Garik Israelian: What's inside a star?

47,537 views ใƒป 2009-10-01

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Yubal Masalker ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:18
I have a very difficult task.
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ืžื•ื˜ืœืช ืขืœื™ื™ ืžืฉื™ืžื” ืงืฉื” ืžืื•ื“.
00:21
I'm a spectroscopist.
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ืื ื™ ืขื•ืกืง ื‘ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื”.
00:24
I have to talk about astronomy without showing you
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ืขืœื™ื™ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืืกื˜ืจื•ื ื•ืžื™ื”
00:26
any single image of nebulae or galaxies, etc.
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ืžื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืœื›ื ืืคื™ืœื• ืชืžื•ื ื” ืื—ืช ืฉืœ ืขืจืคื™ืœื™ืช ืื• ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ื•ื›ื•',
00:30
because my job is spectroscopy.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉืœื™ ื”ื™ื ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื”.
00:32
I never deal with images.
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ืื ื™ ืืฃ ืคืขื ืœื ืžืชืขืกืง ืขื ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช.
00:35
But I'll try to convince you
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ืกื” ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืืชื›ื
00:37
that spectroscopy is actually something which can
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ืฉืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื” ื”ื™ื ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ
00:39
change this world.
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ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื.
00:42
Spectroscopy can probably answer the question,
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ื›ื›ืœ ื”ื ืจืื”, ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืขืœ ื”ืฉืืœื”
00:45
"Is there anybody out there?"
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"ื”ืื ื™ืฉ ืฉื ืžื™ืฉื”ื•?"
00:47
Are we alone? SETI.
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ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื‘ื“? ืกื˜ื™ (ื—ื™ืคื•ืฉ ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื—ืœืœ ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ืŸ).
00:49
It's not very fun to do spectroscopy.
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ื–ื” ืœื ืชืขื ื•ื’ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืœืขืกื•ืง ื‘ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื”.
00:52
One of my colleagues in Bulgaria,
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ืื—ืช ื”ืขืžื™ืชื•ืช ืฉืœื™ ื‘ื‘ื•ืœื’ืจื™ื”,
00:54
Nevena Markova, spent about 20 years
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ื ื•ื•ื™ืื ื™ื” ืžืืจืงื•ื•ื”, ื‘ื™ืœืชื” 20 ืฉื ื”
00:56
studying these profiles.
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ื‘ื—ืงืจ ื”ืคืจื•ืคื™ืœื™ื ื”ืœืœื•.
00:59
And she published 42 articles
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืคืจืกืžื” 42 ืžืืžืจื™ื
01:01
just dedicated to the subject.
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ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืฉื™ื ืจืง ืœื ื•ืฉื ื–ื”.
01:03
Can you imagine? Day and night, thinking,
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ื”ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ? ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘, ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ,
01:05
observing, the same star for 20 years
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ื™ื•ืžื ื•ืœื™ืœื”, ืขืœ ืื•ืชื• ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื‘ืžืฉืš 20 ืฉื ื”
01:08
is incredible.
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ื–ื” ืœื ื™ื™ืืžืŸ.
01:10
But we are crazy. We do these things.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฉื•ื’ืขื™ื. ืื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืืœื”.
01:12
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
01:14
And I'm not that far.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ืœื ืขื“ ื›ื“ื™ ื›ืš.
01:16
I spent about eight months working on these profiles.
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ื‘ื™ืœื™ืชื™ ื›ืฉืžื•ื ื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ื‘ื—ืงืจ ืคืจื•ืคื™ืœื™ื ื”ืœืœื•.
01:19
Because I've noticed
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืฉืžืชื™ ืœื‘
01:21
a very small symmetry
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ืœืกื™ืžื˜ืจื™ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืงื˜ื ื”
01:23
in the profile of one of the planet host stars.
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ื‘ืคืจื•ืคื™ืœ ืฉืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื”ืžืืจื— ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช.
01:25
And I thought, well maybe there is Lithium-6 in this star,
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ื•ืื ื™ ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื™ืฉ ืœื™ืชื™ื•ื-6 ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื–ื”,
01:29
which is an indication that this star
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ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืžื”ื•ื•ื” ืขื“ื•ืช ืฉื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื–ื”
01:31
has swallowed a planet.
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ื‘ืœืข ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ืœื›ืช.
01:33
Because apparently you can't have this fragile isotope
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ื›ื™ ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืœื ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉืื™ื–ื•ื˜ื•ืค ื‘ืœืชื™ ื™ืฆื™ื‘ ื–ื”
01:36
of Lithium-6 in the atmospheres of sun-like stars.
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ืฉืœ ืœื™ืชื™ื•ื-6 ื™ื•ืคื™ืข ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ืฉืžืฉ.
01:40
But you have it in planets and asteroids.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื•ื ืงื™ื™ื ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช ื•ื‘ืืกื˜ืจื•ืื™ื“ื™ื.
01:43
So if you engulf planet or large number of asteroids,
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ื›ืš ืฉืื ื‘ื•ืœืขื™ื ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ืœื›ืช ืื• ืžืกืคืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ืืกื˜ืจื•ืื™ื“ื™ื,
01:49
you will have this Lithium-6 isotope
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืžืฆื•ื ืื™ื–ื•ื˜ื•ืค ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืœื™ืชื™ื•ื-6
01:52
in the spectrum of the star.
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ื‘ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘.
01:54
So I invested more than eight months
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ื›ืš ืฉื”ืฉืงืขืชื™ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืฉืžื•ื ื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืืš ื•ืจืง ื‘ื—ืงืจ ื”ืคืจื•ืคื™ืœ
01:58
just studying the profile of this star.
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ืฉืœ ืงื• ื”ืœื™ืชื™ื•ื ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื–ื”.
02:00
And actually it's amazing,
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ื•ื‘ืขืฆื ื–ื” ืžื“ื”ื™ื
02:02
because I got phone calls from many reporters asking,
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœืชื™ ื˜ืœืคื•ื ื™ื ืžื”ืจื‘ื” ืขืชื•ื ืื™ื ืฉืฉืืœื•,
02:04
"Have you actually seen the planet going into a star?"
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"ื”ืื ื‘ืืžืช ืจืื™ืช ืืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ื”ืœื›ืช ื ื›ื ืก ืœืชื•ืš ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘?"
02:07
Because they thought that if you are having a telescope,
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืฉืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค,
02:11
you are an astronomer so what you are doing
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ืื– ืืชื” ืืกื˜ืจื•ื ื•ื ื•ืžื” ืฉืืชื” ืขื•ืฉื”
02:13
is actually looking in a telescope.
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ื–ื” ืžืžืฉ ืœื”ืกืชื›ืœ ื“ืจืš ื”ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค,
02:15
And you might have seen the planet going into a star.
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ื•ืื– ืื•ืœื™ ืจืื™ืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ืœื›ืช ื ื›ื ืก ืœืชื•ืš ื›ื•ื›ื‘.
02:19
And I was saying, "No, excuse me.
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ื•ืื ื™ ืืžืจืชื™, "ืกืœื™ื—ื”, ืœื.
02:21
What I see is this one."
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ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืจื•ืื” ื–ื” ืืช ื–ื”."
02:23
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
02:24
It's just incredible. Because nobody understood really.
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ื–ื” ืžื“ื”ื™ื. ื›ื™ ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ื‘ืืžืช ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ.
02:27
I bet that there were very few people
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ืื ื™ ืžื•ื›ืŸ ืœื”ืชืขืจื‘ ืฉื”ื™ื• ืžืขื˜ ืžืื•ื“
02:29
who really understood what I'm talking about.
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ืฉื‘ืืžืช ื”ื‘ื™ื ื• ืขืœ ืžื” ื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™.
02:32
Because this is the indication that the planet went into the star.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื–ื•ื”ื™ ื”ืขื“ื•ืช ืฉื›ื•ื›ื‘-ื”ืœื›ืช ื ื›ื ืก ืœืชื•ืš ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘.
02:36
It's amazing.
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ื–ื” ืžื“ื”ื™ื.
02:39
The power of spectroscopy
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ื”ื›ื•ื— ืฉืœ ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื”
02:41
was actually realized
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ื ืชื’ืœื” ื‘ืขืฆื
02:43
by Pink Floyd already in 1973.
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ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ืคื™ื ืง ืคืœื•ื™ื“ ื‘ืฉื ืช 1973.
02:47
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
02:48
Because they actually said that
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื ื‘ืขืฆื ืืžืจื•
02:51
you can get any color you like
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ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืื™ื–ื” ืฆื‘ืข ืฉืจื•ืฆื™ื
02:53
in a spectrum.
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ื‘ืชื•ืš ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื.
02:55
And all you need is time and money
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ื•ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื“ืจื•ืฉ ื–ื” ื–ืžืŸ ื•ื›ืกืฃ
02:57
to make your spectrograph.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื’ืจืฃ ืฉืœืš.
02:59
This is the number one high resolution,
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ื–ื”ื• ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื’ืจืฃ ืจื–ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ืžืกืคืจ ืื—ื“,
03:02
most precise spectrograph on this planet, called HARPS,
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ื‘ืขืœ ื”ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืขื•ืœื, ื”ื ืงืจื HARPS,
03:05
which is actually used to detect
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ื”ืžืฉืžืฉ ืœืื™ืชื•ืจ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช
03:07
extrasolar planets and sound waves
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ื•ื’ืœื™-ืงื•ืœ ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ
03:09
in the atmospheres of stars.
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ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื.
03:11
How we get spectra?
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ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื?
03:14
I'm sure most of you know from school physics
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ืื ื™ ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ืฉืจื•ื‘ื›ื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ ื”ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช-ืกืคืจ
03:17
that it's basically splitting a white light
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ืฉื–ื” ื‘ื™ืกื•ื“ื• ืฉื‘ื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ืื•ืจ ืœื‘ืŸ
03:21
into colors.
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ืœืฆื‘ืขื™ื.
03:23
And if you have a liquid hot mass,
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ื•ืื ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืžืกื” ื ื•ื–ืœื™ืช ื—ืžื”,
03:26
it will produce something which we call a continuous spectrum.
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ื”ื™ื ืชื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžื” ืฉืื ื• ืžื›ื ื™ื ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ืจืฆื™ืฃ.
03:30
A hot gas is producing emission lines only,
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ื’ื– ื—ื ื™ื•ืฆืจ ืจืง ืงื•ื™ ืคืœื™ื˜ื”,
03:33
no continuum.
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ืื™ืŸ ืจืฆื™ืคื•ืช.
03:35
And if you place a cool gas in front of a
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ื•ืื ืฉืžื™ื ื’ื– ืงืจ ื‘ืคื ื™
03:39
hot source,
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ืžืงื•ืจ ื—ื,
03:41
you will see certain patterns
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžื•ืช
03:43
which we call absorption lines.
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ืฉืื ื• ืžื›ื ื™ื ืงื•ื™ ื‘ืœื™ืขื”.
03:45
Which is used actually to identify chemical elements
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ืื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื”ื ืœื–ื™ื”ื•ื™ ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื
03:48
in a cool matter,
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ื‘ื—ื•ืžืจ ืงืจ,
03:50
which is absorbing exactly at those frequencies.
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ืืฉืจ ื‘ื•ืœืข ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื‘ืื•ืชืŸ ืชื“ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช.
03:53
Now, what we can do with the spectra?
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ืื–, ืžื” ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืขื ื”ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ื”ื•ื
03:56
We can actually study line-of-sight velocities
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ืฉืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืžืžืฉ ืœื“ืขืช ืžื”ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ื•ืคื™ื ืงื•ืกืžื™ื™ื
03:59
of cosmic objects.
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ืœืื•ืจืš ืงื•ื™-ื”ืจืื™ื” ืืœื™ื”ื.
04:01
And we can also study chemical composition
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ื•ืื ื• ื’ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืขืœ ื”ืจื›ื‘ ื›ื™ืžื™
04:04
and physical parameters of stars,
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ื•ืขืœ ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืคื™ื–ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื,
04:06
galaxies, nebulae.
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ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื•ืขืจืคื™ืœื™ื•ืช.
04:08
A star is the most simple object.
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ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื–ื”ื• ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ื›ื™ ืคืฉื•ื˜.
04:10
In the core, we have thermonuclear reactions going on,
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ื‘ืœื™ื‘ืชื• ืžืชืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืชืจืžื•-ื’ืจืขื™ื ื™ื•ืช,
04:14
creating chemical elements.
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ื”ื™ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื.
04:16
And we have a cool atmosphere.
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืงืจื”.
04:18
It's cool for me.
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ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื™ ื–ื” ืงืจ.
04:20
Cool in my terms is three or four or five thousand degrees.
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ืœืคื™ ื”ื”ื’ื“ืจื” ืฉืœื™ ืงืจ ื–ื” ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืื• ืืจื‘ืข ืื• ื—ืžืฉ ืืœืคื™ื ืžืขืœื•ืช.
04:24
My colleagues in infra-red astronomy
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ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ืขืžื™ืชื™ื ืฉืœื™
04:26
call minus 200 Kelvin is cool for them.
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ืžืืกื˜ืจื•ื ื•ืžื™ื™ืช ืื™ื ืคืจื-ืื“ื•ื, ืงืจ ื–ื” ืžื™ื ื•ืก 200 ืžืขืœื•ืช ืงืœื•ื•ื™ืŸ.
04:31
But you know, everything is relative.
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ืื‘ืœ ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื”ื›ืœ ื™ื—ืกื™.
04:33
So for me 5,000 degrees is pretty cool.
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ืœื›ืŸ 5,000 ืžืขืœื•ืช ื–ื” ื“ื™ ืงืจ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื™.
04:36
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
04:37
This is the spectrum of the Sun --
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ื–ื”ื• ื”ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืžืฉ.
04:40
24,000 spectral lines,
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24 ืืœืฃ ืงื•ื™ ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื,
04:43
and about 15 percent of these lines is not yet identified.
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ื•ื›-15 ืื—ื•ื– ืžื”ืงื•ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื–ื•ื”ื•.
04:47
It is amazing. So we are in the 21st century,
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ื–ื” ืžื“ื”ื™ื. ื”ืจื™ ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ืžืื” ื”-21,
04:50
and we still cannot properly understand
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ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืขื“ ื”ืกื•ืฃ
04:52
the spectrum of the sun.
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ืืช ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ื”ืฉืžืฉ.
04:54
Sometimes we have to deal with
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ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœื”ืชืขืกืง
04:56
just one tiny, weak spectral line
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ืืš ื•ืจืง ืขื ืงื• ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ื–ืขื™ืจ ื•ื—ืœืฉ
04:59
to measure the composition of that chemical element in the atmosphere.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ื›ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื™ืกื•ื“ ื›ื™ืžื™ ืžืกื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”.
05:03
For instance, you see the spectral line of the gold
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ืœืžืฉืœ ื›ืืฉืจ ืจื•ืื™ื ืงื• ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ืฉืœ ื–ื”ื‘
05:06
is the only spectral line in the spectrum of the Sun.
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ืฉื”ื•ื ืงื• ื”ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ื‘ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืžืฉ.
05:09
And we use this weak feature
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ื•ืื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืื™ืคื™ื•ืŸ ื—ืœืฉ ื–ื”
05:11
to measure the composition
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ื›ืžื•ืช
05:13
of gold in the atmosphere of the Sun.
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ืฉืœ ื–ื”ื‘ ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ.
05:16
And now this is a work in progress.
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ื•ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืชื‘ืฆืขืช.
05:19
We have been dealing with a similarly very weak feature,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืกืงื™ื ื‘ืื™ืคื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื•ืžื” ื—ืœืฉ ืžืื•ื“,
05:23
which belongs to osmium.
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ื”ืฉื™ื™ืš ืœืื•ืกืžื™ื•ื.
05:25
It's a heavy element produced in thermonuclear
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ื–ื”ื• ื™ืกื•ื“ ื›ื‘ื“ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจ ื‘ืคื™ืฆื•ืฆื™ื ืชืจืžื•-ื’ืจืขื™ื ื™ื™ื
05:29
explosions of supernovae.
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ืฉืœ ืกื•ืคืจื ื•ื‘ื”.
05:31
It's the only place where you can produce, actually, osmium.
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ื–ื”ื• ื”ืžืงื•ื ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ื‘ื• ืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืื•ืกืžื™ื•ื.
05:34
Just comparing the composition of osmium
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ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืฉืœ ื”ืจื›ื‘ ืฉืœ ืื•ืกืžื™ื•ื
05:38
in one of the planet host stars,
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ื‘ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื”ืžืืจื—ื™ื ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช,
05:40
we want to understand why there is so much
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ืื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื“ื•ืข ื™ืฉ ื›ืžื•ืช
05:42
of this element.
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ื›ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ื™ืกื•ื“ ื–ื”.
05:44
Perhaps we even think that maybe
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืืคื™ืœื• ืกื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืื•ืœื™
05:47
supernova explosions trigger formations of planets and stars.
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ื”ืชืคื•ืฆืฆื•ื™ื•ืช ืกื•ืคืจื ื•ื‘ื” ื’ื•ืจืžื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช ื•ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื.
05:51
It can be an indication.
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ื–ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื™ื ื“ื™ืงืฆื™ื”.
05:54
The other day, my colleague from Berkeley,
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ื™ื•ื ืื—ื“ ืขืžื™ืช ืฉืœื™ ืžื‘ืจืงืœื™,
05:56
Gibor Basri, emailed me
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ื’ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืืกืจื™, ืฉืœื— ืœื™ ืื™-ืžื™ื™ืœ
05:58
a very interesting spectrum,
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ืขื ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ,
06:00
asking me, "Can you have a look at this?"
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ื•ืฉืืœ ืื•ืชื™ ืื ืื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœื™ื•.
06:02
And I couldn't sleep, next two weeks,
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ื•ืื– ืœื ื™ื›ืœืชื™ ืœื™ืฉื•ืŸ ื‘ืžืฉืš ืฉื‘ื•ืขื™ื™ื,
06:06
when I saw the huge amount of oxygen
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ืœืื—ืจ ืฉืจืื™ืชื™ ืืช ื”ื›ืžื•ืช ื”ืขื ืงื™ืช ืฉืœ ื—ืžืฆืŸ
06:09
and other elements in the spectrum of the stars.
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ื•ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื.
06:11
I knew that there is nothing like that observed in the galaxy.
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ื™ื“ืขืชื™ ืฉืื™ืŸ ืžืฉื”ื• ืื—ืจ ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžืชื• ืฉื ืชื’ืœื” ื‘ื’ืœืงืกื™ื”.
06:15
It was incredible. The only conclusion we could make from this
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžื“ื”ื™ื. ื”ืžืกืงื ื” ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืืœื™ื” ืžืžื” ืฉืจืื™ื ื•
06:19
is clear evidence that there was a supernova explosion
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ื”ื™ื ืฉืœืคื ื™ื ื• ืขื“ื•ืช ื‘ืจื•ืจื” ืœื”ืชืคื•ืฆืฆื•ืช ืกื•ืคืจื ื•ื‘ื”
06:22
in this system, which polluted the atmosphere
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ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื–ื•, ืืฉืจ ื–ื™ื”ืžื” ืืช ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”
06:25
of this star.
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ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื–ื”.
06:27
And later a black hole was formed
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ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื ื•ืฆืจ ื—ื•ืจ ืฉื—ื•ืจ
06:29
in a binary system,
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ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื‘ื™ื ืืจื™ืช,
06:31
which is still there with a mass of about
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ืืฉืจ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื ืžืฆื ืฉื ื•ืžืกืชื•
06:33
five solar masses.
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ื›ื—ืžืฉ ืžืกื•ืช ืฉืžืฉ.
06:35
This was considered as first evidence that actually black holes
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ื–ื• ื ื—ืฉื‘ืช ื›ืขื“ื•ืช ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืœื›ืš ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื
06:38
come from supernovae explosions.
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ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื‘ื”ืชืคื•ืฆืฆื•ื™ื•ืช ืกื•ืคืจื ื•ื‘ื”.
06:42
My colleagues, comparing composition of chemical elements
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ืขืžื™ืชื™ื ืฉืœื™, ื”ืžืฉื•ื•ื™ื ื”ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื
06:44
in different galactic stars,
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ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ืžื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช
06:46
actually discovered alien stars in our galaxy.
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ืžืžืฉ ื’ื™ืœื• ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื–ืจื™ื ื‘ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ืฉืœื ื•.
06:50
It's amazing that you can go so far
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ื–ื” ืžื“ื”ื™ื ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ืจื—ื™ืง ืœื›ืช ืขื“ ื›ื“ื™ ื›ืš
06:53
simply studying the chemical composition of stars.
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ืืš ื•ืจืง ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื—ืงืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื”ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื.
06:57
They actually said that one of the stars you see in the spectra
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ื”ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ื˜ืขื ื• ืฉืื—ื“ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ืฉืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื
07:00
is an alien. It comes from a different galaxy.
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ื”ื•ื ื–ืจ. ืฉื”ื•ื ืฉื™ื™ืš ืœื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ืื—ืจืช.
07:03
There is interaction of galaxies. We know this.
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ื™ืฉ ืื™ื ื˜ืจืืงืฆื™ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช. ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื–ืืช.
07:06
And sometimes they just capture stars.
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ื•ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื”ืŸ ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื.
07:11
You've heard about solar flares.
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ืฉืžืขืชื ืขืœ ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืžืฉ.
07:14
We were very surprised to discover
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ืžืื•ื“ ื”ื•ืคืชืขื ื• ืœื’ืœื•ืช
07:16
a super flare,
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ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช-ืขืœ,
07:18
a flare which is thousands of millions of times
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ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช ืฉื”ื™ื ืืœืคื™-ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืคืขืžื™ื
07:22
more powerful than those we see in the Sun.
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ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ื–ืงื” ืžื–ื• ืฉืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืฉืžืฉ.
07:24
In one of the binary stars in our galaxy
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ื‘ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื”ื‘ื™ื ืืจื™ื™ื ื‘ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ืฉืœื ื•
07:27
called FH Leo,
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ื”ื ืงืจื FH Leo,
07:29
we discovered the super flare.
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ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช-ืขืœ.
07:31
And later we went to study the spectral stars
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ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ืงืจื ื• ืืช ืงื•ื™ ื”ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืจืื•ืช
07:35
to see is there anything strange with these objects.
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ืื ื™ืฉ ืžืฉื”ื• ืžื•ื–ืจ ื‘ื’ื•ืคื™ื ื”ืœืœื•.
07:37
And we found that everything is normal.
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ืžืฆืื ื• ืฉื”ื›ืœ ื ื•ืจืžืœื™.
07:40
These stars are normal like the Sun. Age, everything was normal.
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ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืจื’ื™ืœื™ื ื›ืžื• ื”ืฉืžืฉ. ื’ื™ืœ, ื•ื”ื›ืœ ื”ื ืจื’ื™ืœื™ื.
07:43
So this is a mystery.
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ืœื›ืŸ ื–ื• ืชืขืœื•ืžื”.
07:45
It's one of the mysteries we still have, super flares.
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืื—ืช ื”ืชืขืœื•ืžื•ืช ืฉืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช, ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ื™ื•ืช-ืขืœ.
07:48
And there are six or seven similar cases
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืฉื™ืฉื” ืื• ืฉื‘ืขื” ืžืงืจื™ื ื“ื•ืžื™ื
07:51
reported in the literature.
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ืฉืžื“ื•ื•ื—ื™ื ืขืœื™ื”ื ื‘ืกืคืจื•ืช ื”ืžืงืฆื•ืขื™ืช.
07:53
Now to go ahead with this,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชืงื“ื ืขื ื–ื”,
07:55
we really need to understand chemical evolution of the universe.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืžืฉ ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืงื•ื.
07:59
It's very complicated. I don't really want you to
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ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืกื•ื‘ืš. ืื™ื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื”
08:01
try to understand what is here.
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ืฉื‘ืืžืช ืชื ืกื• ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื” ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื›ืืŸ.
08:05
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
08:06
But it's to show you how complicated is the whole story
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ื–ื” ืจืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืœื›ื ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ื–ื” ืžืกื•ื‘ืš
08:09
of the production of chemical elements.
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ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื.
08:11
You have two channels --
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ื™ืฉ ืฉื ื™ ืขืจื•ืฆื™ื --
08:13
the massive stars and low-mass stars --
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ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื”ืžืกื™ื‘ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืžืกื” ื”ืงื˜ื ื” --
08:15
producing and recycling matter and chemical elements in the universe.
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ื”ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื ื•ืžืžื—ื–ืจื™ื ื—ื•ืžืจ ื•ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ืงื•ื.
08:18
And doing this for 14 billion years,
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ื•ื›ืืฉืจ ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื–ืืช ื›ื‘ืจ 14 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืฉื ื”,
08:21
we end up with this picture,
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ืžืชืงื‘ืœืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ื–ื•.
08:23
which is a very important graph,
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ืฉื”ื™ื ืชืจืฉื™ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืžืื•ื“,
08:25
showing relative abundances of chemical elements
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ื”ืžืจืื” ืืช ื”ืจื™ื›ื•ื–ื™ื ื”ื™ื—ืกื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื
08:28
in sun-like stars
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ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ืฉืžืฉ
08:30
and in the interstellar medium.
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ื•ื‘ื—ืœืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ-ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™.
08:33
So which means that it's really impossible
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ืœื›ืŸ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ืœื ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ
08:35
to find an object where you find about 10 times more sulfur than silicon,
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ืœื’ืœื•ืช ื’ื•ืฃ ืฉื‘ื• ืชืžืฆืื• ื‘ืขืจืš ืคื™-10 ื™ื•ืชืจ ื’ืคืจื™ืช ืžืืฉืจ ืกื™ืœื™ืงื•ืŸ,
08:40
five times more calcium than oxygen. It's just impossible.
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ืคื™-5 ื™ื•ืชืจ ืกื™ื“ืŸ ืžืืฉืจ ื—ืžืฆืŸ. ื–ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื‘ืœืชื™ ืืคืฉืจื™.
08:44
And if you find one, I will say that
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ื•ืื ืชืžืฆืื• ืื—ื“ ื›ื–ื”, ืื•ืžืจ
08:46
this is something related to SETI,
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ืฉื–ื” ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืงืฉื•ืจ ืœื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื—ืœืœ ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ืŸ.
08:49
because naturally you can't do it.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื“ื‘ืจ ื›ื–ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื˜ื‘ืขื™.
08:53
Doppler Effect is something very important
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ืืคืงื˜ ื“ื•ืคืœืจ ื–ื” ืžืฉื”ื• ืžืื•ื“ ื—ืฉื•ื‘
08:55
from fundamental physics.
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ื”ืงืฉื•ืจ ื‘ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื” ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช.
08:57
And this is related to the change of the frequency
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ื•ื–ื” ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช
08:59
of a moving source.
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ืฉืœ ืžืงื•ืจ ื ืข.
09:01
The Doppler Effect is used to discover extrasolar planets.
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ืืคืงื˜ ื“ื•ืคืœืจ ืžืฉืžืฉ ืœื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ.
09:06
The precision which we need
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ื”ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ื ื“ืจืฉ
09:08
to discover a Jupiter-like planet
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ืœื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ืœื›ืช ื›ืžื• ืฆื“ืง
09:10
around a sun-like star
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ื‘ืงืจื‘ืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื›ืžื• ืฉืžืฉ
09:12
is something like 28.4 meters per second.
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ื”ื•ื ืžืฉื”ื• ื›ืžื• 28.4 ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืœืฉื ื™ื”.
09:16
And we need nine centimeters per second
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ื•ืื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื 9 ืกื ื˜ื™ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืœืฉื ื™ื”
09:18
to detect an Earth-like planet.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื’ืœื•ืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ืœื›ืช ื›ืžื• ื›ื“ื•ืจ-ื”ืืจืฅ.
09:21
This can be done with the future spectrographs.
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ื“ื‘ืจ ื–ื” ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืขื ืกืคืงื˜ื•ื’ืจืคื™ื ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื™ื.
09:24
I, myself, I'm actually involved in the team
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ืื ื™ ืขืฆืžื™ ื ืžืฆื ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆื”
09:28
which is developing a CODEX,
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ื”ืžืคืชื—ืช ืงื•ื“ืงืก ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ
09:30
high resolution, future generation spectrograph
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ืกืคืงื˜ื•ื’ืจืฃ ื“ื•ืจ-ืขืชื™ื“ื™ ื‘ืจื–ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื”
09:32
for the 42 meter E-ELT telescope.
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ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค ื”-E-ELT ื‘ืงื•ื˜ืจ 42 ืžื˜ืจ.
09:36
And this is going to be an instrument
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื•ืœืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ืœื’ื™ืœื•ื™
09:39
to detect Earth-like planets
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ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ-ื”ืืจืฅ
09:41
around sun-like stars.
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ื‘ืงื™ืจื‘ืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ืฉืžืฉ.
09:43
It is an amazing tool called astroseismology
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ื–ื”ื• ื›ืœื™ ืžื“ื”ื™ื ื”ื ืงืจื ืืกื˜ืจื•-ืกืกืžื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”
09:46
where we can detect sound waves
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ืฉื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืชื• ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื’ืœื•ืช ื’ืœื™ ืงื•ืœ
09:49
in the atmospheres of stars.
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ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื.
09:51
This is the sound of an Alpha Cen.
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ื–ื”ื• ื”ืงื•ืœ ืฉืœ ืืœืคื-ืกื ื˜ืื•ืจื™.
09:54
We can detect sound waves
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื’ืœื•ืช ื’ืœื™ ืงื•ืœ
09:56
in the atmospheres of sun-like stars.
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ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ืฉืžืฉ.
09:58
Those waves have frequencies
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ืœื’ืœื™ ืงื•ืœ ื”ืœืœื• ื™ืฉ ืชื“ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช
10:01
in infrasound domain, the sound actually nobody knows, domain.
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ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืื™ื ืคืจื-ืกื•ื ื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ืชื—ื•ื ืฉืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ืžื›ื™ืจ.
10:05
Coming back to the most important question,
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ื ื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœืฉืืœื” ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ,
10:07
"Is there anybody out there?"
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"ื”ืื ื™ืฉ ืฉื ืžื™ืฉื”ื•?"
10:09
This is closely related
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ื–ื” ืงืฉื•ืจ ืงืฉืจ ื”ื“ื•ืง
10:11
to tectonic and volcanic activity of planets.
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ืœืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื˜ืงื˜ื•ื ื™ืช ื•ื•ื•ืœืงื ื™ืช ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช.
10:15
Connection between life
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ื”ืงืฉืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื—ื™ื™ื
10:17
and radioactive nuclei
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ืœืจื“ื™ื•ืืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช
10:19
is straightforward.
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ื”ื•ื ื‘ืจื•ืจ.
10:21
No life without tectonic activity,
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ืื™ืŸ ื—ื™ื™ื ืœืœื ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื˜ืงื˜ื•ื ื™ืช,
10:24
without volcanic activity.
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ืœืœื ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื•ื•ืœืงื ื™ืช.
10:26
And we know very well that geothermal energy
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ื•ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื”ื™ื˜ื‘ ืฉืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื’ื™ืื•-ืชืจืžื™ืช
10:28
is mostly produced by decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium.
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ื ื•ืฆืจืช ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืชืคืจืงื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื•ืจื ื™ื•ื, ืช'ื•ืจื™ื•ื ื•ืืฉืœื’ืŸ.
10:33
How to measure, if we have planets
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ืื ื™ืฉ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช
10:37
where the amount of those elements is small,
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ืฉืฉื ื”ื›ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ืงื˜ื ื”,
10:41
so those planets are tectonically dead,
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ื›ืš ืฉื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช ื”ืœืœื• ืžืชื™ื ื˜ืงื˜ื•ื ื™ืช,
10:44
there cannot be life.
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ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฉื ื—ื™ื™ื.
10:46
If there is too much uranium or potassium or thorium,
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ืื ื™ืฉ ืฉื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ื™ ืื•ืจื ื™ื•ื, ืื• ืืฉืœื’ืŸ ืื• ืช'ื•ืจื™ื•ื,
10:49
probably, again, there would be no life.
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ืื– ืฉื•ื‘, ื›ื›ืœ ื”ื ืจืื” ืœื ื™ื”ื™ื• ืฉื ื—ื™ื™ื.
10:52
Because can you imagine everything boiling?
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ื›ื™ ื”ืื ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื”ื›ืœ ืจื•ืชื—?
10:54
It's too much energy on a planet.
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ื–ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ื™ ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืขืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ืœื›ืช.
10:56
Now, we have been measuring abundance
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ื›ืขืช ืื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ืจื™ื›ื•ื–
10:58
of thorium in one of the stars with extrasolar planets.
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ืฉืœ ืช'ื•ืจื™ื•ื ื‘ืื—ื“ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ืฉืžืฉ ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ืงื™ืจื‘ืชื ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช.
11:02
It's exactly the same game. A very tiny feature.
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ื–ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืื•ืชื• ืžืฉื—ืง. ืื™ืคื™ื•ืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ื–ืขื™ืจ.
11:06
We are actually trying to measure this profile
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ืื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ืคืจื•ืคื™ืœ ื–ื”
11:08
and to detect thorium.
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ื•ืœืืชืจ ืช'ื•ืจื™ื•ื.
11:10
It's very tough. It's very tough.
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ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืงืฉื”. ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืงืฉื”.
11:12
And you have to, first you have to convince yourself.
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ืชื—ื™ืœื” ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืืช ืขืฆืžื ื•.
11:14
Then you have to convince your colleagues.
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ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืืช ืขืžื™ืชื ื•.
11:16
And then you have to convince the whole world
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ื•ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื
11:19
that you have actually detected something like this
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ืฉื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืขืฆื ืžืฉื”ื• ื›ืžื• ื–ื” ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”
11:22
in the atmosphere of an extrasolar planet
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ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ,
11:24
host star somewhere in 100 parsec away from here.
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ืืฉืจ ืžืืจื— ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ืœื›ืช, ื‘ืžืจื—ืง ืฉืœ 100 ืคืืจืกืง ืžื›ืืŸ.
11:27
It's really difficult.
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ื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ืงืฉื”.
11:29
But if you want to know about a life on extrasolar planets,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื ื• ืœื“ืขืช ืขืœ ืงื™ื•ืžื ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื—ืœืœ ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ืŸ
11:34
you have to do this job.
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ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœื‘ืฆืข ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ื•.
11:36
Because you have to know how much of radioactive element you have
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืขืœื™ื ื• ืœื“ืขืช ืื™ื–ื• ื›ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื™ืกื•ื“ ืจื“ื™ื•ืืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™
11:39
in those systems.
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ืงื™ื™ืžืช ื‘ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•.
11:41
The one way to discover about aliens
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ื“ืจืš ืื—ืช ืœื’ืœื•ืช ื—ื•ืฆื ื™ื
11:44
is to tune your radio telescope and listen to the signals.
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ื”ื™ื ืœื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืืช ื”ืจื“ื™ื•-ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค ื•ืœื”ืื–ื™ืŸ ืœืื•ืชื•ืช.
11:48
If you receive something interesting,
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ืื ืžืชืงื‘ืœ ืžืฉื”ื• ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ,
11:51
well that's what SETI does actually,
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ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืกื˜ื™ ืขื•ืฉื” ื‘ืขืฆื,
11:53
what SETI has been doing for many years.
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ืžื” ืฉืกื˜ื™ ื›ื‘ืจ ืขื•ืฉื” ืฉื ื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช.
11:56
I think the most promising way
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ื“ืจืš ื”ืžื‘ื˜ื™ื—ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
11:58
is to go for biomarkers.
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ื”ื™ื ื—ื™ืคื•ืฉ ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื.
12:01
You can see the spectrum of the Earth, this Earthshine spectrum,
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ื›ื“ื•ืจ-ื”ืืจืฅ, ื–ื”ื• ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ืฉืœ ืื•ืจ-ืฉืžืฉ ืžืฉืชืงืฃ,
12:04
and that is a very clear signal.
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ื•ื–ื”ื• ืกื™ืžืŸ ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืžืื•ื“.
12:07
The slope which is coming, which we call a Red Edge,
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ื”ืฉื™ืคื•ืข ืฉืจื•ืื™ื, ืฉืื ื• ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืœื• ืงืฆื” ืื“ื•ื,
12:10
is a detection of vegetated area.
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ื”ื•ื ืื™ื ื“ื™ืงืฆื™ื” ืœืื–ื•ืจ ืฆืžื—ื™.
12:14
It's amazing that we can detect vegetation
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ื–ื” ืžื“ื”ื™ื ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืฆืžื—ื™ื™ื”
12:18
from a spectrum.
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ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื.
12:20
Now imagine doing this test
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ื›ืขืช ื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ืœืขืฆืžื›ื ืฉืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื
12:22
for other planets.
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ื‘ื“ื™ืงื” ื›ื–ื• ืขืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช ืื—ืจื™ื.
12:25
Now very recently, very recently,
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ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื”, ืžืžืฉ ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื”,
12:28
I'm talking about last six, seven, eight months,
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ืื ื™ ืžื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืฉื™ืฉื”, ืฉื‘ืขื”, ืฉืžื•ื ื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื,
12:31
water, methane, carbon dioxide
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ืžื™ื, ืžื™ืชืืŸ, ื“ื•-ืชื—ืžื•ืฆืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ
12:35
have been detected in the spectrum
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ื ืชื’ืœื• ื‘ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื
12:37
of a planet outside the solar system.
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ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ืœื›ืช ืฉืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ.
12:40
It's amazing. So this is the power of spectroscopy.
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ื–ื” ืžื“ื”ื™ื. ืื ื›ืš ื–ื• ื”ืขื•ืฆืžื” ืฉืœ ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื”.
12:44
You can actually go and detect
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืžืžืฉ ืœืฆืืช ื•ืœื’ืœื•ืช
12:47
and study a chemical composition of planets
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ื•ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื”ืจื›ื‘ ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช
12:50
far, far, far from solar system.
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ื”ืจื—ืง ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ.
12:53
We have to detect oxygen or ozone
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ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœืืชืจ ื—ืžืฆืŸ ืื• ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ
12:56
to make sure that we have all necessary conditions
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืชื ืื™ื ื”ื ื—ื•ืฆื™ื
12:59
to have life.
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ืœืงื™ื•ื ื—ื™ื™ื.
13:03
Cosmic miracles are something
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ื ื™ืกื™ื ืงื•ืกืžื™ื™ื ื”ื ืžืฉื”ื•
13:05
which can be related to SETI.
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ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื™ื™ื—ืก ืœืกื˜ื™.
13:07
Now imagine an object, amazing object,
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ื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ืขืฆื, ืขืฆื ืžื“ื”ื™ื,
13:09
or something which we cannot explain
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ืื• ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืื ื• ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ
13:11
when we just stand up and say,
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ื›ืืฉืจ ืื ื• ืื•ืžืจื™ื,
13:13
"Look, we give up. Physics doesn't work."
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"ืชืจืื•, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ื•ืชืจื™ื. ื”ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื” ืœื ืขื•ื‘ื“ืช."
13:15
So it's something which you can always refer to SETI and say,
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ืื– ื–ื” ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืชืžื™ื“ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื™ื™ื—ืก ืœืกื˜ื™ ื•ืœื•ืžืจ,
13:18
"Well, somebody must be doing this, somehow."
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"ื‘ื˜ื— ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืžืžืฉ ืขื•ืฉื” ื–ืืช, ืื™ืš ืฉื”ื•ื."
13:23
And with the known physics etc,
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ื•ืขื ื”ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื” ื”ืžื•ื›ืจืช ื•ื›ื•',
13:25
it's something actually which has been pointed out
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ื–ื” ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื‘ืขืฆื ื”ืฆื‘ื™ืข ืขืœื™ื•
13:27
by Frank Drake,
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ืคืจื ืง ื“ืจื™ื™ืง,
13:29
many years ago, and Shklovsky.
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื ื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช......
13:31
If you see, in the spectrum of a planet host star,
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ืื ืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืžืืจื— ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ืœื›ืช,
13:34
if you see strange chemical elements,
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ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื ืžื•ื–ืจื™ื,
13:38
it can be a signal from a civilization
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ื–ื” ืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื•ืช ืžืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ืœื™ื–ืฆื™ื”
13:41
which is there and they want to signal about it.
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ื”ืงื™ื™ืžืช ืฉื ื•ืฉื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื” ืœืื•ืชืช ืขืœ ื›ืš.
13:44
They want to actually signal their presence
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ื”ื ื‘ืขืฆื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœืื•ืชืช ืขืœ ื ื•ื›ื—ื•ืชื
13:48
through these spectral lines,
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ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ืงื•ื™ื ื”ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ื™ื ื”ืœืœื•,
13:50
in the spectrum of a star, in different ways.
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ื‘ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘, ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
13:53
There can be different ways doing this.
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ืขืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ืฆืข ื–ืืช.
13:55
One is, for instance, technetium
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ืื—ื“ ืœืžืฉืœ ื”ื•ื ื˜ื›ื ื˜ื™ื•ื
13:57
is a radioactive element
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ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ืกื•ื“ ืจื“ื™ื•ืืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™
13:59
with a decay time of 4.2 million years.
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ื‘ืขืœ ื–ืžืŸ ื“ืขื™ื›ื” ืฉืœ ื›-4.2 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื™ื.
14:02
If you suddenly observe technetium
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ืื ืœืคืชืข ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื˜ื›ื ื˜ื™ื•ื
14:05
in a sun-like star,
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ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ืฉืžืฉ,
14:07
you can be sure that somebody has put this
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื™ื ืฉืžื™ืฉื”ื•
14:09
element in the atmosphere,
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ืฉื ื™ืกื•ื“ ื–ื” ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”,
14:11
because in a natural way it is impossible to do this.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื–ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื˜ื‘ืขื™.
14:15
Now we are reviewing the spectra of about
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ื›ื™ื•ื ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ื•ื“ืงื™ื ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ืฉืœ
14:18
300 stars with extrasolar planets.
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ื›-300 ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช.
14:21
And we are doing this job since 2000
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ืžื—ืงืจ ื–ื” ืžืฉื ืช 2000
14:25
and it's a very heavy project.
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ื•ื–ื• ืžืฉื™ืžื” ื›ื‘ื“ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
14:28
We have been working very hard.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ืงืฉื”.
14:30
And we have some interesting cases,
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืžืกืคืจ ืžืงืจื™ื ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื,
14:34
candidates, so on, things which we can't really explain.
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ืžื•ืขืžื“ื™ื, ื•ื›ืš ื”ืœืื”, ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžืžืฉ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ.
14:38
And I hope in the near future
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ื•ืื ื™ ืžืงื•ื•ื” ืฉื‘ืขืชื™ื“ ื”ืงืจื•ื‘
14:41
we can confirm this.
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ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืืžืช ื–ืืช.
14:43
So the main question: "Are we alone?"
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ืื– ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ืช, "ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื‘ื“?"
14:45
I think it will not come from UFOs.
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ืื ื™ ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืขืœื™ื” ืœื ืชื’ื™ืข ื“ืจืš ืขื‘"ืžื™ื.
14:48
It will not come from radio signals.
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ื”ื™ื ืœื ืชื’ื™ืข ื“ืจืš ืื•ืชื•ืช ืจื“ื™ื•.
14:52
I think it will come from a spectrum like this.
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ืื ื™ ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื”ื™ื ืชื’ื™ืข ื“ืจืš ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ื›ืžื• ื–ื”.
14:56
It is the spectrum of a planet like Earth,
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ื–ื”ื• ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ืœื›ืช ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ-ื”ืืจืฅ
15:01
showing a presence of nitrogen dioxide,
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ื”ืžืจืื” ื ื•ื›ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืชื—ืžื•ืฆืช ื—ื ืงืŸ,
15:04
as a clear signal of life,
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ื›ืขื“ื•ืช ื‘ืจื•ืจื” ืœื—ื™ื™ื,
15:07
and oxygen and ozone.
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ื•ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื•ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ.
15:09
If, one day, and I think it will be
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ืื ื™ื•ื ืื—ื“, ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื” ื™ืงืจื”
15:11
within 15 years from now, or 20 years.
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ื‘ืชื•ืš 15 ืฉื ื” ืžื”ื™ื•ื, ืื• 20 ืฉื ื”.
15:14
If we discover a spectrum like this
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ืื ื ื’ืœื” ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ื›ื–ื”, ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช
15:17
we can be sure that there is life on that planet.
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ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืื•ืชื• ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ืœื›ืช.
15:19
In about five years we will discover
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ื‘ืชื•ืš ื›ื—ืžืฉ ืฉื ื™ื ื ื’ืœื”
15:22
planets like Earth, around sun-like stars,
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ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช ื›ืžื• ื›ื“ื•ืจ-ื”ืืจืฅ, ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืฉืžืฉ,
15:25
the same distance as the Earth from the Sun.
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ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืžืจื—ืง ื›ืžื• ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ-ื”ืืจืฅ ืžื”ืฉืžืฉ.
15:28
It will take about five years.
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ื–ื” ื™ืงื— ื›ื—ืžืฉ ืฉื ื™ื.
15:30
And then we will need another 10, 15 years
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ื•ืื– ื ืฆื˜ืจืš ืขื•ื“ 10, 15 ืฉื ื™ื
15:32
with space projects
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ื‘ืกื™ื•ืข ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ ื—ืœืœ
15:34
to get the spectra of Earth-like planets like the one I showed you.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ-ื”ืืจืฅ, ื›ืžื• ื”ืื—ื“ ืฉื”ืจืืชื™ ืœื›ื.
15:37
And if we see the nitrogen dioxide
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ื•ืื ื ืจืื” ืชื—ืžื•ืฆืช ื—ื ืงืŸ
15:39
and oxygen,
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ื•ื—ืžืฆืŸ,
15:41
I think we have the perfect E.T.
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ืื™.ื˜ื™. ื”ืžื•ืฉืœื.
15:43
Thank you very much.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืœื›ื.
15:45
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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