Siddharthan Chandran: Can the damaged brain repair itself?

306,651 views ・ 2014-02-24

TED


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00:12
I'm very pleased to be here today
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to talk to you all about how we might repair
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the damaged brain,
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and I'm particularly excited by this field,
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because as a neurologist myself,
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I believe that this offers one of the great ways
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that we might be able to offer hope
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for patients who today live with devastating
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and yet untreatable diseases of the brain.
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So here's the problem.
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You can see here the picture of somebody's brain
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with Alzheimer's disease
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next to a healthy brain,
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and what's obvious is, in the Alzheimer's brain,
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ringed red, there's obvious damage -- atrophy, scarring.
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And I could show you equivalent pictures
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from other disease: multiple sclerosis,
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motor neuron disease, Parkinson's disease,
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even Huntington's disease,
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and they would all tell a similar story.
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And collectively these brain disorders represent
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one of the major public health threats of our time.
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And the numbers here are really rather staggering.
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At any one time, there are 35 million people today
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living with one of these brain diseases,
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and the annual cost globally
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is 700 billion dollars.
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I mean, just think about that.
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That's greater than one percent
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of the global GDP.
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And it gets worse,
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because all these numbers are rising
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because these are by and large
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age-related diseases, and we're living longer.
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So the question we really need to ask ourselves is,
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why, given the devastating impact of these diseases
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to the individual,
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never mind the scale of the societal problem,
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why are there no effective treatments?
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Now in order to consider this,
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I first need to give you a crash course
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in how the brain works.
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So in other words, I need to tell you
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everything I learned at medical school.
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(Laughter)
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But believe me, this isn't going to take very long.
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Okay? (Laughter)
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So the brain is terribly simple:
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it's made up of four cells,
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and two of them are shown here.
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There's the nerve cell,
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and then there's the myelinating cell,
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or the insulating cell.
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It's called oligodendrocyte.
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And when these four cells work together
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in health and harmony,
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they create an extraordinary symphony of electrical activity,
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and it is this electrical activity
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that underpins our ability to think, to emote,
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to remember, to learn, move, feel and so on.
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But equally, each of these individual four cells
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alone or together, can go rogue or die,
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and when that happens, you get damage.
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You get damaged wiring.
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You get disrupted connections.
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And that's evident here with the slower conduction.
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But ultimately, this damage will manifest
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as disease, clearly.
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And if the starting dying nerve cell
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is a motor nerve, for example,
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you'll get motor neuron disease.
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So I'd like to give you a real-life illustration
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of what happens with motor neuron disease.
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So this is a patient of mine called John.
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John I saw just last week in the clinic.
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And I've asked John to tell us something about what were his problems
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that led to the initial diagnosis
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of motor neuron disease.
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John: I was diagnosed in October in 2011,
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and the main problem was a breathing problem,
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difficulty breathing.
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Siddharthan Chandran: I don't know if you caught all of that, but what John was telling us
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was that difficulty with breathing
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led eventually to the diagnosis
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of motor neuron disease.
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So John's now 18 months further down in that journey,
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and I've now asked him to tell us something about
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his current predicament.
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John: What I've got now is the breathing's gotten worse.
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I've got weakness in my hands, my arms and my legs.
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So basically I'm in a wheelchair most of the time.
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SC: John's just told us he's in a wheelchair
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most of the time.
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So what these two clips show
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is not just the devastating consequence of the disease,
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but they also tell us something about
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the shocking pace of the disease,
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because in just 18 months,
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a fit adult man has been rendered
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wheelchair- and respirator-dependent.
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And let's face it, John could be anybody's father,
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brother or friend.
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So that's what happens when the motor nerve dies.
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But what happens when that myelin cell dies?
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You get multiple sclerosis.
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So the scan on your left
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is an illustration of the brain,
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and it's a map of the connections of the brain,
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and superimposed upon which
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are areas of damage.
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We call them lesions of demyelination.
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But they're damage, and they're white.
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So I know what you're thinking here.
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You're thinking, "My God, this bloke came up
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and said he's going to talk about hope,
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and all he's done is give a really rather bleak
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and depressing tale."
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I've told you these diseases are terrible.
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They're devastating, numbers are rising,
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the costs are ridiculous, and worst of all,
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we have no treatment. Where's the hope?
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Well, you know what? I think there is hope.
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And there's hope in this next section,
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of this brain section of somebody else with M.S.,
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because what it illustrates
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is, amazingly, the brain can repair itself.
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It just doesn't do it well enough.
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And so again, there are two things I want to show you.
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First of all is the damage of this patient with M.S.
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And again, it's another one of these white masses.
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But crucially, the area that's ringed red
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highlights an area that is pale blue.
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But that area that is pale blue was once white.
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So it was damaged. It's now repaired.
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Just to be clear: It's not because of doctors.
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It's in spite of doctors, not because of doctors.
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This is spontaneous repair.
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It's amazing and it's occurred
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because there are stem cells in the brain, even,
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which can enable new myelin, new insulation,
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to be laid down over the damaged nerves.
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And this observation is important for two reasons.
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The first is it challenges one of the orthodoxies
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that we learnt at medical school,
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or at least I did, admittedly last century,
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which is that the brain doesn't repair itself,
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unlike, say, the bone or the liver.
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But actually it does, but it just doesn't do it well enough.
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And the second thing it does,
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and it gives us a very clear direction of travel for new therapies --
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I mean, you don't need to be a rocket scientist
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to know what to do here.
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You simply need to find ways of promoting
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the endogenous, spontaneous repair that occurs anyway.
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So the question is, why, if we've known that
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for some time, as we have,
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why do we not have those treatments?
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And that in part reflects the complexity
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of drug development.
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Now, drug development you might think of
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as a rather expensive but risky bet,
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and the odds of this bet are roughly this:
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they're 10,000 to one against,
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because you need to screen about 10,000 compounds
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to find that one potential winner.
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And then you need to spend 15 years
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and spend over a billion dollars,
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and even then, you may not have a winner.
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So the question for us is,
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can you change the rules of the game
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and can you shorten the odds?
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And in order to do that, you have to think,
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where is the bottleneck in this drug discovery?
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And one of the bottlenecks is early in drug discovery.
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All that screening occurs in animal models.
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But we know that the proper study of mankind is man,
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to borrow from Alexander Pope.
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So the question is, can we study these diseases
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using human material?
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And of course, absolutely we can.
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We can use stem cells,
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and specifically we can use human stem cells.
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And human stem cells are these extraordinary
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but simple cells that can do two things:
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they can self-renew or make more of themselves,
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but they can also become specialized
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to make bone, liver or, crucially, nerve cells,
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maybe even the motor nerve cell
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or the myelin cell.
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And the challenge has long been,
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can we harness the power,
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the undoubted power of these stem cells
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in order to realize their promise
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for regenerative neurology?
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And I think we can now, and the reason we can
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is because there have been several major discoveries
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in the last 10, 20 years.
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One of them was here in Edinburgh,
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and it must be the only celebrity sheep, Dolly.
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So Dolly was made in Edinburgh,
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and Dolly was an example
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of the first cloning of a mammal
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from an adult cell.
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But I think the even more significant breakthrough
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for the purposes of our discussion today
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was made in 2006 by a Japanese scientist
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called Yamanaka.
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And what Yamaka did,
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in a fantastic form of scientific cookery,
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was he showed that four ingredients,
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just four ingredients,
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could effectively convert any cell, adult cell,
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into a master stem cell.
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And the significance of this is difficult to exaggerate,
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because what it means that from anybody in this room,
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but particularly patients,
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you could now generate
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a bespoke, personalized tissue repair kit.
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Take a skin cell, make it a master pluripotent cell,
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so you could then make those cells
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that are relevant to their disease,
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both to study but potentially to treat.
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Now, the idea of that at medical school --
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this is a recurring theme, isn't it, me and medical school? —
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would have been ridiculous,
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but it's an absolute reality today.
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And I see this as the cornerstone
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of regeneration, repair and hope.
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And whilst we're on the theme of hope,
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for those of you who might have failed at school,
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there's hope for you as well,
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because this is the school report of John Gerdon.
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["I believe he has ideas about becoming a scientist; on his present showing this is quite ridiculous."]
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So they didn't think much of him then.
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But what you may not know is that he got the Nobel Prize for medicine
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just three months ago.
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So to return to the original problem,
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what is the opportunity of these stem cells,
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or this disruptive technology,
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for repairing the damaged brain,
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which we call regenerative neurology?
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I think there are two ways you can think about this:
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as a fantastic 21st-century drug discovery tool,
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and/or as a form of therapy.
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So I want to tell you a little bit about both of those
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in the next few moments.
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Drug discovery in a dish is how people often
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talk about this.
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It's very simple: You take a patient with a disease,
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let's say motor neuron disease,
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you take a skin sample,
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you do the pluripotent reprogramming,
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as I've already told you,
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and you generate live motor nerve cells.
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That's straightforward, because that's what
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pluripotent cells can do.
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But crucially, you can then compare their behavior
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to their equivalent but healthy counterparts,
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ideally from an unaffected relative.
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That way, you're matching for genetic variation.
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And that's exactly what we did here.
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This was a collaboration with colleagues:
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in London, Chris Shaw; in the U.S., Steve Finkbeiner and Tom Maniatis.
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And what you're looking at, and this is amazing,
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these are living, growing, motor nerve cells
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from a patient with motor neuron disease.
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It happens to be an inherited form.
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I mean, just imagine that.
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This would have been unimaginable 10 years ago.
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So apart from seeing them grow and put out processes,
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we can also engineer them so that they fluoresce,
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but crucially, we can then track their individual health
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and compare the diseased motor nerve cells
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to the healthy ones.
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And when you do all that and put it together,
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you realize that the diseased ones,
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which is represented in the red line,
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are two and a half times more likely to die
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than the healthy counterpart.
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And the crucial point about this is that you then have
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a fantastic assay to discover drugs,
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because what would you ask of the drugs,
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and you could do this through a high-throughput
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automated screening system,
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you'd ask the drugs, give me one thing:
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find me a drug that will bring the red line
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closer to the blue line,
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because that drug will be a high-value candidate
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that you could probably take direct to human trial
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and almost bypass that bottleneck
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that I've told you about in drug discovery
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with the animal models,
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if that makes sense. It's fantastic.
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But I want to come back
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to how you might use stem cells directly
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to repair damage.
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And again there are two ways to think about this,
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and they're not mutually exclusive.
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The first, and I think in the long run
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the one that will give us the biggest dividend,
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but it's not thought of that way just yet,
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is to think about those stem cells that are already
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in your brain, and I've told you that.
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All of us have stem cells in the brain,
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even the diseased brain,
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and surely the smart way forward
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is to find ways that you can promote and activate
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those stem cells in your brain already
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to react and respond appropriately to damage
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to repair it.
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That will be the future.
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There will be drugs that will do that.
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But the other way is to effectively parachute in cells,
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transplant them in,
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to replace dying or lost cells, even in the brain.
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And I want to tell you now an experiment,
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it's a clinical trial that we did,
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which recently completed,
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which is with colleagues in UCL,
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David Miller in particular.
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So this study was very simple.
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We took patients with multiple sclerosis
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and asked a simple question:
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Would stem cells from the bone marrow
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be protective of their nerves?
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So what we did was we took this bone marrow,
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grew up the stem cells in the lab,
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and then injected them back into the vein.
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I'm making this sound really simple.
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It took five years off a lot of people, okay?
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And it put gray hair on me
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and caused all kinds of issues.
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But conceptually, it's essentially simple.
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So we've given them into the vein, right?
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So in order to measure whether this was successful or not,
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we measured the optic nerve
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as our outcome measure.
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And that's a good thing to measure in M.S.,
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because patients with M.S. sadly suffer
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with problems with vision --
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loss of vision, unclear vision.
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And so we measured the size of the optic nerve
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using the scans with David Miller
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three times -- 12 months, six months,
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and before the infusion --
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and you can see the gently declining red line.
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And that's telling you that the optic nerve is shrinking,
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which makes sense, because their nerves are dying.
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We then gave the stem cell infusion
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and repeated the measurement twice --
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three months and six months --
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and to our surprise, almost,
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the line's gone up.
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That suggests that the intervention
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has been protective.
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I don't think myself that what's happened
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is that those stem cells have made new myelin
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or new nerves.
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What I think they've done is they've promoted
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the endogenous stem cells, or precursor cells,
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to do their job, wake up, lay down new myelin.
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So this is a proof of concept.
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I'm very excited about that.
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So I just want to end with the theme I began on,
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which was regeneration and hope.
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So here I've asked John
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what his hopes are for the future.
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John: I would hope that
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sometime in the future
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through the research that you people are doing,
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we can come up with a cure
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so that people like me can lead a normal life.
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SC: I mean, that speaks volumes.
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But I'd like to close by first of all thanking John --
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thanking John for allowing me to share
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his insights and these clips with you all.
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But I'd also like to add to John and to others
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that my own view is, I'm hopeful for the future.
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I do believe that the disruptive technologies
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like stem cells that I've tried to explain to you
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do offer very real hope.
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And I do think that the day that we might be able
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to repair the damaged brain
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is sooner than we think.
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Thank you.
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(Applause)
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