Craig Venter unveils "synthetic life"

245,293 views ใƒป 2010-05-21

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Sigal Tifferet ืžื‘ืงืจ: shai krontal
00:16
We're here today to announce
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ื”ื’ืขื ื• ืœื›ืืŸ ื”ื™ื•ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื›ืจื™ื–
00:18
the first synthetic cell,
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ืขืœ ื”ืชื ื”ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ.
00:21
a cell made by
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ื•ื›ืš ื‘ื ื™ื ื• ืื•ืชื•:
00:23
starting with the digital code in the computer,
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ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืขื ืงื•ื“ ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ ืžืžื•ื—ืฉื‘,
00:26
building the chromosome
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ื”ื‘ื•ื ื” ืืช ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื
00:29
from four bottles of chemicals,
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ืžืืจื‘ืขื” ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืงื™ ื›ื™ืžื™ืงืœื™ื,
00:32
assembling that chromosome in yeast,
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ื”ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืืช ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ื–ื” ื‘ืฉืžืจื™ื,
00:34
transplanting it into
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ื”ืฉืชืœื ื• ืื•ืชื• ืœืชื•ืš
00:37
a recipient bacterial cell
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ืชื ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ ืžืื—ืกืŸ
00:39
and transforming that cell
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ื•ื›ืš ื”ืคื›ื ื• ืืช ื”ืชื
00:41
into a new bacterial species.
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ืœืžื™ืŸ ื—ื“ืฉ ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ื“ืง.
00:44
So this is the first self-replicating species
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ืื– ื–ื”ื• ื”ืžื™ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืžืฉืชื›ืคืœ ื‘ืขืฆืžื•
00:47
that we've had on the planet
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื”"ื
00:49
whose parent is a computer.
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ืฉืื‘ื™ื• ื”ื•ื ืžื—ืฉื‘.
00:52
It also is the first species
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ื–ื”ื• ื’ื ื”ืžื™ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ
00:54
to have its own website
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื• ืืชืจ ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜ ืžืฉืœื•
00:56
encoded in its genetic code.
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ื”ืžืงื•ื“ื“ ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ ืฉืœื•.
00:59
But we'll talk more about
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื ื“ื‘ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ
01:01
the watermarks in a minute.
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ืขืœ ืกื™ืžื ื™ ื”ืžื™ื ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื“ืงื”.
01:04
This is a project that had its inception
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ื”ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ื”ื–ื” ื”ื—ืœ
01:06
15 years ago
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ืœืคื ื™ 15 ืฉื ื”
01:08
when our team then --
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ื›ืฉื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ืื– -
01:10
we called the institute TIGR --
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ืงืจืื ื• ืœืžื›ื•ืŸ TIGR -
01:12
was involved in sequencing
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ื”ื™ื” ืžืขื•ืจื‘ ื‘ืจื™ืฆื•ืฃ
01:14
the first two genomes in history.
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ืฉื ื™ ื”ื’ื ื•ืžื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื”.
01:16
We did Haemophilus influenzae
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ืจืฆืคื ื• ืืช ื”ืžื•ืคื™ืœื•ืก ืื™ื ืคืœื•ืื ื–ื”
01:18
and then the smallest genome of a self-replicating organism,
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ื•ืื—"ื› ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ืžืฉืชื›ืคืœ ืขืฆืžืื™ืช,
01:21
that of Mycoplasma genitalium.
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ืžื™ืงื•ืคืœื–ืžื” ื’'ื ื™ื˜ืœื™ื•ื.
01:24
And as soon as
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ื•ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉืฉื ื™ ื”ืจืฆืคื™ื
01:26
we had these two sequences
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ื”ืืœื” ืขืžื“ื• ืœืจืฉื•ืชื ื•,
01:28
we thought, if this is supposed to be the smallest genome
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ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• - ืื ื–ื” ืืžื•ืจ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ื›ื™ ืงื˜ืŸ
01:31
of a self-replicating species,
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ืฉืœ ืžื™ืŸ ื”ืžืฉืชื›ืคืœ ื‘ืขืฆืžื•,
01:33
could there be even a smaller genome?
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ื”ืื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื’ื ื•ื ืขื•ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืงื˜ืŸ?
01:35
Could we understand the basis of cellular life
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ื”ืื ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœื—ื™ื™ ื”ืชื
01:38
at the genetic level?
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ื‘ืจืžื” ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช?
01:40
It's been a 15-year quest
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ืขื‘ืจื ื• ืžืกืข ืฉืœ 15 ืฉื ื”
01:42
just to get to the starting point now
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ืจืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืœื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ื”ืชื—ืœื”,
01:44
to be able to answer those questions,
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ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœืขื ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ืืœื”.
01:47
because it's very difficult to eliminate
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ื›ื™ ืงืฉื” ืžืื•ื“ ืœื ื˜ืจืœ
01:49
multiple genes from a cell.
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ืžืกืคืจ ื’ื ื™ื ื‘ืชื.
01:51
You can only do them one at a time.
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ืืคืฉืจ ืจืง ืœื ื˜ืจืœ ืื—ื“ ืื—ื“.
01:54
We decided early on
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ื”ื—ืœื˜ื ื• ืžื•ืงื“ื ืžืื•ื“
01:56
that we had to take a synthetic route,
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื ืœืš ื‘ืžืกืœื•ืœ ื”ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™,
01:58
even though nobody had been there before,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ื”ืœืš ื‘ื• ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืŸ,
02:00
to see if we could synthesize
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืจืื•ืช ืื ื ืฆืœื™ื— ืœืกื ืชื–
02:02
a bacterial chromosome
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ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ืืœื™,
02:04
so we could actually vary the gene content
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ื›ืš ืฉืžืžืฉ ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืชื•ื›ืŸ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™
02:06
to understand the essential genes for life.
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ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื”ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ืœื—ื™ื™ื.
02:09
That started our 15-year quest
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ื•ื›ืš ื ืคืชื— ืžืกืขื ื• ื‘ืŸ 15 ื”ืฉื ื”
02:12
to get here.
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ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืขื“ ื”ืœื•ื.
02:14
But before we did the first experiments,
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืขืจื›ื ื• ืืช ื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื,
02:16
we actually asked
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ื‘ื™ืงืฉื ื• ืžื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืœ
02:19
Art Caplan's team at the University of Pennsylvania
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ืืจื˜ ืงืคืœืŸ, ืฉื”ื™ื” ืื– ื‘ืื•ื ' ืคื ืกื™ืœื‘ื ื™ื”,
02:22
to undertake a review
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ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืขื‘ื•ืจื ื•
02:24
of what the risks, the challenges,
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ืžื”ื ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื™ื, ื”ืืชื’ืจื™ื,
02:27
the ethics around creating new
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ื”ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ื”ืืชื™ื™ื ื”ื›ืจื•ื›ื™ื ื‘ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืžื™ืŸ
02:29
species in the laboratory were
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ื—ื“ืฉ ื‘ืชื ืื™ ืžืขื‘ื“ื”,
02:31
because it hadn't been done before.
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ื›ื™ ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ืขืฉื• ื–ืืช.
02:33
They spent about two years
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ื”ื ื”ืฉืงื™ืขื• ื‘ืขืจืš ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื
02:35
reviewing that independently
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ื‘ืกืงื™ืจื” ืขืฆืžืื™ืช,
02:37
and published their results in Science in 1999.
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ื•ืคืจืกืžื• ืืช ืžืžืฆืื™ื”ื ื‘ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืขืช Science ื‘1999.
02:40
Ham and I took two years off
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ื”ืื ืกืžื™ืช ื•ืื ื™ ืขื‘ื“ื ื• ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื
02:42
as a side project to sequence the human genome,
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ื‘ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ืฆื“ื“ื™ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืคื•ื™ ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™,
02:44
but as soon as that was done
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉืกื™ื™ืžื ื• ืขื ื–ื”
02:46
we got back to the task at hand.
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ื—ื–ืจื ื• ืœืžืฉื™ืžื”.
02:50
In 2002, we started
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ื‘ 2002 ื”ืงืžื ื•
02:52
a new institute,
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ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื—ื“ืฉ,
02:54
the Institute for Biological Energy Alternatives,
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ื”ืžื›ื•ืŸ ืœืืœื˜ืจื ื˜ื™ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช,
02:57
where we set out two goals:
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ื•ืฉื ื”ืฆื‘ื ื• ืฉื ื™ ื™ืขื“ื™ื.
02:59
One, to understand
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ื”ืื—ื“, ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
03:01
the impact of our technology on the environment,
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ืืช ื”ืฉืคืขืช ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉืœื ื• ืขืœ ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”,
03:04
and how to understand the environment better,
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ื•ื”ื‘ื ื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
03:06
and two, to start down this process
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ื•ื”ืฉื ื™, ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื”
03:08
of making synthetic life
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ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื—ื™ื™ื ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™ื™ื
03:11
to understand basic life.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื™ื.
03:14
In 2003,
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ื‘ 2003
03:16
we published our first success.
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ืคืจืกืžื ื• ืืช ื”ื”ืฆืœื—ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืœื ื•.
03:18
So Ham Smith and Clyde Hutchison
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ืื– ื”ืื ืกืžื™ืช ื•ืงืœื™ื™ื“ ื”ืฆ'ื™ื ืกื•ืŸ
03:20
developed some new methods
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ืคื™ืชื—ื• ื›ืžื” ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช
03:22
for making error-free DNA
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ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช DNA ืœืœื ื˜ืขื•ื™ื•ืช
03:25
at a small level.
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ื‘ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื” ืงื˜ืŸ.
03:27
Our first task was
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ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืœื ื• ื”ื™ืชื”
03:29
a 5,000-letter code bacteriophage,
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ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืคืื’ ื‘ืขืœ ืงื•ื“ ืฉืœ 5,000 ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช,
03:32
a virus that attacks only E. coli.
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ื•ื™ืจื•ืก ืฉืชื•ืงืฃ ืจืง ืืช ืื™. ืงื•ืœื™.
03:36
So that was
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ืื– ื–ื” ื”ื™ื”
03:38
the phage phi X 174,
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ื”ืคืื’ phi X 174,
03:40
which was chosen for historical reasons.
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ืฉื ื‘ื—ืจ ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืช.
03:42
It was the first DNA phage,
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื”DNA ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืคืื’,
03:45
DNA virus, DNA genome
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DNA ื•ื™ืจืืœื™, DNA ื’ื ื•ืžื™,
03:48
that was actually sequenced.
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ืฉื‘ืขืฆื ืจื•ืฆืฃ.
03:50
So once we realized
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ืื– ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื”ื‘ื ื•
03:53
that we could make 5,000-base pair
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืžืงื˜ืขื™ื ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ื•ื™ืจืืœื™
03:55
viral-sized pieces,
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ืฉืœ 5000 ื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื,
03:57
we thought, we at least have the means
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ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืฉืœืคื—ื•ืช ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ืืžืฆืขื™ื
03:59
then to try and make serially lots of these pieces
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ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืกื“ืจืชื™ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืงื˜ืขื™ื ืฉื›ืืœื”,
04:02
to be able to eventually assemble them together
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฆืœื™ื— ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืœื—ื‘ืจ ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื
04:05
to make this mega base chromosome.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ืขื ืง ื”ื–ื”.
04:09
So, substantially larger than
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ืฉื”ื•ื ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืžื”
04:11
we even thought we would go initially.
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ืฉื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืฉื ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœื”.
04:15
There were several steps to this. There were two sides:
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ืื– ื”ื™ื• ื›ืžื” ืฉืœื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ื–ื”. ื”ื™ื• ืฉื ื™ ืฆื“ื“ื™ื.
04:18
We had to solve the chemistry
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ื”
04:20
for making large DNA molecules,
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ื”ื ื“ืจืฉืช ืœื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช DNA ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช,
04:22
and we had to solve the biological side
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ื•ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืฆื“ ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™
04:24
of how, if we had this new chemical entity,
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ืฉืœ ืื™ืš, ืื ืชื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ื”ื™ืฉื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ืช,
04:27
how would we boot it up, activate it
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ืื™ืš ื ืขืœื” ืื•ืชื”, ื ืคืขื™ืœ ืื•ืชื”,
04:30
in a recipient cell.
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ื‘ืชื•ืš ืชื ืžืืจื—.
04:33
We had two teams working in parallel:
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ืื– ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ืฉื ื™ ืฆื•ื•ืชื™ื ืฉืขื‘ื“ื• ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ,
04:35
one team on the chemistry,
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ืฆื•ื•ืช ืื—ื“ ืขืœ ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ื”,
04:37
and the other on trying to
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ื•ื”ืฉื ื™ ืžื ืกื”
04:40
be able to transplant
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ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ
04:42
entire chromosomes
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ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื ืฉืœืžื™ื
04:44
to get new cells.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืชืื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื.
04:47
When we started this out, we thought the synthesis would be the biggest problem,
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ื›ืฉื”ืชื—ืœื ื•, ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืฉื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื›ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืชื”ื™ื” ื”ืกื™ื ืชื™ื–ื”,
04:50
which is why we chose the smallest genome.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื–ื” ื‘ื—ืจื ื• ื‘ื’ื ื•ื ื”ื›ื™ ืงื˜ืŸ.
04:53
And some of you have noticed that we switched from the smallest genome
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื—ืœืงื›ื ืฉืžืชื ืœื‘ ืฉืขื‘ืจื ื• ืžื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ื›ื™ ืงื˜ืŸ
04:56
to a much larger one.
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ืœืื—ื“ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ.
04:58
And we can walk through the reasons for that,
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ื•ืืคืฉืจ ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœื›ืš,
05:00
but basically the small cell
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื™ืกื•ื“ื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ื”ืชื ื”ืงื˜ืŸ
05:03
took on the order of
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ื“ืจืฉ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืœื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื™ื
05:05
one to two months to get results from,
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ืขื“ ื”ื’ืขื” ืœืชื•ืฆืื•ืช,
05:08
whereas the larger, faster-growing cell
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉื”ืชื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ืฉื’ื“ืœ ืžื”ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ,
05:10
takes only two days.
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ื“ืจืฉ ืจืง ื™ื•ืžื™ื™ื.
05:12
So there's only so many cycles we could go through
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœื™ื ื‘ื›ืžื•ืช ื”ืžื—ื–ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ
05:15
in a year at six weeks per cycle.
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ื‘ืฉื ื”, ื‘ืงืฆื‘ ืฉืœ 6 ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืœืžื—ื–ื•ืจ.
05:18
And you should know that basically
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ื•ืืชื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื“ืขืช ืฉืœืžืขืฉื”
05:20
99, probably 99 percent plus
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ื‘ืขืจืš 99% ืื• ื™ื•ืชืจ
05:23
of our experiments failed.
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ืžื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ื ื›ืฉืœื•.
05:25
So this was a debugging,
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ืื– ื”ื™ืชื” ื›ืืŸ ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ืชื™ืงื•ื ื™ื,
05:27
problem-solving scenario from the beginning
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ืžืฆื‘ ืฉืœ ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืžื”ื”ืชื—ืœื”,
05:30
because there was no recipe
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ื›ื™ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืžืชื›ื•ืŸ
05:32
of how to get there.
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ืื™ืš ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื™ืขื“.
05:34
So, one of the most important publications we had
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ืื– ืื—ื“ ื”ืคืจืกื•ืžื™ื ื”ื›ื™ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•
05:37
was in 2007.
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ื”ื™ื” ื‘ 2007.
05:39
Carole Lartigue led the effort
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ืงืจื•ืœ ืœืจื˜ื™ื’ ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื” ืืช ื”ืžืืžืฅ
05:42
to actually transplant a bacterial chromosome
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ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ, ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™
05:45
from one bacteria to another.
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ืžื—ื™ื™ื“ืง ืื—ื“ ืœืฉื ื™.
05:47
I think philosophically, that was one of the most important papers
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ืœื“ืขืชื™, ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ืจืขื™ื•ื ื™ืช, ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืื—ื“ ื”ืžืืžืจื™ื ื”ื›ื™ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื
05:50
that we've ever done
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ืฉืื™ ืคืขื ื›ืชื‘ื ื•,
05:52
because it showed how dynamic life was.
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ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื”ืจืื” ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื ื“ื™ื ืžื™ื™ื.
05:55
And we knew, once that worked,
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ื•ื™ื“ืขื ื•, ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื–ื” ื”ืฆืœื™ื—,
05:57
that we actually had a chance
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ืฉืžืžืฉ ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืกื™ื›ื•ื™,
05:59
if we could make the synthetic chromosomes
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ืื ื ืฆืœื™ื— ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™ื™ื,
06:01
to do the same with those.
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ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ ื’ื ืื•ืชื.
06:04
We didn't know that it was going to take us
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ืœื ื™ื“ืขื ื• ืฉื™ืงื— ืœื ื•
06:06
several years more to get there.
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ื›ืžื” ืฉื ื™ื ืขื“ ืฉื ื’ื™ืข ืœื–ื”.
06:08
In 2008,
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ื‘ 2008
06:10
we reported the complete synthesis
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ื”ืฆื’ื ื• ืืช ื”ืกื™ื ืชื™ื–ื” ื”ืžืœืื”
06:12
of the Mycoplasma genitalium genome,
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ืฉืœ ื”ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ืงื•ืคืœื–ืžื” ื’'ื ื˜ื™ืœื™ื•ื,
06:15
a little over 500,000 letters of genetic code,
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ืงืฆืช ืžืขืœ 500,000 ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงื•ื“ ื’ื ื˜ื™,
06:19
but we have not yet succeeded in booting up that chromosome.
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ืื‘ืœ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื”ืฆืœื—ื ื• ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ืืช ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ื–ื”.
06:22
We think in part, because of its slow growth
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื”ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื”ืื™ื˜ื™ ืฉืœื•,
06:26
and, in part,
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ื•ื’ื ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื›ืš
06:28
cells have all kinds of unique defense mechanisms
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ืฉืœืชืื™ื ื™ืฉ ื›ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ ืžื ื’ื ื•ื ื™ ื”ื’ื ื” ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื™ื
06:31
to keep these events from happening.
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ืฉื ื•ืขื“ื• ืœืžื ื•ืข ืžืืจื•ืขื™ื ื›ืืœื” ืœื”ืชืจื—ืฉ.
06:33
It turned out the cell that we were trying to transplant into
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ื”ืชื‘ืจืจ ืฉืขืœ ื”ืชื ืฉื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ ืœืชื•ื›ื•
06:36
had a nuclease, an enzyme that chews up DNA on its surface,
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ื”ื™ื” ื ื•ืงืœืื–, ืื ื–ื™ื ืฉืœื•ืขืก DNA,
06:39
and was happy to eat
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืฉืžื— ืžืื•ื“ ืœืื›ื•ืœ
06:41
the synthetic DNA that we gave it
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ืืช ื” DNA ื”ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™ ืฉื ืชื ื• ืœื•
06:43
and never got transplantations.
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ื•ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื”ืฉืชืœื•ืช.
06:46
But at the time, that was the largest
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ, ื–ืืช ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื” ื”ื›ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœื”
06:48
molecule of a defined structure
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ื‘ืขืœืช ืžื‘ื ื” ืžื•ื’ื“ืจ
06:50
that had been made.
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ืฉืื™ ืคืขื ื ื•ืฆืจื”.
06:52
And so both sides were progressing,
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ืื– ื”ืชืงื“ืžื ื• ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื”ืฆื“ื“ื™ื,
06:54
but part of the synthesis
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื—ืœืง ืฉืœ ื”ืกื™ื ืชื™ื–ื”
06:56
had to be accomplished or was able to be accomplished
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ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ืขืฉื•ืช ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืฉืžืจื™ื,
06:59
using yeast, putting the fragments in yeast
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ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืืช ื”ื—ืœืงื™ื ืœืฉืžืจื™ื,
07:02
and yeast would assemble these for us.
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ื•ื”ืฉืžืจื™ื ื™ืจื›ื™ื‘ื• ืื•ืชื ืขื‘ื•ืจื ื•.
07:04
It's an amazing step forward,
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ื–ื” ืฆืขื“ ืžื“ื”ื™ื ืงื“ื™ืžื”,
07:07
but we had a problem because now we had
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื ื• ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ื™ ืขื›ืฉื™ื•
07:09
the bacterial chromosomes growing in yeast.
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ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื™ื ื’ื“ืœื• ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืฉืžืจื™ื.
07:12
So in addition to doing the transplant,
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ืื– ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœื”ืฉืชืœื”,
07:15
we had to find out how to get a bacterial chromosome
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ื’ื ืœืžืฆื•ื ื“ืจืš ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืืช ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™
07:17
out of the eukaryotic yeast
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ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืฉืžืจื™ื ื”ืืื•ืงืจื™ื•ื˜ื™ื™ื,
07:19
into a form where we could transplant it
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ืœืžื‘ื ื” ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ ืื•ืชื•
07:21
into a recipient cell.
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ืœืชื•ืš ืชื ืžืื—ืกืŸ.
07:25
So our team developed new techniques
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ืื– ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ืคื™ืชื— ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช,
07:28
for actually growing, cloning
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืœื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ, ืฉื™ื‘ื•ื˜
07:30
entire bacterial chromosomes in yeast.
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ืฉืœ ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื™ื ืฉืœืžื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ืฉืžืจื™ื.
07:32
So we took the same mycoides genome
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ืื– ืœืงื—ื ื• ืืช ืื•ืชื• ื’ื ื•ื ืžื™ืงื•ืื™ื“ื™
07:35
that Carole had initially transplanted,
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ืฉืงืจื•ืœ ื”ืฉืชื™ืœื” ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื”,
07:37
and we grew that in yeast
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ื•ื’ื™ื“ืœื ื• ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืฉืžืจื™ื
07:39
as an artificial chromosome.
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ื›ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™.
07:42
And we thought this would be a great test bed
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ื•ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืฉื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžืฆืข ืžื‘ื—ืŸ ืžืฆื•ื™ืŸ
07:44
for learning how to get chromosomes out of yeast
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ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืขืœื™ื• ืื™ืš ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื ืžืชื•ืš ืฉืžืจื™ื,
07:46
and transplant them.
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ื•ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ ืื•ืชื.
07:48
When we did these experiments, though,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืฉืขืจื›ื ื• ืืช ื”ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
07:50
we could get the chromosome out of yeast
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ื”ืฆืœื—ื ื• ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืืช ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืฉืžืจื™ื,
07:52
but it wouldn't transplant and boot up a cell.
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื ื”ืฆืœื—ื ื• ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ ื•ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืื•ืชื ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืชื.
07:56
That little issue took the team two years to solve.
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ืœืงื— ืœืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ืงื˜ื ื” ื”ื–ื•.
07:59
It turns out, the DNA in the bacterial cell
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ืžืชื‘ืจืจ ืฉื” DNA ื‘ืชื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™
08:02
was actually methylated,
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ืขื‘ืจ ืžืชืœื™ืฆื™ื”,
08:04
and the methylation protects it from the restriction enzyme,
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ื•ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื–ื” ื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœื™ื• ืžืคื ื™ ืื ื–ื™ื ื”ืงื™ื˜ื•ืข,
08:08
from digesting the DNA.
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ื•ืžื ืข ืžื”ืื ื–ื™ื ืœืขื›ืœ ืืช ื” DNA.
08:11
So what we found is if we took the chromosome
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ืื– ืžื” ืฉืžืฆืื ื• ื”ื•ื ืฉืื ืžื•ืฆื™ืื™ื ืืช ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื
08:13
out of yeast and methylated it,
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ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืฉืžืจื™ื ื•ืžืขื‘ื™ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื• ืžื˜ื™ืœืฆื™ื”,
08:15
we could then transplant it.
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ืื– ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ ืื•ืชื•.
08:17
Further advances came
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ืขื•ื“ ื”ืชืงื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืชืจื—ืฉื•
08:19
when the team removed the restriction enzyme genes
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ื”ืกื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื’ื ื™ื ืœืื ื–ื™ื ื”ืงื™ื˜ื•ืข
08:22
from the recipient capricolum cell.
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ืžืชื ื”ืงืคืจื™ืงื•ืœื•ื ื”ืžืืจื—.
08:25
And once we had done that, now we can take
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ื•ืžืจื’ืข ืฉืขืฉื™ื ื• ื–ืืช, ืืคืฉืจ ืœืงื—ืช
08:27
naked DNA out of yeast and transplant it.
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DNA ื ืงื™ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืฉืžืจื™ื ื•ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ ืื•ืชื•.
08:30
So last fall
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ืื– ื‘ืกืชื™ื• ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ,
08:32
when we published the results of that work in Science,
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ื›ืฉืคืจืกืžื ื• ืืช ื”ืžืžืฆืื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื‘ Science,
08:35
we all became overconfident
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ื”ื‘ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ ื”ืขืฆืžื™ ืฉืœื ื• ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื’ื–ื,
08:37
and were sure we were only
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ื•ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื™ื ืฉืชื•ืš
08:39
a few weeks away
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ื›ืžื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช
08:41
from being able to now boot up
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ื ืฆืœื™ื— ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื
08:43
a chromosome out of yeast.
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ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืฉืžืจื™ื.
08:46
Because of the problems with
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ืขื
08:48
Mycoplasma genitalium and its slow growth
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ืžื™ืงื•ืคืœื–ืžื” ื’'ื ื˜ื™ืœื™ื•ื ื•ืงืฆื‘ ื”ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื”ืื™ื˜ื™ ืฉืœื•,
08:51
about a year and a half ago,
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ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืฉื ื” ื•ื—ืฆื™
08:54
we decided to synthesize
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ื”ื—ืœื˜ื ื• ืœืกื ื˜ื–
08:57
the much larger chromosome, the mycoides chromosome,
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ืืช ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื”ืžื™ืงื•ืื™ื“ื™,
09:00
knowing that we had the biology worked out on that
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ื‘ื™ื“ื™ืขื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช
09:03
for transplantation.
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ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืœ ืื•ืชื•.
09:05
And Dan led the team for the synthesis
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ื•ื“ืŸ ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืขืกืง ื‘ืกื™ื ื˜ื™ื–ื”
09:07
of this over one-million-base pair chromosome.
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ืฉืœ ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ื–ื” ืขืœ ื›ืœ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื•.
09:12
But it turned out it wasn't going to be as simple in the end,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืชื‘ืจืจ ืฉื–ื” ืœื ื™ื”ื™ื” ื›"ื› ืคืฉื•ื˜.
09:15
and it set us back three months
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืื•ืชื ื• 3 ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืœืื—ื•ืจ
09:17
because we had one error
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ื›ื™ ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื ื• ื˜ืขื•ืช ืื—ืช
09:19
out of over a million base pairs in that sequence.
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ืžืชื•ืš ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื ื”ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ื–ื”.
09:22
So the team developed new debugging software,
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ืื– ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืคื™ืชื— ืชื•ื›ื ื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืœืชื™ืงื•ืŸ ื”ื˜ืขื•ื™ื•ืช,
09:25
where we could test each synthetic fragment
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ื•ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืชื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœื‘ื“ื•ืง ื›ืœ ืžืงื˜ืข ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™
09:28
to see if it would grow in a background
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืจืื•ืช ืื ื”ื•ื ื™ื’ื“ืœ ืขืœ ื”ืจืงืข
09:30
of wild type DNA.
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ืฉืœ DNA ื˜ื‘ืขื™.
09:33
And we found that 10 out of the 11
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ื•ืžืฆืื ื• ืฉ10 ืžืชื•ืš 11 ื”ืžืงื˜ืขื™ื ืฉืกื™ื ื˜ื–ื ื•
09:36
100,000-base pair pieces we synthesized
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ืฉื”ื›ื™ืœื• 100,000 ื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื,
09:39
were completely accurate
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ื”ื™ื• ืžื“ื•ื™ื™ืงื™ื ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ
09:41
and compatible with
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ื•ืžื•ืชืืžื™ื
09:43
a life-forming sequence.
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ืœืจืฆืฃ ื”ื™ื•ืฆืจ ื—ื™ื™ื.
09:47
We narrowed it down to one fragment;
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ืžื™ืงื“ื ื• ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ืžืงื˜ืข ืื—ื“.
09:49
we sequenced it
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ืจื™ืฆืคื ื• ืื•ืชื•
09:51
and found just one base pair had been deleted
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ื•ืžืฆืื ื• ืฉื–ื•ื’ ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื ืื—ื“ ื ืขื“ืจ
09:53
in an essential gene.
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ืžื’ืŸ ื—ื™ื•ื ื™.
09:55
So accuracy is essential.
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ืื– ื”ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ื•ื ื”ื›ืจื—ื™.
09:58
There's parts of the genome
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ื™ืฉื ื ื—ืœืงื™ื ื‘ื’ื ื•ื
10:00
where it cannot tolerate even a single error,
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ื‘ื”ื ืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœืกื‘ื•ืœ ื•ืœื• ื˜ืขื•ืช ืื—ืช,
10:03
and then there's parts of the genome
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ื•ื™ืฉื ื ื—ืœืงื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ื’ื ื•ื
10:05
where we can put in large blocks of DNA,
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ื‘ื”ื ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ื’ื•ืฉื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืฉืœ DNA,
10:07
as we did with the watermarks,
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ื›ืคื™ ืฉืขืฉื™ื ื• ืขื ืกื™ืžื ื™ ื”ืžื™ื,
10:09
and it can tolerate all kinds of errors.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืกื‘ื•ืœ ื›ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืฉืœ ื˜ืขื•ื™ื•ืช.
10:12
So it took about three months to find that error
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ืื– ืœืงื— ืœื ื• ื‘ืขืจืš 3 ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืœืืชืจ ืืช ื”ื˜ืขื•ืช ื”ื–ืืช
10:15
and repair it.
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ื•ืœืชืงืŸ ืื•ืชื”.
10:17
And then early one morning, at 6 a.m.
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ื•ืื–, ื‘ื•ืงืจ ืื—ื“ ืžื•ืงื“ื ื‘ืฉืขื” 0600,
10:20
we got a text from Dan
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ืงื™ื‘ืœืชื™ SMS ืžื“ืŸ
10:23
saying that, now, the first blue colonies existed.
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ืฉืืžืจ ืฉื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื”ื›ื—ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื•ืคื™ืขื•.
10:26
So, it's been a long route to get here:
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ืื– ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžืกืข ืืจื•ืš,
10:29
15 years from the beginning.
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ืฉืืจืš 15 ืฉื ื” ืžืชื—ื™ืœืชื•.
10:32
We felt
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ื”ืจื’ืฉื ื•
10:34
one of the tenets of this field
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ืฉืื—ื“ ื”ืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื–ื”
10:36
was to make absolutely certain
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ื”ื•ื ืœื•ื•ื“ื ืฉืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื
10:39
we could distinguish synthetic DNA
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ืœื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ืŸ DNA ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™
10:42
from natural DNA.
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ืœื‘ื™ืŸ DNA ื˜ื‘ืขื™.
10:44
Early on, when you're working in a new area of science,
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ื›ืฉืืชื” ืขื•ื‘ื“ ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื—ื“ืฉ ื‘ืžื“ืข, ืžื•ืงื“ื ืžืื•ื“
10:47
you have to think about all the pitfalls
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ืืชื” ื›ื‘ืจ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืžื”ืžื•ืจื•ืช
10:50
and things that could lead you
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ื•ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืš
10:52
to believe that you had done something when you hadn't,
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ืœื”ืืžื™ืŸ ืฉืขืฉื™ืช ืžืฉื”ื•, ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉืœื ืขืฉื™ืช ื–ืืช,
10:55
and, even worse, leading others to believe it.
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ืื• ื—ืžื•ืจ ืžื›ืš, ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืื—ืจื™ื ืœื”ืืžื™ืŸ ื‘ื›ืš.
10:58
So, we thought the worst problem would be
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ืื– ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืฉื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื—ืžื•ืจื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืชื”ื™ื”
11:00
a single molecule contamination
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ืฉืžื•ืœื•ืงื•ืœื” ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื” ืชื–ื”ื
11:03
of the native chromosome,
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ืืช ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™, ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™,
11:05
leading us to believe that we actually had
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ื•ืชื’ืจื•ื ืœื ื• ืœื”ืืžื™ืŸ ืฉื‘ืืžืช ื”ืฆืœื—ื ื•
11:08
created a synthetic cell,
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ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืชื ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™,
11:10
when it would have been just a contaminant.
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ื›ืฉืœืžืขืฉื” ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืจืง ื–ื™ื”ื•ื.
11:12
So early on, we developed the notion
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ืื– ืžื•ืงื“ื ืžืื•ื“ ืคื™ืชื—ื ื• ืืช ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ
11:14
of putting in watermarks in the DNA
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ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื ืกืช ืกื™ืžื ื™ ืžื™ื ืœืชื•ืš ื” DNA
11:16
to absolutely make clear
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื—
11:18
that the DNA was synthetic.
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ืฉื” DNA ื”ื•ื ืื›ืŸ ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™.
11:21
And the first chromosome we built
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ื•ื‘ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉื™ืฆืจื ื•,
11:24
in 2008 --
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ื‘ 2008,
11:26
the 500,000-base pair one --
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ื–ื” ืขื 500,000 ื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื,
11:28
we simply assigned
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ื”ื›ื ืกื ื• ืืช
11:31
the names of the authors of the chromosome
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ืฉืžื•ืช ื”ืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื
11:34
into the genetic code,
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ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™.
11:37
but it was using just amino acid
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ื•ื–ื” ื ืขืฉื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืชืจื’ื•ื
11:39
single letter translations,
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ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ืขื ื—ื•ืžืฆื•ืช ืืžื™ื ื•,
11:41
which leaves out certain letters of the alphabet.
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ื›ืš ืฉื—ืœืง ืžื”ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ื‘ืืœืฃ-ื‘ื™ืช ื ื•ืชืจื• ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ.
11:45
So the team actually developed a new code
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ืื– ื‘ืขืฆื ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ื™ืฆืจ ืงื•ื“ ื—ื“ืฉ
11:48
within the code within the code.
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ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืงื•ื“ ืฉื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืงื•ื“.
11:51
So it's a new code
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ืื– ื–ื” ืงื•ื“ ื—ื“ืฉ
11:53
for interpreting and writing messages in DNA.
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ืœืคื™ืจื•ืฉ ื•ื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ืžืกืจื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืš DNA.
11:56
Now, mathematicians have been hiding and writing
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงืื™ื ืžื—ื‘ื™ืื™ื ื•ื›ื•ืชื‘ื™ื
11:59
messages in the genetic code for a long time,
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ืžืกืจื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื–ืžืŸ,
12:02
but it's clear they were mathematicians and not biologists
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืฉื”ื ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงืื™ื ื•ืœื ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื,
12:05
because, if you write long messages
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ื›ื™ ืื ืืชื” ื›ื•ืชื‘ ืžืกืจื™ื ืืจื•ื›ื™ื
12:08
with the code that the mathematicians developed,
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ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ืงื•ื“ ืฉืคื™ืชื—ื• ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงืื™ื,
12:11
it would more than likely lead to
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ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ืฉืชืงื‘ืœ
12:13
new proteins being synthesized
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ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ืฉื™ืกื•ื ื˜ื–ื•
12:16
with unknown functions.
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ื‘ืขืœื™ ืชื™ืคืงื•ื“ื™ื ืœื ื™ื“ื•ืขื™ื.
12:19
So the code that Mike Montague and the team developed
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ืื– ื”ืงื•ื“ ืฉืคื™ืชื— ืžื™ื™ืง ืžื•ื ื’ื™ื• ื•ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืœื•
12:22
actually puts frequent stop codons,
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ื‘ืขืฆื ืžื—ื“ื™ืจ ืงื•ื“ื•ื ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื”ืžืกืžื ื™ื ืขืฆื™ืจื”.
12:24
so it's a different alphabet
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ืื– ื–ืืช ืืœืคื‘ื™ืช ืื—ืจืช,
12:27
but allows us to use
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ื”ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœื ื• ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ
12:29
the entire English alphabet
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ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ืช
12:32
with punctuation and numbers.
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ืกื™ืžื ื™ ื ื™ืงื•ื“ ื•ืžืกืคืจื™ื.
12:34
So, there are four major watermarks
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ืื– ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• 4 ืกื™ืžื ื™ ืžื™ื ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื
12:36
all over 1,000 base pairs of genetic code.
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ืฉื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘1000 ื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™.
12:39
The first one actually contains within it
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ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื›ื•ืœืœ ื‘ืชื•ื›ื•
12:42
this code for interpreting
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ืืช ื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื–ื” ืœืคื™ืจื•ืฉ
12:45
the rest of the genetic code.
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ืฉืืจ ื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™.
12:49
So in the remaining information,
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ื•ื‘ืžื™ื“ืข ื”ื ื•ืชืจ
12:51
in the watermarks,
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ื”ื ืžืฆื ื‘ืกื™ืžื ื™ ื”ืžื™ื,
12:53
contain the names of, I think it's
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ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื”ืฉืžื•ืช ืฉืœ, ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘,
12:56
46 different authors
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46 ืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื
12:58
and key contributors
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ื•ืชื•ืจืžื™ื ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื™ื
13:00
to getting the project to this stage.
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ืฉื”ื‘ื™ืื• ืืช ื”ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ืœืฉืœื‘ ื‘ื• ื”ื•ื ื ืžืฆื.
13:04
And we also built in
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ื•ื”ืฆืœื—ื ื• ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ื›ื•
13:06
a website address
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ื’ื ื›ืชื•ื‘ืช ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜,
13:09
so that if somebody decodes the code
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ื›ืš ืฉืื ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืžืคืขื ื— ืืช ื”ืงื•ื“
13:11
within the code within the code,
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ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืงื•ื“, ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืงื•ื“,
13:13
they can send an email to that address.
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ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉืœื•ื— ืžื™ื™ืœ ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ืช ื”ื–ืืช.
13:15
So it's clearly distinguishable
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ืื– ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ ื‘ื•ื•ื“ืื•ืช
13:18
from any other species,
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ื‘ื™ื ื• ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื,
13:20
having 46 names in it,
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ืชื•ื›ื• 46 ืฉืžื•ืช,
13:23
its own web address.
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ื•ื›ืชื•ื‘ืช ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜ ืžืฉืœื•.
13:27
And we added three quotations,
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ื•ื”ื•ืกืคื ื• ื’ื 3 ืฆื™ื˜ื˜ื•ืช
13:30
because with the first genome
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ,
13:32
we were criticized for not trying to say something more profound
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ื‘ื™ืงืจื• ืื•ืชื ื• ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉืœื ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ืœื•ืžืจ ืžืฉื”ื• ืขืžื•ืง ื™ื•ืชืจ
13:35
than just signing the work.
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ื•ืจืง ื—ืชืžื ื• ืขืœ ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”.
13:37
So we won't give the rest of the code,
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ืื– ืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืืช ืฉืืจ ื”ืงื•ื“,
13:39
but we will give the three quotations.
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืŸ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืืช 3 ื”ืฆื™ื˜ื˜ื•ืช.
13:41
The first is,
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ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื,
13:43
"To live, to err,
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"ืœื—ื™ื•ืช, ืœื˜ืขื•ืช,
13:45
to fall, to triumph
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ืœื™ืคื•ืœ, ืœื ืฆื—,
13:47
and to recreate life out of life."
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ื•ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื—ื™ื™ื ืžืชื•ืš ื—ื™ื™ื."
13:49
It's a James Joyce quote.
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ื–ืืช ืฆื™ื˜ื˜ื” ืฉืœ ื’'ื™ื™ืžืก ื’'ื•ื™ืก.
13:53
The second quotation is, "See things not as they are,
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ื”ืฆื™ื˜ื˜ื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ื”ื™ื: "ื”ืกืชื›ืœื• ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืœื ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื,
13:56
but as they might be."
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ืืœื ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช."
13:58
It's a quote from the "American Prometheus"
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ื–ื• ืฆื™ื˜ื˜ื” ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืกืคืจ "American Prometheus"
14:01
book on Robert Oppenheimer.
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ืขืœ ืจื•ื‘ืจื˜ ืื•ืคื ื”ื™ื™ืžืจ.
14:03
And the last one is a Richard Feynman quote:
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ื•ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื ืฆื™ื˜ื˜ื” ืฉืœ ืจื™ืฆ'ืจื“ ืคื™ื™ื ืžืŸ.
14:06
"What I cannot build,
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"ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช,
14:08
I cannot understand."
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ืื ื™ ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ."
14:13
So, because this is as much a philosophical advance
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ืื–, ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื–ืืช ื”ืชืงื“ืžื•ืช ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ืช,
14:16
as a technical advance in science,
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ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœื”ืชืงื“ืžื•ืช ื”ื˜ื›ื ื™ืช ื‘ืžื“ืข,
14:19
we tried to deal with both the philosophical
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ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ื”ืฆื“ ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™
14:22
and the technical side.
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ื•ืขื ื”ืฆื“ ื”ื˜ื›ื ื™.
14:24
The last thing I want to say before turning it over to questions
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื•ืžืจ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืœืฉืืœื•ืช
14:26
is that the extensive work
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ืžืงื™ืคื”
14:29
that we've done --
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ืฉืขืฉื™ื ื•,
14:31
asking for ethical review,
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ื›ืฉื‘ื™ืงืฉื ื• ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ืืชื™ืช,
14:33
pushing the envelope
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ื•ืงื™ื“ืžื ื• ืืช ื”ื ื•ืฉื ื”ื–ื”
14:35
on that side as well as the technical side --
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ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœื ื•ืฉื ื”ื˜ื›ื ื™,
14:38
this has been broadly discussed in the scientific community,
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ื“ื•ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื›ืš ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ืžื“ืขื™ืช,
14:41
in the policy community
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ื‘ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ืขื•ืกืงืช ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช,
14:43
and at the highest levels of the federal government.
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืจืžื•ืช ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืžืฉืœ ื”ืคื“ืจืœื™.
14:46
Even with this announcement,
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ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ื”ืฆื”ืจื” ื”ื–ืืช,
14:49
as we did in 2003 --
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ื›ืคื™ ืฉืขืฉื™ื ื• ื‘ 2003 -
14:51
that work was funded by the Department of Energy,
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ื›ืฉื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืื– ืžื•ืžื ื” ืข"ื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” -
14:54
so the work was reviewed
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ืื– ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื ื‘ื“ืงื”
14:56
at the level of the White House,
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ื‘ืจืžื” ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืœื‘ืŸ,
14:58
trying to decide whether to classify the work or publish it.
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ื‘ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืื ืœืกื•ื•ื’ ืื•ืชื” ืื• ืœืคืจืกื ืื•ืชื”.
15:01
And they came down on the side of open publication,
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ื•ื”ื ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ื• ืœืคืจืกื ืื•ืชื”,
15:04
which is the right approach --
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ื•ื–ืืช ื”ื’ื™ืฉื” ื”ื ื›ื•ื ื”.
15:07
we've briefed the White House,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื“ื›ื ื ื• ืืช ื”ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืœื‘ืŸ.
15:09
we've briefed members of Congress,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื“ื›ื ื ื• ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก.
15:12
we've tried to take and push
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ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ืœื“ื—ื•ืฃ ื•ืœืงื“ื
15:14
the policy issues
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ืืช ืกื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช
15:16
in parallel with the scientific advances.
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ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ืœื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื“ืขื™ื•ืช.
15:20
So with that, I would like
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ืื– ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ื–ืืช ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื”
15:22
to open it first to the floor for questions.
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ืœืคืชื•ื— ืืช ื”ื‘ืžื” ืœืฉืืœื•ืช.
15:25
Yes, in the back.
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ื›ืŸ. ืžืื—ื•ืจ.
15:27
Reporter: Could you explain, in layman's terms,
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ื›ืชื‘ืช: ื”ืื ืชื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœืื“ื ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜
15:29
how significant a breakthrough this is please?
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ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ืคืจื™ืฆืช ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ื–ืืช ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช?
15:33
Craig Venter: Can we explain how significant this is?
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ื•ื•ื ื˜ืจ: ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ื”ื™ื ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช?
15:35
I'm not sure we're the ones that should be explaining how significant it is.
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ืื ื™ ืœื ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืืœื” ืฉืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื–ื”.
15:38
It's significant to us.
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ื–ื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ ืœื ื•.
15:41
Perhaps it's a giant philosophical change
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ื–ื” ืื•ืœื™ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ ืขื ืง
15:44
in how we view life.
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ื‘ื“ืจืš ื‘ื” ืื ื• ืชื•ืคืกื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื.
15:46
We actually view it as a baby step in terms of,
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ืœืžืขืฉื” ืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ื›ืฆืขื“ ืงื˜ืŸ,
15:49
it's taken us 15 years to be able
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ื–ื” ืœืงื— ืœื ื• 15 ืฉื ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฆืœื™ื—
15:51
to do the experiment
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ืœื‘ืฆืข ืืช ื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™
15:53
we wanted to do 15 years ago
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ืฉืจืฆื™ื ื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืœืคื ื™ 15 ืฉื ื”
15:55
on understanding life at its basic level.
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ื•ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจืžื” ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช.
15:58
But we actually believe
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืขืฉื” ืื ื• ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื
16:00
this is going to be a very powerful set of tools
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ืฉื–ื” ื™ื”ื•ื•ื” ืžืขืจื›ืช ื›ืœื™ื ืจื‘ืช-ืขื•ืฆืžื”.
16:04
and we're already starting
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืชื—ืœื ื•
16:06
in numerous avenues
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ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื”
16:08
to use this tool.
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ื‘ืžืกืคืจ ืขืจื•ืฆื™ื.
16:10
We have, at the Institute,
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ื‘ืžื›ื•ืŸ ืื ื• ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื
16:12
ongoing funding now from NIH
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ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ืžืชืžืฉืš, ื›ืขืช ืžื” NIH
16:15
in a program with Novartis
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ื‘ืชื›ื ื™ืช ืขื Novartis
16:17
to try and use these new
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ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื›ืœื™
16:19
synthetic DNA tools
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ื” DNA ื”ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™ื™ื ื”ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
16:21
to perhaps make the flu vaccine
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ืื•ืœื™ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ื—ื™ืกื•ืŸ ืœืฉืคืขืช
16:24
that you might get next year.
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ืฉื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉืชืงื‘ืœื• ื‘ืฉื ื” ื”ื‘ืื”.
16:27
Because instead of taking weeks to months to make these,
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ื›ื™, ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื—ื›ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืขื“ ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืื•ืชื,
16:30
Dan's team can now make these
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ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื“ืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืื•ืชื
16:33
in less than 24 hours.
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ื‘ืคื—ื•ืช ืž 24 ืฉืขื•ืช.
16:36
So when you see how long it took to get an H1N1 vaccine out,
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ืื– ื›ืฉื ื–ื›ืจื™ื ื›ืžื” ื–ืžืŸ ืœืงื— ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ื™ืกื•ืŸ H1N1 (ืฉืคืขืช ื”ื—ื–ื™ืจื™ื),
16:39
we think we can shorten that process
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืงืฆืจ ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš
16:41
quite substantially.
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื ื™ื›ืจ.
16:43
In the vaccine area,
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ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื,
16:45
Synthetic Genomics and the Institute
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"ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™ืง ื’'ื ื•ืžื™ืงืก" ื•ื”ืžื›ื•ืŸ
16:47
are forming a new vaccine company
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ืžืงื™ืžื™ื ื—ื‘ืจืช ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื”
16:49
because we think these tools can affect vaccines
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ื›ื™ ืื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื”ื›ืœื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื
16:52
to diseases that haven't been possible to date,
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ืœืžื—ืœื•ืช ืฉืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืขื‘ื•ืจืŸ ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื,
16:55
things where the viruses rapidly evolve,
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ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื‘ื”ืŸ ื”ื•ื™ืจื•ืกื™ื ืžืฉืชื ื™ื ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช,
16:58
such with rhinovirus.
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ื›ืžื• rhinovirus (ื•ื™ืจื•ืก ื”ืฆื™ื ื•ืŸ).
17:00
Wouldn't it be nice to have something that actually blocked common colds?
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ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžืื•ื“ ื ื—ืžื“ ืื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืžืžืฉ ื—ื•ืกื ืืช ื”ื”ืฆื˜ื ื ื•ื™ื•ืช?
17:03
Or, more importantly, HIV,
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ืื•, ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ืฉื•ื‘, HIV,
17:06
where the virus evolves so quickly
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ืฉื ื”ื•ื™ืจื•ืก ืžืฉืชื ื” ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืžื”ืจ,
17:08
the vaccines that are made today
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ืฉื”ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื ืฉืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื ื”ื™ื•ื
17:10
can't keep up
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ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ืงืฆื‘
17:12
with those evolutionary changes.
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ืขื ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืืœื”.
17:15
Also, at Synthetic Genomics,
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ื‘"ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™ืง ื’'ื ื•ืžื™ืงืก"
17:17
we've been working
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื’ื
17:19
on major environmental issues.
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ืขืœ ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื™ื™ื ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื™ื.
17:21
I think this latest oil spill in the Gulf
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื“ืœื™ืคืช ื”ื ืคื˜ ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ืžืคืจืฅ
17:23
is a reminder.
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ื”ื™ื ืชื–ื›ื•ืจืช ืœื›ืš.
17:25
We can't see CO2 --
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ื“ื•-ืชื—ืžื•ืฆืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ CO2
17:27
we depend on scientific measurements for it
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืชืœื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื“ื™ื“ื•ืช ืžื“ืขื™ื•ืช ืœืฉื ื›ืš,
17:29
and we see the beginning results
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช
17:31
of having too much of it --
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ืฉืœ ืขื•ื“ืฃ ืžืžื ื•.
17:33
but we can see pre-CO2 now
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืงื“ื CO2
17:35
floating on the waters
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ืฆืฃ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืขืœ ื”ืžื™ื
17:37
and contaminating the beaches in the Gulf.
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ื•ืžื–ื”ื ืืช ื—ื•ืคื™ ื”ืžืคืจืฅ.
17:40
We need some alternatives
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœืืœื˜ืจื ื˜ื™ื‘ื•ืช
17:43
for oil.
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ืœื ืคื˜.
17:45
We have a program with Exxon Mobile
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืชื›ื ื™ืช ืขื Exxon Mobil
17:47
to try and develop new strains of algae
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ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœืคืชื— ื–ื ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ืืฆื•ืช
17:50
that can efficiently capture carbon dioxide
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ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœืœื›ื•ื“ CO2 ื‘ื™ืขื™ืœื•ืช
17:53
from the atmosphere or from concentrated sources,
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ืžื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ืื• ืžืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ืžืจื•ื›ื–ื™ื,
17:56
make new hydrocarbons that can go into their refineries
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ื•ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืคื—ืžื™ืžื ื™ื ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื• ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก ืœืžื–ืงืงื•ืช
17:59
to make normal gasoline
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ื•ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื‘ื ื–ื™ืŸ ืจื’ื™ืœ
18:01
and diesel fuel out of CO2.
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ื•ืกื•ืœืจ ืžื” CO2.
18:03
Those are just a couple of the approaches
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ืืœื” ืจืง ื›ืžื” ืžื”ื’ื™ืฉื•ืช
18:05
and directions that we're taking.
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ื•ื”ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ื‘ื”ื.
18:08
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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