื˜ื•ืก ืกื™ืœื•ืŸ.
07:07
The amplitude of sounds spans a range of one millionfold,
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ืขื•ืฆืžืช ื”ืฆืœื™ืœื™ื ื ืžืฉื›ืช ืœื˜ื•ื•ื— ืฉืœ ืคื™ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ,
07:12
which is more than is encompassed by any other sense
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ืฉื–ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื” ืฉื›ืœื•ืœ ื‘ื›ืœ ื—ื•ืฉ ืื—ืจ
07:15
or by any man-made device of which I'm aware.
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ืื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื›ืœ ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ืชื•ืฆืจืช ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ืฉืื ื™ ืžื›ื™ืจ.
07:18
And again, if this system deteriorates,
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ื•ืฉื•ื‘, ืื ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื–ื• ืžืชื ื•ื•ื ืช,
07:21
an affected individual may have a hard time
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ืื“ื ืžื•ืฉืคืข ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืชืงืฉื•ืช ืžืื•ื“
07:24
hearing the very faintest sounds
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ืœืฉืžื•ืข ืืคื™ืœื• ืืช ื”ืฆืœื™ืœื™ื ื”ืขืžื•ืžื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
07:26
or tolerating the very loudest ones.
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ืื• ืœืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ืฆืœื™ืœื™ื ื”ืจื•ืขืฉื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
07:30
Now, to understand how the hair cell does its thing,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื™ืš ืชื ื”ืฉืขืจื” ืขื•ืฉื” ืืช ื”ืงื˜ืข ืฉืœื•,
07:32
one has to situate it within its environment within the ear.
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ืื“ื ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืžืฆื‘ ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœื• ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ.
07:36
We learn in school that the organ of hearing
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ืฉืื™ื‘ืจ ื”ืฉืžื™ืขื”
07:39
is the coiled, snail-shaped cochlea.
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื‘ืœื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ ื”ืžืคื•ืชืœ.
07:41
It's an organ about the size of a chickpea.
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ื–ื” ืื™ื‘ืจ ื‘ืขืจืš ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ื’ืจื’ืจ ื—ื•ืžื•ืก.
07:44
It's embedded in the bone on either side of the skull.
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ื”ื•ื ืžื•ื˜ืžืข ื‘ืขืฆื ื‘ื›ืœ ืฆื“ ืฉืœ ื”ื’ื•ืœื’ื•ืœืช.
07:48
We also learn that an optical prism
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื’ื ืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ืฉืžื ืกืจื” ืื•ืคื˜ื™ืช
07:51
can separate white light into its constituent frequencies,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืคืจืง ืื•ืจ ืœื‘ืŸ ืœืชื“ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ืื•ืชื•,
07:55
which we see as distinct colors.
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื›ืฆื‘ืขื™ื ื‘ืจื•ืจื™ื.
07:58
In an analogous way,
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ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืื•ืคืŸ,
07:59
the cochlea acts as sort of an acoustic prism
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ืฉื‘ืœื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ ืžืชื ื”ื’ ื›ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืžื ืกืจื” ืืงื•ืกื˜ื™ืช
08:03
that splits apart complex sounds into their component frequencies.
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ืฉืžืคืจื™ื“ื” ืฆืœื™ืœื™ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ืœืชื“ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื•ืช ืื•ืชื.
08:08
So when a piano is sounded,
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ืื– ื›ืฉืคืกื ืชืจ ื ืฉืžืข,
08:10
different notes blend together into a chord.
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ืชื•ื•ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืžืชืžื–ื’ื™ื ื‘ื™ื—ื“ ืœืืงื•ืจื“.
08:13
The cochlea undoes that process.
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ืฉื‘ืœื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ ืžื—ื–ื™ืจ ืื—ื•ืจื” ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื”.
08:15
It separates them and represents each at a different position.
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ื”ื•ื ืžืคืจื™ื“ ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื ื•ืžืฆื™ื’ ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ื‘ืžื™ืงื•ื ืฉื•ื ื”.
08:19
In this picture, you can see where three notes --
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ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ื–ื•, ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืชื•ื•ื™ื --
08:21
middle C and the two extreme notes on a piano --
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ืกื™ ืืžืฆืขื™ ื•ืฉื ื™ ืชื•ื•ื™ื ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืคืกื ืชืจ --
08:24
are represented in the cochlea.
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ืžื™ื•ืฆื’ื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ืฉื‘ืœื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ.
08:26
The lowest frequencies go all the way up to the top of the cochlea.
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ื”ืชื“ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื ืžื•ื›ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื•ืœื•ืช ื›ืœ ื”ื“ืจืš ืœืžืขืœื” ื‘ืฉื‘ืœื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ.
08:30
The highest frequencies, down to 20,000 Hz,
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ื”ืชื“ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื•ืช, ืž-20,000 ื”ืจืฅ,
08:33
go all the way to the bottom of the cochlea,
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ื™ื•ืจื“ื•ืช ื›ืœ ื”ื“ืจืš ืœืชื—ืชื™ืช ืฉื‘ืœื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ,
08:35
and every other frequency is represented somewhere in between.
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ื•ื›ืœ ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืื—ืจืช ืžื™ื•ืฆื’ืช ื‘ืื™ื–ืฉื”ื• ืžืงื•ื ื‘ืืžืฆืข.
08:40
And, as this diagram shows,
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ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ืชืจืฉื™ื ื”ื–ื” ืžืจืื”,
08:42
successive musical tones are represented a few tens of hair cells apart
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ื˜ื•ื ื™ื ืžื•ื–ื™ืงืœื™ื ืจืฆื•ืคื™ื ืžื™ื•ืฆื’ื™ื ื‘ืžืกืคืจ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืชืื™ ืฉืขืจื” ื ืคืจื“ื™ื
08:46
along the cochlear surface.
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ืขืœ ื”ืžืฉื˜ื— ืฉืœ ืฉื‘ืœื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ.
08:49
Now, this separation of frequencies
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ื”ืคืจื“ื” ื”ื–ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืชื“ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช
08:51
is really key in our ability to identify different sounds,
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ื”ื™ื ื‘ืืžืช ืžืคืชื— ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืฉืœื ื• ืœื–ื”ื•ืช ืฆืœื™ืœื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
08:55
because very musical instrument,
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ื›ื™ ื›ืœ ื›ืœื™ ื ื’ื™ื ื”,
08:56
every voice,
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ื›ืœ ืงื•ืœ,
08:58
emits a distinct constellation of tones.
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ืžื ืคื™ืง ืžื‘ื ื” ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืฉืœ ื˜ื•ื ื™ื.
09:01
The cochlea separates those frequencies,
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ื”ืฉื‘ืœื•ืœ ืžืคืจื™ื“ ืืช ื”ืชื“ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•,
09:04
and the 16,000 hair cells then report to the brain
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ื•ืื– 16,000 ืชืื™ ื”ืฉืขืจื” ืžื“ื•ื•ื—ื™ื ืœืžื•ื—
09:08
how much of each frequency is present.
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ื›ืžื” ืžื›ืœ ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ื ื•ื›ื—ืช.
09:10
The brain can then compare all the nerve signals
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ื”ืžื•ื— ืื– ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืฉื•ื•ืช ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืื•ืชื•ืช ื”ืขืฆื‘ื™ื™ื
09:13
and decide what particular tone is being heard.
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ื•ืœื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืื™ื–ื” ื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืกื•ื™ื ื ืฉืžืข.
09:17
But this doesn't explain everything that I want to explain.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืœื ืžืกื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืจืฆื™ืชื™ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ.
09:21
Where's the magic?
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ืื™ืคื” ื”ืงืกื?
09:23
I told you already about the great things that the hair cell can do.
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ื›ื‘ืจ ืกื™ืคืจืชื™ ืœื›ื ืขืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื™ื ืฉืชื ื”ืฉืขืจื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช.
09:27
How does it carry out the active process
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ืื™ืš ื”ื•ื ืžื‘ืฆืข ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืคืขื™ืœ
09:29
and do all the remarkable features that I mentioned at the outset?
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ื•ืขื•ืฉื” ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืžืืคื™ื™ื ื™ื ืฉืฆื™ื™ื ืชื™ ื‘ืคืชื™ื—ื”?
09:33
The answer is instability.
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ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื ืื™-ื™ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืช.
09:36
We used to think that the hair bundle was a passive object,
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ืคืขื ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืฉืงื•ื•ืฆืช ื”ืฉื™ืขืจ ื”ื–ื• ื”ื™ื ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜ ื ื™ื™ื—,
09:39
it just sat there, except when it was stimulated.
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ื–ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื™ืฉื‘ ืฉื, ืคืจื˜ ืœื›ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืžืขื•ืจืจ.
09:42
But in fact, it's an active machine.
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื–ื• ืžื›ื•ื ื” ืคืขื™ืœื”.
09:44
It's constantly using internal energy to do mechanical work
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ื”ืชื ืžืฉืชืžืฉ ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื‘ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืคื ื™ืžื™ืช ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืžื›ื ื™ืช
09:48
and enhance our hearing.
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ื•ืฉื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืžื™ืขื” ืฉืœื ื•.
09:50
So even at rest, in the absence of any input,
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ืื– ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืžื ื•ื—ื”, ื‘ื”ืขื“ืจ ืงืœื˜ ื›ืœืฉื”ื•,
09:53
an active hair bundle is constantly trembling.
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ืงื•ื•ืฆืช ืฉื™ืขืจ ืคืขื™ืœื” ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืจื•ื˜ื˜ืช.
09:55
It's constantly twitching back and forth.
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ื”ื™ื ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืžืชืคืชืœืช ื”ืœื•ืš ื•ื—ื–ื•ืจ.
09:58
But when even a weak sound is applied to it,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืืฉืจ ืืคื™ืœื• ืฆืœื™ืœ ื—ืœืฉ ืžืชืงื‘ืœ ื‘ื”,
10:00
it latches on to that sound and begins to move very neatly
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ื”ื™ื ื ืชืคืกืช ืขืœ ื”ืฆืœื™ืœ ื”ื–ื” ื•ืžืชื—ื™ืœื” ืœื ื•ืข ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ื ืงื™
10:03
in a one-to-one way with it,
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ืื—ื“ ืœืื—ื“ ืขื ื”ืฆืœื™ืœ,
10:05
and by so doing, it amplifies the signal about a thousand times.
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ื•ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉื”ื™ื ืขื•ืฉื” ื›ืš, ื–ื” ืžื’ื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืื•ืช ื‘ืขืจืš ืคื™ ืืœืฃ.
10:10
This same instability also enhances our frequency selectivity,
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ืื™ ื”ื™ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื–ื• ื’ื ืžื’ื‘ื™ืจื” ืืช ื‘ืจืจื ื•ืช ื”ืชื“ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•,
10:15
for a given hair cell tends to oscillate best
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ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืชื ืฉื™ืขืจ ืžืกื•ื™ื ื ื•ื˜ื” ืœื”ืชื ื•ื“ื“ ื”ื›ื™ ื˜ื•ื‘
10:18
at the frequency at which it normally trembles
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ื‘ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื‘ื” ื”ื•ื ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืžืชื ื•ื“ื“
10:21
when it's not being stimulated.
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ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ืœื ืžืขื•ืจืจ.
10:25
So, this apparatus not only gives us our remarkably acute hearing,
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ืื– ื”ืžื ื’ื ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ืœื ืจืง ื ื•ืชืŸ ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ืฉืžื™ืขื” ื”ื—ื“ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื ื™ื›ืจ,
10:30
but also gives us the very sharp tuning.
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ืืœื ื’ื ื ื•ืชืŸ ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืžืื•ื“ ื—ื“.
10:37
I want to offer you a short demonstration
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ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื›ื ื”ื“ื’ืžื” ืงืฆืจื”
10:39
of something related to this.
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ืฉืœ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืžืชืงืฉืจ ืœื–ื”.
10:41
I'll ask the people who are running the sound system
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ืื ื™ ืื‘ืงืฉ ืžื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืžืคืขื™ืœื™ื ืืช ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืข
10:44
to turn up its sensitivity at one specific frequency.
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ืœื”ื’ื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ื‘ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ืžืกื•ื™ืžืช.
10:48
So just as a hair cell is tuned to one frequency,
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ืื– ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ืฉืชื ืฉืขืจื” ืžื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืœืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืื—ืช,
10:51
the amplifier will now enhance a particular frequency in my voice.
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ื”ืžื’ื‘ื™ืจ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื™ื—ื–ืง ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžืช ื‘ืงื•ืœ ืฉืœื™.
10:56
Notice how specific tones emerge more clearly from the background.
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ืฉื™ืžื• ืœื‘ ืื™ืš ื˜ื•ื ื™ื ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™ื™ื ืขื•ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืžื”ืจืงืข.
11:02
This is exactly what hair cells do.
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ื–ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžื” ืฉืชืื™ ื”ืฉืขืจื” ืขื•ืฉื™ื.
11:04
Each hair cell amplifies and reports one specific frequency
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ื›ืœ ืชื ืฉืขืจื” ืžื’ื‘ื™ืจ ื•ืžื“ื•ื•ื— ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืื—ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžืช
11:09
and ignores all the others.
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ื•ืžืชืขืœื ืžื›ืœ ื”ืฉืืจ.
11:11
And the whole set of hair cells, as a group, can then report to the brain
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ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ืฉืœ ืชืื™ ื”ืฉืขืจื”, ื›ืงื‘ื•ืฆื”, ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืื– ืœื“ื•ื•ื— ืœืžื•ื—
11:15
exactly what frequencies are present in a given sound,
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ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืื™ืœื• ืชื“ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื ืžืฆืื•ืช ื‘ืฆืœื™ืœ ืžืกื•ื™ื,
11:18
and the brain can determine what melody is being heard
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ื•ื•ื”ืžื•ื— ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ืื™ื–ื• ืžื ื’ื™ื ื” ื ืฉืžืขืช
11:21
or what speech is being intended.
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ืื• ืžื” ื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ.
11:25
Now, an amplifier such as the public address system
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืžื’ื‘ื™ืจ ื›ืžื• ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื›ืจื™ื–ื”
11:29
can also cause problems.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื’ื ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื‘ืขื™ื•ืช.
11:31
If the amplification is turned up too far,
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ืื ื”ื”ื’ื‘ืจื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื”,
11:33
it goes unstable and begins to howl
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ื–ื” ื”ื•ืคืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืœื ื™ืฆื™ื‘ ื•ืžืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื”ื™ืฉืžืข ื›ืžื• ื™ืœืœื”
11:35
or emit sounds.
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ืื• ืœื”ื•ืจื™ื“ ืฆืœื™ืœื™ื.
11:37
And one wonders why the active process doesn't do the same thing.
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ืื– ืืคืฉืจ ืœืชื”ื•ืช ืœืžื” ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืœื ืขื•ืฉื” ืืช ืื•ืชื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจ.
11:40
Why don't our ears beam out sounds?
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ืœืžื” ื”ืื•ื–ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ืœื ืžื•ืฆื™ืื•ืช ืงื•ืœื•ืช?
11:43
And the answer is that they do.
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ื•ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉื”ืŸ ื›ืŸ.
11:45
In a suitably quiet environment, 70 percent of normal people
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ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืงื˜ื” ืžืชืื™ืžื”, ืœ-70 ืื—ื•ื– ืžื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื ื•ืจืžืœื™ื
11:50
will have one or more sounds coming out of their ears.
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ื™ื”ื™ื” ืฆืœื™ืœ ืื—ื“ ืื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื™ื•ืฆื ืžื”ืื–ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื.
11:54
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
11:55
I'll give you an example of this.
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ืื ื™ ืืชืŸ ืœื›ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืœื–ื”.
11:59
You will hear two emissions at high frequencies
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ืชืฉืžืขื• ืฉืชื™ ืคืœื™ื˜ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฆืœื™ืœื™ื ื‘ืชื“ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื•ืช
12:03
coming from a normal human ear.
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ืฉื™ื•ืฆืื™ื ืžืื•ื–ืŸ ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช ื ื•ืจืžืœื™ืช.
12:04
You may also be able to discern background noise,
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ืืชื ืื•ืœื™ ื’ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืขืฉ ืจืงืข,
12:07
like the microphone's hiss,
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ื›ืžื• ื”ืฆืคืฆื•ืฃ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ืงืจื•ืคื•ืŸ,
12:09
the gurgling of a stomach, the heartbeat, the rustling of clothes.
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ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื˜ืŸ, ืคืขื™ืžืช ืœื‘, ืจืฉืจื•ืฉ ื”ื‘ื’ื“ื™ื.
12:14
(Hums, microphone hiss, dampened taps, clothes rustling)
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(ื”ืžื”ื•ื, ืฆืคืฆื•ืฃ ืžื™ืงืจื•ืคื•ืŸ, ื‘ืจื–ื™ื ืœื—ื™ื, ืจืฉืจื•ืฉ ื‘ื’ื“ื™ื)
12:29
This is typical.
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ื–ื” ื˜ื™ืคื•ืกื™.
12:31
Most ears emit just a handful of tones,
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื–ื ื™ื™ื ืคื•ืœื˜ื•ืช ื›ืžื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžืช ืฉืœ ื˜ื•ื ื™ื,
12:33
but some can emit as many as 30.
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืื•ื–ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืคื•ืœื˜ื•ืช ืขื“ 30.
12:35
Every ear is unique, so my right ear is different from my left,
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ื›ืœ ืื•ื–ืŸ ื”ื™ื ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ืช, ืื– ืื•ื–ืŸ ื™ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœื™ ืฉื•ื ื” ืžื”ืฉืžืืœื™ืช,
12:38
my ear is different from your ear,
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ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ ืฉืœื™ ืฉื•ื ื” ืžื”ืื•ื–ืŸ ืฉืœื›ื,
12:41
but unless an ear is damaged,
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ืื‘ืœ ืืœื ืื ื›ืŸ ืื•ื–ืŸ ืคื’ื•ืขื”,
12:42
it continues to emit the same spectrum of frequencies
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ื”ื™ื ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื” ืœืคืœื•ื˜ ืืช ืื•ืชื• ื˜ื•ื•ื— ืฉืœ ืชื“ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช
12:46
over a period of years or even decades.
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ืœืื•ืจืš ืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉืœ ืฉื ื™ื ืื• ืืคื™ืœื• ืขืฉื•ืจื™ื.
12:49
So what's going on?
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ืื– ืžื” ืงื•ืจื”?
12:50
It turns out that the ear can control its own sensitivity,
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ืžืชื‘ืจืจ ืฉื”ืื•ื–ืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ื‘ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœื”,
12:55
its own amplification.
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ื‘ื”ื’ื‘ืจื” ืฉืœื”.
12:57
So if you're in a very loud environment, like a sporting event
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ืื– ืื ืืชื ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืจื•ืขืฉืช, ื›ืžื• ืื™ืจื•ืข ืกืคื•ืจื˜
13:00
or a musical concert,
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ืื• ื”ื•ืคืขื” ืžื•ื–ื™ืงืœื™ืช,
13:02
you don't need any amplification,
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ืืชื ืœื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ื”ื’ื‘ืจื” ื‘ื›ืœืœ,
13:04
and the system is turned down all the way.
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ื•ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ืžื›ื•ื‘ื” ืœื’ืžืจื™.
13:07
If you are in a room like this auditorium,
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ืื ืืชื ื‘ื—ื“ืจ ื›ืžื• ื”ืื•ื“ื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ื ื”ื–ื”,
13:09
you might have a little bit of amplification,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืžืขื˜ ื”ื’ื‘ืจื”,
13:11
but of course the public address system does most of the work for you.
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืฉืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื›ืจื™ื–ื” ืขื•ืฉื” ืขื‘ื•ืจื›ื ืืช ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”.
13:15
And finally, if you go into a really quiet room
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ื•ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ืื ืืชื ื ื›ื ืกื™ื ืœื—ื“ืจ ืฉืงื˜ ืžืื•ื“
13:17
where you can hear a pin drop,
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ืฉื‘ื• ืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉืžื•ืข ืกื™ื›ื” ื ื•ืคืœืช,
13:18
the system is turned up almost all the way.
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ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ืžื•ื’ื‘ืจืช ื›ืžืขื˜ ืœื’ืžืจื™.
13:21
But if you go into an ultraquiet room such as a sound chamber,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ืืชื ื ื›ื ืกื™ื ืœืชื•ืš ื—ื“ืจ ืื•ืœื˜ืจื-ืฉืงื˜ ื›ืžื• ืชื ืฉืงื˜,
13:25
the system turns itself up to 11,
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ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ืžื’ื‘ื™ืจื” ืืช ืขืฆืžื” ืœ-11,
13:27
it goes unstable
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ื”ื™ื ื”ื•ืคื›ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืœื ื™ืฆื™ื‘ื”
13:29
and it begins to emit sound.
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ื•ืžืชื—ื™ืœื” ืœืคืœื•ื˜ ืฆืœื™ืœื™ื.
13:31
And these emissions constitute a really strong demonstration
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ื•ื”ืคืœื™ื˜ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ืžื”ื•ื•ืช ื”ื“ื’ืžื” ื—ื–ืงื” ืžืื•ื“
13:34
of just how active the hair cell can be.
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ืœื›ืžื” ืคืขื™ืœ ืชื ื”ืฉืขืจื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง.
13:39
So in the last minute, I want to turn to another question that might come up,
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ืื– ื‘ื“ืงื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื”, ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืคื ื•ืช ืœืขื•ื“ ืฉืืœื” ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืœืขืœื•ืช,
13:43
which is: Where do we go from here?
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ืฉื”ื™ื: ืœืืŸ ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ืžื›ืืŸ?
13:45
And I would say that there are three issues
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ื•ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื™ืฉ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื ื•ืฉืื™ื
13:47
that I would really like to address in the future.
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ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžืื•ื“ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืืœื™ื”ื ื‘ืขืชื™ื“.
13:50
The first is: What is the molecular motor
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ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ: ืžื” ื”ืžื ื•ืข ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืจื™
13:52
that's responsible for the hair cell's amplification?
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ืฉืื—ืจืื™ ืขืœ ื”ื”ื’ื‘ืจื” ืฉืœ ืชื ืฉืขืจื”?
13:56
Somehow, nature has stumbled across a system
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ืื™ื›ืฉื”ื•, ื”ื˜ื‘ืข ื ืชืงืœ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช
13:59
that can oscillate or amplify at 20,000 cycles per second,
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ืฉืชื ื•ืช ืื• ืœื”ืชื’ื‘ืจ ื‘-20,000 ืžื—ื–ื•ืจื™ื ืœืฉื ื™ื”,
14:04
or even more.
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ืื• ืื•ืœื™ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
14:06
That's much faster than any other biological oscillation,
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ื–ื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ื™ืจ ืžื›ืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ืื—ืจ,
14:09
and we would like to understand where it comes from.
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ื•ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืื™ืคื” ื–ื” ืžื’ื™ืข.
14:12
The second issue is how the hair cell's amplification is adjusted
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ื”ื ื•ืฉื ื”ืฉื ื™ ื”ื•ื ืื™ืš ื”ื”ื’ื‘ืจื” ืฉืœ ืชื ื”ืฉืขืจื” ืžืชื›ื•ื•ื ื ืช
14:16
to deal with the acoustic circumstances.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ื”ื ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืืงื•ืกื˜ื™ื•ืช.
14:19
Who turns the knob to increase or decrease the amplification
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ืžื™ ืžืกื•ื‘ื‘ ืืช ื”ื™ื“ื™ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ื‘ื™ืจ ืื• ืœื”ื ืžื™ืš ืืช ื”ื”ื’ื‘ืจื”
14:23
in a quiet or in a loud environment?
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ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืงื˜ื” ืื• ืจื•ืขืฉืช?
14:26
And the third issue is one that concerns all of us,
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ื•ื”ื ื•ืฉื ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ื”ื•ื ืื—ื“ ืฉืžื“ืื™ื’ ืืช ื›ื•ืœื ื•,
14:29
which is what we can do about the deterioration of our hearing.
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ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื” ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ื ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืžื™ืขื” ืฉืœื ื•.
14:34
Thirty million Americans,
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ืœ-30 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื,
14:35
and more than 400 million people worldwide,
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ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-400 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื,
14:38
have significant problems on a daily basis
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ื™ืฉ ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ื™ื•ืžื™
14:40
with understanding speech in a noisy environment
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ืขื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืจื•ืขืฉืช
14:43
or over the telephone.
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ืื• ื‘ื˜ืœืคื•ืŸ.
14:45
Many have even worse deficits.
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ืœื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ืฉ ืืคื™ืœื• ืคื’ืžื™ื ื’ืจื•ืขื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ.
14:47
Moreover, these deficits tend to get worse with time,
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ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื”, ื”ืคื’ืžื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื ื•ื˜ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื’ืจื•ืขื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื ื”ื–ืžืŸ,
14:50
because when human hair cells die,
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ื›ื™ ื›ืฉืชืื™ ืฉืขืจื” ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื ืžืชื™ื,
14:52
they're not replaced by cell division.
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ื”ื ืœื ืžื•ื—ืœืคื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื—ืœื•ืงืช ืชืื™ื.
14:56
But we know that nonmammalian animals can replace their cells,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืœื ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื—ืœื™ืฃ ืืช ื”ืชืื™ื ืฉืœื”ื,
15:00
and those creatures' cells are dying and being replaced throughout life,
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ื•ื”ืชืื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื• ืžืชื™ื ื•ืžืชื—ืœืคื™ื ืœืื•ืจืš ื”ื—ื™ื™ื,
15:03
so the animals maintain normal hearing.
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ืื– ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืžืชื—ื–ืงื™ื ืฉืžื™ืขื” ื ื•ืจืžืœื™ืช.
15:06
Here's an example from a little zebra fish.
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ื”ื ื” ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืžื“ื’ ื–ื‘ืจื” ืงื˜ืŸ.
15:09
The cell at the top will undergo a division
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ื”ืชื ืœืžืขืœื” ื™ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื—ืœื•ืงื”
15:11
to produce two new hair cells.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืฉื ื™ ืชืื™ ืฉืขืจื” ื—ื“ืฉื™ื.
15:14
They dance for a little bit,
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ื”ื ืจื•ืงื“ื™ื ืœืงืฆืช ื–ืžืŸ,
15:16
and then settle down and go to work.
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ื•ืื– ื ืจื’ืขื™ื ื•ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ื“.
15:19
So we believe that if we can decode the molecular signals that are used
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ืฉืื ื ืฆืœื™ื— ืœืคืขื ื— ืืช ื”ืื•ืชื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืจื™ื ืฉื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•
15:22
by these other animals to regenerate their hair cells,
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ืžืฉืชืžืฉื•ืช ื‘ื”ื ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ืชืื™ ื”ืฉืขืจื” ื”ืืœื•,
15:26
we'll be able to do the same thing for humans.
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ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ืื•ืชื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื‘ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื.
15:29
And our group and many other groups are now engaged in research
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ื•ื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืฉืœื ื• ื•ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ืขืกื•ืงื•ืช ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ
15:32
trying to resurrect these amazing hair cells.
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ื‘ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ืืช ืชืื™ ื”ืฉืขืจื” ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื™ื.
15:35
Thank you for your attention.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืœื›ื ืขืœ ื”ื”ืงืฉื‘ื”.
15:37
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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