Neil Burgess: How your brain tells you where you are

121,263 views ใƒป 2012-02-06

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Ido Dekkers ืžื‘ืงืจ: Eran Givoni
00:15
When we park in a big parking lot,
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ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื—ื ื™ื•ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ,
00:17
how do we remember where we parked our car?
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ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ื—ื ื™ื ื•?
00:19
Here's the problem facing Homer.
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ื”ื ื” ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ืฉืขื•ืžื“ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ื•ืžืจ.
00:22
And we're going to try to understand
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
00:24
what's happening in his brain.
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ืžื” ืงื•ืจื” ื‘ืชื•ืš ืžื•ื—ื•.
00:26
So we'll start with the hippocampus, shown in yellow,
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ืื– ื ืชื—ื™ืœ ืขื ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืงืžืคื•ืก, ืฉื ืจืื” ื‘ืฆื”ื•ื‘,
00:28
which is the organ of memory.
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ืฉื–ื” ื”ืื‘ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ.
00:30
If you have damage there, like in Alzheimer's,
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ืื ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื ื–ืง ืฉื, ื›ืžื• ื‘ืืœืฆื”ื™ื™ืžืจ,
00:32
you can't remember things including where you parked your car.
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ืืชื ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื–ื›ื•ืจ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ื•ืœืœ ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ื”ื—ื ื™ืชื ืืช ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช.
00:34
It's named after Latin for "seahorse,"
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ืฉืžื• ื‘ื ืžื”ืžื™ืœื” ื”ืœื˜ื™ื ื™ืช ืœ"ืกื•ืก-ื™ื,"
00:36
which it resembles.
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ืฉืœื• ื”ื•ื ื“ื•ืžื”.
00:38
And like the rest of the brain, it's made of neurons.
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ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉืืจ ื”ืžื•ื—, ื”ื•ื ืขืฉื•ื™ ืžื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื.
00:40
So the human brain
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ืื– ื‘ืžื•ื— ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™
00:42
has about a hundred billion neurons in it.
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ื™ืฉ ื‘ืขืจืš ืžืื” ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื.
00:44
And the neurons communicate with each other
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ื•ื”ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื ืžืชืงืฉืจื™ื ื–ื” ืขื ื–ื”
00:47
by sending little pulses or spikes of electricity
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉืœื™ื—ืช ืคืขื™ืžื•ืช ืื• ืงืคื™ืฆื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ืฉืžืœ
00:49
via connections to each other.
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ื“ืจืš ื”ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื.
00:51
The hippocampus is formed of two sheets of cells,
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ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืงืžืคื•ืก ื‘ื ื•ื™ ืžืฉืชื™ ืฉื›ื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื,
00:54
which are very densely interconnected.
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ื”ืžื—ื•ื‘ืจื•ืช ื–ื• ืœื–ื• ื‘ืฆืคื™ืคื•ืช.
00:56
And scientists have begun to understand
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ื•ื”ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
00:58
how spatial memory works
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ืื™ืš ืขื•ื‘ื“ ื”ื–ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื”ืžืจื—ื‘ื™
01:00
by recording from individual neurons
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืงืœื˜ื•ืช ืžื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื
01:02
in rats or mice
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ื‘ื—ื•ืœื“ื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื
01:04
while they forage or explore an environment
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ื›ืฉื”ื ืžืœืงื˜ื™ื ืžื–ื•ืŸ ืื• ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืืช ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื
01:06
looking for food.
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ื‘ื—ื™ืคื•ืฉ ืื—ืจ ืžื–ื•ืŸ.
01:08
So we're going to imagine we're recording from a single neuron
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ื”ื‘ื” ื ื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืœืขืฆืžื ื• ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžืงืœื™ื˜ื™ื ื ื•ื™ืจื•ืŸ ื™ื—ื™ื“
01:11
in the hippocampus of this rat here.
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ื‘ื”ื™ืคื•ืงืžืคื•ืก ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื•ืœื“ื” ื”ื–ื•.
01:14
And when it fires a little spike of electricity,
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ื•ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ื•ืจื” ื–ืจื ืงื˜ืŸ ืฉืœ ื—ืฉืžืœ,
01:16
there's going to be a red dot and a click.
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ืชื•ืคื™ืข ื ืงื•ื“ื” ืื“ื•ืžื” ื•ื™ื™ืฉืžืข ืงืœื™ืง.
01:19
So what we see
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ืื– ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื
01:21
is that this neuron knows
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ื–ื” ืฉื”ื ื•ื™ืจื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ื™ื•ื“ืข
01:23
whenever the rat has gone into one particular place in its environment.
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ืžืชื™ ื”ื—ื•ืœื“ื” ื ื›ื ืกืช ืœืžืงื•ื ืžืกื•ื™ื ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื”.
01:26
And it signals to the rest of the brain
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืžืื•ืชืช ืœืฉืืจ ื”ืžื•ื—
01:28
by sending a little electrical spike.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื’ื•ืจ ืงืคื™ืฆืช ื–ืจื ื—ืฉืžืœื™.
01:31
So we could show the firing rate of that neuron
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืืช ืงืฆื‘ ื”ื™ืจื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื ื•ื™ืจื•ืŸ
01:34
as a function of the animal's location.
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ื›ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื” ืฉืœ ืžื™ืงื•ื ื”ื—ื™ื”.
01:36
And if we record from lots of different neurons,
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ื•ืื ื ืงืœื™ื˜ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
01:38
we'll see that different neurons fire
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ื ืจืื” ื™ืจื™ ืžื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื
01:40
when the animal goes in different parts of its environment,
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ื›ืฉื”ื—ื™ื” ื”ื•ืœื›ืช ืœืื–ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื”,
01:42
like in this square box shown here.
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ื›ืžื• ื‘ืชื™ื‘ื” ื”ืžืจื•ื‘ืขืช ืฉื ืจืื™ืช ื›ืืŸ.
01:44
So together they form a map
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ื•ื‘ื™ื—ื“ ื”ื ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืžืคื”
01:46
for the rest of the brain,
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉืืจ ื”ืžื•ื—,
01:48
telling the brain continually,
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ืฉืžื“ื•ื•ื—ืช ืœืžื•ื— ื‘ืจืฆื™ืคื•ืช,
01:50
"Where am I now within my environment?"
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"ืื™ืคื” ืื ื™ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœื™?"
01:52
Place cells are also being recorded in humans.
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ืชืื™ ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื ืžื•ืงืœื˜ื™ื ื’ื ืืฆืœ ืื ืฉื™ื.
01:55
So epilepsy patients sometimes need
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ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืžื—ืœืช ื”ื ืคื™ืœื” ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœืคืขืžื™ื
01:57
the electrical activity in their brain monitoring.
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ืœื ื™ื˜ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื—ืฉืžืœื™ืช ื‘ืžื•ื—ื.
02:00
And some of these patients played a video game
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ื•ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืฉื™ื—ืงื• ื‘ืžืฉื—ืง ื•ื™ื“ืื•
02:02
where they drive around a small town.
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ืฉื‘ื• ื”ื ื ื•ื”ื’ื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืจ ืงื˜ื ื”.
02:04
And place cells in their hippocampi would fire, become active,
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ื•ืชืื™ ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื ื‘ื”ื™ืคื•ืงืžืคื•ืก ื ื“ืœืงื™ื ื•ื ืขืฉื™ื ืคืขื™ืœื™ื,
02:07
start sending electrical impulses
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ื•ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœืฉืœื•ื— ืคืขื™ืžื•ืช ื—ืฉืžืœ
02:10
whenever they drove through a particular location in that town.
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉืขื‘ืจื• ื‘ืื–ื•ืจ ืžืกื•ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืขื™ืจ.
02:13
So how does a place cell know
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ืื– ืื™ืš ืชื ืžื™ืงื•ื ื™ื•ื“ืข
02:15
where the rat or person is within its environment?
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ืื™ืคื” ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื”ื—ื•ืœื“ื” ืื• ื”ืื“ื ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœื”ื?
02:18
Well these two cells here
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืฉื ื™ ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื”
02:20
show us that the boundaries of the environment
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ืžืจืื™ื ืœื ื• ืฉื”ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”
02:22
are particularly important.
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ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“.
02:24
So the one on the top
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ื”ืชื ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ
02:26
likes to fire sort of midway between the walls
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ืื•ื”ื‘ ืœื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ืขืจืš ื‘ืืžืฆืข ื”ื“ืจืš ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื“ืคื ื•ืช
02:28
of the box that their rat's in.
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ืฉืœ ื”ืงื•ืคืกื” ื‘ื” ื ืžืฆืืช ื”ื—ื•ืœื“ื” ืฉืœื•.
02:30
And when you expand the box, the firing location expands.
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ื•ื›ืฉืžืจื—ื™ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื”ืชื™ื‘ื”, ืžืชืจื—ื‘ ืื–ื•ืจ ื”ื™ืจื™.
02:33
The one below likes to fire
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ื”ืชื ื”ืชื—ืชื•ืŸ ืื•ื”ื‘ ืœื™ืจื•ืช
02:35
whenever there's a wall close by to the south.
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉื™ืฉ ื“ื•ืคืŸ ื“ืจื•ืžื™ืช ืงืจื•ื‘ื”.
02:38
And if you put another wall inside the box,
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ื•ืื ืžืฆื™ื‘ื™ื ื“ื•ืคืŸ ื ื•ืกืคืช ื‘ืงื•ืคืกื”,
02:40
then the cell fires in both place
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ื”ืชื ื™ื•ืจื” ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื”ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช
02:42
wherever there's a wall to the south
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื ืฉื™ืฉ ื“ื•ืคืŸ ื“ืจื•ืžื™ืช
02:44
as the animal explores around in its box.
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ื›ืฉื”ื—ื™ื” ื—ื•ืงืจืช ืืช ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื‘ืชื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœื”.
02:48
So this predicts
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ืื– ื–ื” ื—ื•ื–ื”
02:50
that sensing the distances and directions of boundaries around you --
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ืืช ื—ื™ืฉืช ื”ืžืจื—ืงื™ื ื•ื”ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘--
02:52
extended buildings and so on --
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ื‘ื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืžื•ืืจื›ื™ื ื•ื›ื•' --
02:54
is particularly important for the hippocampus.
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ืฉื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืœื”ื™ืคื•ืงืžืคื•ืก.
02:57
And indeed, on the inputs to the hippocampus,
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ื•ื‘ืืžืช, ื‘ื›ื ื™ืกื•ืช ื”ืงืœื˜ ืฉืœ ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืงืžืคื•ืก,
02:59
cells are found which project into the hippocampus,
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ื ืžืฆืื™ื ืชืื™ื ืฉืžืงืจื™ื ื™ื ืœืชื•ืš ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืงืžืคื•ืก,
03:01
which do respond exactly
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ืฉืื›ืŸ ืžื’ื™ื‘ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง
03:03
to detecting boundaries or edges
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ืœื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ืื• ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
03:06
at particular distances and directions
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ื‘ืžืจื—ืงื™ื ื•ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžื™ื
03:08
from the rat or mouse
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ืžื”ื—ื•ืœื“ื” ืื• ื”ืขื›ื‘ืจ
03:10
as it's exploring around.
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ื›ืฉื”ื ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
03:12
So the cell on the left, you can see,
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ื•ื”ืชื ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ, ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื,
03:14
it fires whenever the animal gets near
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ื™ื•ืจื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉื”ื—ื™ื” ืžืชืงืจื‘ืช
03:16
to a wall or a boundary to the east,
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ืœื“ื•ืคืŸ ืื• ืœื’ื‘ื•ืœ ื‘ืžื–ืจื—,
03:19
whether it's the edge or the wall of a square box
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ืื ื–ื” ื”ืงืฆื” ืื• ื”ื“ื•ืคืŸ ืฉืœ ืชื™ื‘ื” ืžืจื•ื‘ืขืช
03:22
or the circular wall of the circular box
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ืื• ื”ื“ื•ืคืŸ ื”ืžืขื•ื’ืœืช ืฉืœ ืชื™ื‘ื” ืขื’ื•ืœื”
03:24
or even the drop at the edge of a table, which the animals are running around.
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ืื• ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ืžื“ืจื’ื” ื‘ืงืฆื” ื”ืฉื•ืœื—ืŸ, ืฉื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ืจืฆื•ืช ืขืœื™ื”.
03:27
And the cell on the right there
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ื•ื”ืชื ืฉื ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ
03:29
fires whenever there's a boundary to the south,
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ื™ื•ืจื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉื™ืฉ ื’ื‘ื•ืœ ื‘ื“ืจื•ื,
03:31
whether it's the drop at the edge of the table or a wall
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ืื ื–ื• ื”ืžื“ืจื’ื” ื‘ืงืฆื” ื”ืฉื•ืœื—ืŸ ืื• ืื ื–ื• ื“ื•ืคืŸ
03:33
or even the gap between two tables that are pulled apart.
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ืื• ืืคื™ืœื• ืจื•ื•ื— ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื™ ืฉื•ืœื—ื ื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ืจื—ืงื• ื–ื” ืžื–ื”.
03:36
So that's one way in which we think
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ืื– ื–ื• ื“ืจืš ืื—ืช ื‘ื” ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื
03:38
place cells determine where the animal is as it's exploring around.
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ืฉืชืื™ ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื ืงื•ื‘ืขื™ื ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ื”ื—ื™ื” ื›ืฉื”ื™ื ื‘ื•ื“ืงืช ืืช ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
03:41
We can also test where we think objects are,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื’ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ื“ื•ืง ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืœื“ืขืชื ื• ื—ืคืฆื™ื ื ืžืฆืื™ื,
03:44
like this goal flag, in simple environments --
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ื›ืžื• ื“ื’ืœ-ืžื˜ืจื” ื–ื”, ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช ืคืฉื•ื˜ื•ืช --
03:47
or indeed, where your car would be.
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ืื• ื‘ืืžืช ืื™ืคื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื™ืžืฆื ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช.
03:49
So we can have people explore an environment
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื
03:52
and see the location they have to remember.
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ื•ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื ืฉื”ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื–ื›ื•ืจ.
03:55
And then, if we put them back in the environment,
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ื•ืื–, ืื ื ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืื•ืชื ืœืื•ืชื” ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”,
03:57
generally they're quite good at putting a marker down
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ื”ื ื‘ื“"ื› ืžืฆืœื™ื—ื™ื ืœื ืจืข ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืกืžืŸ
03:59
where they thought that flag or their car was.
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ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืฉื—ืฉื‘ื• ืฉื ืžืฆืื™ื ื“ื’ืœ ื”ืžื˜ืจื” ืื• ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
04:02
But on some trials,
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื›ืžื” ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื,
04:04
we could change the shape and size of the environment
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ืฆื•ืจืช ื•ื’ื•ื“ืœ ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”
04:06
like we did with the place cell.
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ื›ืžื• ืฉืขืฉื™ื ื• ืขื ืชื ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื.
04:08
In that case, we can see
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื”ื•ื, ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช
04:10
how where they think the flag had been changes
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ืื™ืš ืžืฉืชื ื” ืœื“ืขืชื ืžื™ืงื•ื ื”ื“ื’ืœ
04:13
as a function of how you change the shape and size of the environment.
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ื›ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื” ืฉืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืฆื•ืจืช ื•ื’ื•ื“ืœ ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
04:16
And what you see, for example,
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”,
04:18
if the flag was where that cross was in a small square environment,
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ื–ื” ืฉื”ื“ื’ืœ ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืฉื”ืฆืœื‘ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืงื˜ื ื” ื•ืจื™ื‘ื•ืขื™ืช,
04:21
and then if you ask people where it was,
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ืืš ืื ืชืฉืืœื• ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื”,
04:23
but you've made the environment bigger,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื’ื“ืœืชื ืืช ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”,
04:25
where they think the flag had been
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ื”ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ื”ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื”ื“ื’ืœ ื”ื™ื”
04:27
stretches out in exactly the same way
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ืžืชืจื—ืง ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื‘ืื•ืชื” ื“ืจืš
04:29
that the place cell firing stretched out.
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ืฉืžืชืจื—ืง ืชื ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื ืฉื™ื•ืจื”.
04:31
It's as if you remember where the flag was
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ื–ื” ื›ืื™ืœื• ืืชื ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื ืื™ืคื” ื”ื“ื’ืœ ื”ื™ื”
04:33
by storing the pattern of firing across all of your place cells
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ืข"ื™ ืฉืžื™ืจืช ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ื”ื™ืจื™ ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืชืื™ ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื ืฉืœื›ื
04:36
at that location,
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ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื” ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”,
04:38
and then you can get back to that location
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ื•ืื– ืืคืฉืจ ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœืžื™ืงื•ื ื”ื”ื•ื
04:40
by moving around
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืชื–ื•ื–ื” ื‘ืื–ื•ืจ
04:42
so that you best match the current pattern of firing of your place cells
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ื•ื›ืš ืžืชืืžื™ื ืืช ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ื”ื™ืจื™ ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืชืื™ ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื
04:44
with that stored pattern.
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ืขื ื”ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ื”ืฉืžื•ืจื”.
04:46
That guides you back to the location that you want to remember.
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ื–ื” ืžื ื—ื” ื‘ื—ื–ืจื” ืœืžื™ืงื•ื ืฉืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื–ื›ื•ืจ.
04:49
But we also know where we are through movement.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื’ื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืชื ื•ืขื”.
04:52
So if we take some outbound path --
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ื›ืš ืฉืื ื ื‘ื—ืจ ื ืชื™ื‘ ื›ืœืฉื”ื• ืฉืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ื”ื—ื•ืฆื”--
04:54
perhaps we park and we wander off --
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ืœืžืฉืœ ืื ื—ื•ื ื™ื ื•ืชื•ืขื™ื ื‘ื˜ื™ื•ืœ ืฉืœื ื•--
04:56
we know because our own movements,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ืœืชื ื•ืขื” ืฉืœื ื•,
04:58
which we can integrate over this path
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ืฉืื•ืชื” ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉืœื‘ ื‘ื ืชื™ื‘ ื”ื–ื”
05:00
roughly what the heading direction is to go back.
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ื‘ืขืจืš ืžื”ื• ื”ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื‘ื—ื–ืจื”.
05:02
And place cells also get this kind of path integration input
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ื•ืชืื™ ืžื™ืงื•ื ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ื’ื ืกื•ื’ ื›ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืžื™ื“ืข ื ืชื™ื‘ื™ื ืžืฉื•ืœื‘
05:06
from a kind of cell called a grid cell.
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ืžืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืชื ืฉื ืงืจื "ืชื ืžืขืจืš".
05:09
Now grid cells are found, again,
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ื•ื’ื ืชืื™ ื”ืžืขืจืš ื ืžืฆืื™ื
05:11
on the inputs to the hippocampus,
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ื‘ื›ื ื™ืกื•ืช ื”ืงืœื˜ ืœื”ื™ืคื•ืงืžืคื•ืก,
05:13
and they're a bit like place cells.
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ื•ื”ื ืงืฆืช ื›ืžื• ืชืื™ ืžื™ืงื•ื.
05:15
But now as the rat explores around,
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ืื‘ืœ ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื›ืฉื”ื—ื•ืœื“ื” ื—ื•ืงืจืช ืืช ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”,
05:17
each individual cell fires
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ื›ืœ ืชื ื•ืชื ื™ื•ืจื™ื
05:19
in a whole array of different locations
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ื‘ืžืขืจืš ืฉืœื ืฉืœ ืžื™ืงื•ืžื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื
05:22
which are laid out across the environment
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ืฉื ืคืจืฉื™ื ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ืœืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”
05:24
in an amazingly regular triangular grid.
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ื‘ืžืขืจืš ื˜ืจื™ืื ื’ื•ืœืฆื™ื” ืจื’ื™ืœ ืœื”ืคืœื™ื.
05:29
And if you record from several grid cells --
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ื•ืื ืžืงืœื™ื˜ื™ื ืžื›ืžื” ืชืื™ ืžืขืจืš --
05:32
shown here in different colors --
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ืฉื ืจืื™ื ืคื” ื‘ืฆื‘ืขื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื --
05:34
each one has a grid-like firing pattern across the environment,
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ืœื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ื™ืฉ ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ื™ืจื™ ื‘ืฆื•ืจืช ืžืขืจืš ืžื•ืœ ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”,
05:37
and each cell's grid-like firing pattern is shifted slightly
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ื•ื›ืœ ืžืขืจืš ื™ืจื™ ืฉืœ ืชื ืžื•ื–ื— ืงืœื•ืช
05:40
relative to the other cells.
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ื™ื—ืกื™ืช ืœืฉืืจ ื”ืชืื™ื.
05:42
So the red one fires on this grid
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ืื– ื”ืื“ื•ื ื™ื•ืจื” ื‘ืžืขืจืš ื”ื–ื”
05:44
and the green one on this one and the blue on on this one.
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ื•ื”ื™ืจื•ืง ื‘ื–ื” ื•ื”ื›ื—ื•ืœ ื‘ื–ื”.
05:47
So together, it's as if the rat
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ืื– ื™ื—ื“ ื–ื” ื›ืื™ืœื• ืฉื”ื—ื•ืœื“ื”
05:50
can put a virtual grid of firing locations
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ืฆื™ื‘ ืžืขืจืš ื•ื™ืจื˜ื•ืืœื™ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืงื•ืžื™ ื™ืจื™
05:52
across its environment --
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ืžื•ืœ ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœื”--
05:54
a bit like the latitude and longitude lines that you'd find on a map,
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ืงืฆืช ื›ืžื• ืงื•ื•ื™ ื”ืื•ืจืš ื•ื”ืจื•ื—ื‘ ื‘ืžืคื”,
05:57
but using triangles.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืžืฉื•ืœืฉื™ื.
05:59
And as it moves around,
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ื•ื›ืฉื”ื™ื ื–ื–ื”,
06:01
the electrical activity can pass
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ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื—ืฉืžืœื™ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ
06:03
from one of these cells to the next cell
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ืžืื—ื“ ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืืœ ื”ืชื ื”ืกืžื•ืš
06:05
to keep track of where it is,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืงื•ื‘ ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื ืฉืœื”,
06:07
so that it can use its own movements
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ื›ืš ืฉื”ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื•ืช ืฉืœื” ืขืฆืžื”
06:09
to know where it is in its environment.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื“ืขืช ืื™ืคื” ื”ื™ื ื ืžืฆืืช ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
06:11
Do people have grid cells?
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ื”ืื ืœืื ืฉื™ื ื™ืฉ ืชืื™ ืžืขืจืš?
06:13
Well because all of the grid-like firing patterns
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืœื›ืœ ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ืจื™ ื‘ืฆื•ืจืช ืžืขืจืš
06:15
have the same axes of symmetry,
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ื™ืฉ ืื•ืชื ืฆื™ืจื™ ืกื™ืžื˜ืจื™ื”,
06:17
the same orientations of grid, shown in orange here,
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ืื•ืชื ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืขืจืš, ืฉื ืจืื™ื ื›ืืŸ ื‘ื›ืชื•ื,
06:20
it means that the net activity
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ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื ื˜ื•
06:22
of all of the grid cells in a particular part of the brain
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ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืชืื™ ื”ืžืขืจืš ื‘ื—ืœืง ืžืกื•ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื—
06:25
should change
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ืืžื•ืจื” ืœื”ืฉืชื ื•ืช
06:27
according to whether we're running along these six directions
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ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ืจืฆื™ื ืœืื•ืจืš ืฉืฉืช ื”ืฆื™ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”
06:29
or running along one of the six directions in between.
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ืื• ืจืฆื™ื ืœืื•ืจืš ืื—ื“ ืžืฉืฉืช ื”ืฆื™ืจื™ื ืฉื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื.
06:32
So we can put people in an MRI scanner
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืื ืฉื™ื ืœืกื•ืจืง ื“ื™ืžื•ืช ืžื’ื ื˜ื™
06:34
and have them do a little video game
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ื•ืœืชืช ืœื”ื ืœืฉื—ืง ื‘ืžืฉื—ืง ื•ื™ื“ืื• ืงื˜ืŸ
06:36
like the one I showed you
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ื›ืžื• ื–ื” ืฉื”ืจืื™ืชื™ ืœื›ื
06:38
and look for this signal.
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ื•ืื– ืœื—ืคืฉ ืืช ื”ืื•ืช ื”ื–ื”.
06:40
And indeed, you do see it in the human entorhinal cortex,
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ื•ื‘ืืžืช ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืงืœื™ืคื” ื”ืื ื˜ื•ืจื™ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžื•ื— ื”ืื“ื,
06:43
which is the same part of the brain that you see grid cells in rats.
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ืฉื”ื™ื ืื•ืชื• ื—ืœืง ื‘ืžื•ื— ื‘ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืชืื™ ืžืขืจืš ื‘ื—ื•ืœื“ื•ืช.
06:46
So back to Homer.
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ื•ื›ืขืช ื ื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœื”ื•ืžืจ.
06:48
He's probably remembering where his car was
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ื”ื•ื ื›ื ืจืื” ื ื–ื›ืจ ืื™ืคื” ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืชื•
06:50
in terms of the distances and directions
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ื‘ืžื•ื ื—ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžืจื—ืง ื•ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ
06:52
to extended buildings and boundaries
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ืืœ ื‘ื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืžื•ืืจื›ื™ื ื•ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช
06:54
around the location where he parked.
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ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ื”ื•ื ื—ื ื”.
06:56
And that would be represented
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ื•ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžื™ื•ืฆื’
06:58
by the firing of boundary-detecting cells.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื™ืจื™ ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื ืžืืชืจื™-ืงืฆื•ื•ืช.
07:00
He's also remembering the path he took out of the car park,
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ื”ื•ื ื’ื ื–ื•ื›ืจ ืืช ื”ื“ืจืš ื‘ื” ื™ืฆื ืžื”ื—ื ื™ื•ืŸ,
07:03
which would be represented in the firing of grid cells.
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ืฉืžื™ื•ืฆื’ืช ื‘ื™ืจื™ ืฉืœ ืชืื™ ืžืขืจืš.
07:06
Now both of these kinds of cells
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ื•ืฉื ื™ ืกื•ื’ื™ ื”ืชืื™ื
07:08
can make the place cells fire.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืชืื™ ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื ืœื™ืจื•ืช.
07:10
And he can return to the location where he parked
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœืžื™ืงื•ื ื‘ื• ื—ื ื”
07:12
by moving so as to find where it is
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืชื–ื•ื–ื” ืฉืžื˜ืจืชื” ืœืžืฆื•ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื
07:15
that best matches the firing pattern
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ื‘ื“ืจืš ื”ืžืชืื™ืžื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืชื‘ื ื™ืช ื”ื™ืจื™
07:17
of the place cells in his brain currently
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ืฉืœ ืชืื™ ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื ื‘ืžื•ื—ื• ื›ืจื’ืข
07:19
with the stored pattern where he parked his car.
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ืขื ื”ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ื”ืฉืžื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ื”ื—ื ื” ืืช ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช.
07:22
And that guides him back to that location
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื ื—ื” ืื•ืชื• ื—ื–ืจื” ืœืื•ืชื• ืžื™ืงื•ื
07:24
irrespective of visual cues
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ื‘ืœื™ ืงืฉืจ ืœืจืžื–ื™ื ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ื™ื
07:26
like whether his car's actually there.
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ื›ืžื• ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช ื‘ืืžืช ื ืžืฆืืช.
07:28
Maybe it's been towed.
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ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื™ื ื ื’ืจืจื”
07:30
But he knows where it was, so he knows to go and get it.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ื“ืข ืื™ืคื” ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ืชื”, ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ื“ืข ืžืื™ืŸ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืื•ืชื”.
07:33
So beyond spatial memory,
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ืื– ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื”ืžืจื—ื‘ื™,
07:35
if we look for this grid-like firing pattern
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ืื ื ื—ืคืฉ ืืช ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ื”ื™ืจื™ ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ืช ื”ืžืขืจืš
07:37
throughout the whole brain,
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ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ื—,
07:39
we see it in a whole series of locations
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ื ืจืื” ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืกื“ืจื” ืฉืœืžื” ืฉืœ ืžื™ืงื•ืžื™ื
07:42
which are always active
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ืฉืชืžื™ื“ ืคืขื™ืœื™ื
07:44
when we do all kinds of autobiographical memory tasks,
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ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ื›ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ ืžืฉื™ืžื•ืช ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืื•ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื•ื’ืจืคื™ื•ืช,
07:46
like remembering the last time you went to a wedding, for example.
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ื›ืžื• ืœื”ื™ื–ื›ืจ ื‘ืคืขื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื” ืฉื”ืœื›ื ื• ืœื—ืชื•ื ื”, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”.
07:49
So it may be that the neural mechanisms
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ืื– ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉื”ืžื ื’ื ื•ื ื™ื ื”ืขื™ืฆื‘ื™ื™ื
07:51
for representing the space around us
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ืฉืงืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœื™ื™ืฆื•ื’ ื”ืžืจื—ื‘ ืฉืกื‘ื™ื‘ื ื•
07:54
are also used for generating visual imagery
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ืžืฉืžืฉื™ื ื’ื ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื“ื™ืžื•ื™ื™ื ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ื™ื
07:58
so that we can recreate the spatial scene, at least,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืœืฉื—ื–ืจ ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ืช,
08:01
of the events that have happened to us when we want to imagine them.
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ืฉืœ ื”ืืจื•ืขื™ื ืฉืงืจื• ืœื ื• ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื.
08:04
So if this was happening,
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ืื– ืื ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืงื•ืจื”,
08:06
your memories could start by place cells activating each other
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ื–ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืชื™ื›ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ืชืื™ ืžื™ืงื•ื ืฉืžืคืขื™ืœื™ื ื–ื” ืืช ื–ื”
08:09
via these dense interconnections
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ื“ืจืš ื”ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืฆืคื•ืคื”
08:11
and then reactivating boundary cells
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ื•ืื– ืžืคืขื™ืœื™ื ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืชืื™-ื’ื‘ื•ืœ
08:13
to create the spatial structure
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืžืจื—ื‘ื™
08:15
of the scene around your viewpoint.
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ืฉืœ ื”ืกืฆื ื” ืฉืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืจืื™ื” ืฉืœื›ื.
08:17
And grid cells could move this viewpoint through that space.
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ื•ืชืื™ ื”ืžืขืจืš ื™ื–ื™ื–ื• ืืช ื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืžื‘ื˜ ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘.
08:19
Another kind of cell, head direction cells,
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ืกื•ื’ ื ื•ืกืฃ ืฉืœ ืชื, ืชืื™ ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉ,
08:21
which I didn't mention yet,
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ืฉืœื ื”ื–ื›ืจืชื™ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ,
08:23
they fire like a compass according to which way you're facing.
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ื™ื•ืจื™ื ื›ืžื• ืžืฆืคืŸ ืœืคื™ ื”ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืืœื™ื• ื”ืคื ื™ื ืžื•ืคื ื•ืช.
08:26
They could define the viewing direction
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ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ื“ื™ืจ ืืช ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืจืื™ื”
08:28
from which you want to generate an image for your visual imagery,
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ืžืžื ื• ืืชื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื“ื™ืžื•ื™ ื”ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ ืฉืœื›ื,
08:31
so you can imagine what happened when you were at this wedding, for example.
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ื•ืื– ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืžื” ืงืจื” ื›ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื ื‘ืื•ืชื” ื—ืชื•ื ื”, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”.
08:34
So this is just one example
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ืื– ื–ื• ืจืง ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืื—ืช
08:36
of a new era really
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ืœืขื™ื“ืŸ ื—ื“ืฉ ื‘ืืžืช
08:38
in cognitive neuroscience
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ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ ืฉืœ ืžื“ืขื™ ื”ืžื•ื—
08:40
where we're beginning to understand
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ืฉื‘ื• ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
08:42
psychological processes
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ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื
08:44
like how you remember or imagine or even think
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ื›ืžื• ืื™ืš ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื ืื• ืžื“ืžื™ื™ื ื™ื ืื• ืืคื™ืœื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื
08:47
in terms of the actions
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ื‘ืžื•ื ื—ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช
08:49
of the billions of individual neurons that make up our brains.
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ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื•ื— ืฉืœื ื•.
08:52
Thank you very much.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืœื›ื.
08:54
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

https://forms.gle/WvT1wiN1qDtmnspy7