How the Mongols used horses to create an empire - William T. Taylor

734,982 views ใƒป 2023-03-09

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Vlady Lobak ืขืจื™ื›ื”: zeeva livshitz
00:06
People have been captivated by horses for a long time.
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืชืขื ื™ื™ื ื• ื‘ืกื•ืกื™ื ื‘ืžืฉืš ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘.
00:10
They appear more than any other animal in cave paintings
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ื”ื ืžื•ืคื™ืขื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื›ืœ ื—ื™ื” ืื—ืจืช ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ ืžืขืจื•ืช
00:14
dating back 30,000 years.
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ืขื•ื“ ืžืœืคื ื™ 30,000 ืฉื ื™ื.
00:17
But how did horses make the journey from wild animals
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ืื‘ืœ ืื™ืš ืกื•ืกื™ื ืขื‘ืจื• ืืช ื”ืžืกืข ืžื—ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืจ
00:21
to ones humans could hitch themselves to and even ride,
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ืœื›ืืœื• ืฉื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืชื•ื ืืช ืขืฆืžื ืืœื™ื”ื ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืœืจื›ื•ื‘,
00:25
determining the fate of civilizations and dramatically altering history?
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ื•ื‘ื–ื” ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ืืช ื’ื•ืจืœืŸ ืฉืœ ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ืœื™ื–ืฆื™ื•ืช ื•ืœืฉื ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื“ืจืžื˜ื™ ืืช ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื”?
00:30
Equids originally evolved in North America.
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ืกื•ืกื™ื™ื ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ื‘ืžืงื•ืจ ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืืžืจื™ืงื”.
00:34
Sometime after 4 million years ago,
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ืžืชื™ืฉื”ื• ืœืื—ืจ 4 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื™ื ื‘ืขื‘ืจ,
00:37
ancient equid species began trotting across the Bering land bridge.
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ืžื™ื ื™ื ืขืชื™ืงื™ื ืฉืœ ืกื•ืกื™ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœืฆืขื•ื“ ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ื’ืฉืจ ื”ื™ื‘ืฉืชื™ ืฉืœ ื‘ืจื™ื ื’.
00:42
Eventually, they spread through Eurasia and into Africa,
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ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื• ื“ืจืš ืื™ืจื•ืืกื™ื” ื•ืืœ ืืคืจื™ืงื”,
00:46
diversifying into the lineages that would lead to modern-day horses,
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ื•ื”ืชื’ื•ื•ื ื• ืœืฉื•ืฉืœื•ืช ืฉื™ื•ื‘ื™ืœื• ืœืกื•ืกื™ื ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื™ื,
00:50
donkeys, and zebras.
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ื•ื›ืŸ ื—ืžื•ืจื™ื, ื•ื–ื‘ืจื•ืช.
00:53
Early humans, including generations of the first people to live in the Americas,
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ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืžื™ื, ื›ื•ืœืœ ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉื—ื™ื• ื‘ื™ื‘ืฉืช ืืžืจื™ืงื”,
00:58
hunted wild horses, sometimes fashioning their bones into tools.
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ืฆื“ื• ืกื•ืกื™ ืคืจื, ื•ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืขื™ืฆื‘ื• ืืช ืขืฆืžื•ืชื™ื”ื ืœื›ืœื™ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”.
01:03
Then, between 15,000 and 5,000 years ago,
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ื•ืื–, ืœืคื ื™ 15,000~5,000 ืฉื ื™ื,
01:07
likely because of a changing climate, hunting by humans,
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ื›ื ืจืื” ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืืงืœื™ื, ืฆื™ื“ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื,
01:10
and competition with bison,
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ื•ืชื—ืจื•ืช ืขื ื‘ื™ื–ื•ื ื™ื,
01:13
horses disappeared from the American archaeological record.
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ืกื•ืกื™ื ื ืขืœืžื• ืžื”ืชื™ืขื•ื“ ื”ืืจื›ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™.
01:17
But theyโ€™d be back eventually.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื ื™ื—ื–ืจื• ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ.
01:19
In the meantime, on the other side of the world around 2,000 BCE,
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ื‘ื™ื ืชื™ื™ื, ื‘ืฆื“ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช 2,000 ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืกืคื™ืจื”,
01:24
something very consequential happened:
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ืžืฉื”ื• ืžืื•ื“ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ ืงืจื”:
01:27
people on the western Eurasian steppe domesticated horses.
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืขืจื‘ื” ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืื™ืจื•ืืกื™ื” ื‘ื™ื™ืชื• ืกื•ืกื™ื.
01:31
By then, people in western Asia had already domesticated many animals
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ืขื“ ืื–, ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื‘ ืืกื™ื” ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ื™ื™ืชื• ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื
01:35
and begun using some of them to pull carts.
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ื•ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžืฉื•ืš ืขื’ืœื•ืช.
01:39
But, because horses were generally faster and more difficult to control,
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืกื•ืกื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืžื”ื™ืจื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ืงืฉื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืฉืœื™ื˜ื”,
01:43
steppe people developed a bridle-and-bit system
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ืื ืฉื™ ื”ืขืจื‘ื•ืช ืคื™ืชื—ื• ืžืขืจื›ืช ืจืกืŸ-ื•ืžืชื’
01:47
and chariots with lighter, spoked wheels.
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ื•ืžืจื›ื‘ื•ืช ืขื ื’ืœื’ืœื™ื ืงืœื™ื ืขื ื—ื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื.
01:51
Horses were soon integrated into many ancient cultures.
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ืกื•ืกื™ื ื”ืฉืชืœื‘ื• ื‘ืžื”ืจื” ืœืชื•ืš ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช.
01:55
In contrast with horse-drawn charioteering,
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ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืจืชื™ืžืช ืžืจื›ื‘ื•ืช ืœืกื•ืกื™ื,
01:57
horseback riding appears to have been less common at first.
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ื ืจืื” ื›ื™ ืจื›ื™ื‘ื” ืขืœ ืกื•ืกื™ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืคื—ื•ืช ื ืคื•ืฆื” ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื”.
02:03
Archaeological evidence suggests that people who did mount horses
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ืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ืืจื›ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื•ืช ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืขืœื• ืขืœ ืกื•ืกื™ื
02:06
during this early stage
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ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ืžื•ืงื“ื ื–ื”
02:08
did so without structured saddles or stirrups.
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ืขืฉื• ื–ืืช ืœืœื ืื•ื›ืคื™ื ืžื•ื‘ื ื™ื ืื• ืืจื›ื•ื‘ื•ืช.
02:12
This sometimes altered or damaged the skeletons of riders and horses alike.
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ื–ื” ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืฉื™ื ื” ืื• ืคื’ืข ื‘ืฉืœื“ื™ื ืฉืœ ืจื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื•ืกื•ืกื™ื ื›ืื—ื“.
02:18
People continued breeding for less aggressive horses
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื• ืœื’ื“ืœ ืกื•ืกื™ื ืคื—ื•ืช ืื’ืจืกื™ื‘ื™ื™ื
02:22
with greater endurance and weight-bearing abilities.
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ืขื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืกื™ื‘ื•ืœืช ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื ืฉื™ืืช ืžืฉืงืœ.
02:25
And they developed techniques and tools for improved control and comfort.
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ื•ื”ื ืคื™ืชื—ื• ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื•ืช ื•ื›ืœื™ื ืœืฉื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื•ื”ื ื•ื—ื•ืช.
02:30
After around 1000 BCE,
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ืœืื—ืจ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช 1000 ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืกืคื™ืจื”,
02:33
cavalry appeared in combat across much of Asia.
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ืคืจืฉื™ื ื”ื•ืคื™ืขื• ื‘ืงืจื‘ ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ืจื•ื‘ ืืกื™ื”.
02:37
Riders of steppe and desert cultures became renowned
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ืจื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืขืจื‘ื” ื•ื”ืžื“ื‘ืจ ื–ื›ื• ืœืžื•ื ื™ื˜ื™ืŸ
02:41
for their prowess on horseback.
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ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืชืขื•ื–ื” ืฉืœื”ื ืขืœ ื’ื‘ ื”ืกื•ืกื™ื.
02:44
Ceremonial horse sacrifice also made its way into the funerary traditions
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ื”ืงืจื‘ืช ืกื•ืกื™ื ื˜ืงืกื™ืช ืขืฉืชื” ืืช ื“ืจื›ื” ืœืžืกื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื”
02:48
of some cultures.
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ืฉืœ ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช.
02:50
One royal Scythian burial site from around the 9th century BCE
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ืืชืจ ืงื‘ื•ืจื” ืกืงื™ืชื™ ืžืœื›ื•ืชื™ ืื—ื“ ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืื” ื”-9 ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืกืคื™ืจื”
02:55
contained the remains of approximately 200 horses fitted with riding gear.
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ื”ื›ื™ืœ ืฉืจื™ื“ื™ื ืฉืœ ื›-200 ืกื•ืกื™ื ืขืจื•ื›ื™ื ื‘ืฆื™ื•ื“ ืจื›ื™ื‘ื”.
03:01
Officials in ancient China recognized how advantageous horses were
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ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืจืฉืžื™ื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืŸ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื” ื–ื™ื”ื• ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ื”ืกื•ืกื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื
03:05
for their neighbors
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื›ื ื™ื”ื
03:06
and some coveted larger numbers of them for their own empire.
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ื•ื—ืœืงื ื—ืฉืงื• ื‘ืžืกืคืจื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ืฉืœื”ื.
03:10
Around 100 BCE, the Chinese emperor reportedly ordered a 30,000-man army west
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ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช 100 ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืกืคื™ืจื”, ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ืกื™ื ื™ ื”ื•ืจื” ืขืœ ืฆื‘ื ืฉืœ 30,000 ืžืขืจื‘ื”
03:16
that laid siege to a city and had its king killedโ€”
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ืฉื”ื˜ื™ืœ ืžืฆื•ืจ ืขืœ ืขื™ืจ ื•ื”ืจื’ ืืช ื”ืžืœืš ืฉืœื”โ€”
03:20
all for 3,000 of the so-called โ€œheavenly horsesโ€ of Ferghana.
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ื”ื›ืœ ืขื‘ื•ืจ 3,000 ืžืžื” ืฉื ืงืจืื• โ€œื”ืกื•ืกื™ื ื”ืฉืžื™ืžื™ื™ืโ€ ืฉืœ ืคืจื’ื ื”.
03:26
Between the 4th and 8th centuries CE,
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืื•ืช ื”-4 ืœ-8 ืœืกืคื™ืจื”,
03:29
steppe horsemen spread riding technologies like stirrups across cultures.
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ืคืจืฉื™ ื”ืขืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืคื™ืฆื• ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืจื›ื™ื‘ื” ื›ืžื• ืืจื›ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
03:34
And nomadic groups eventually coalesced into unstoppable forces on horseback.
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ื•ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ื ื•ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืชืœื›ื“ื• ืœื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ื™ืชื ื™ื ืœืขืฆื™ืจื” ื”ืจื›ื•ื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ืกื•ืกื™ื.
03:40
The Mongol Empire rose to power in the 13th century,
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ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืžื•ื ื’ื•ืœื™ืช ืขืœืชื” ืœืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื‘ืžืื” ื”-13,
03:45
and raided, traded, and toppled empires over previously unthinkable distances.
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ื•ืคืฉื˜ื”, ืกื—ืจื” ื•ื”ืคื™ืœื” ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ืžืจื—ืงื™ื ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืชืคืกื™ื ื‘ืขื‘ืจ.
03:51
They developed a horse-backed postal relay system
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ื”ื ืคื™ืชื—ื• ืžืขืจื›ืช ืžืžืกืจ ื“ื•ืืจ ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ืกื•ืกื™ื
03:54
that stretched more than 60,000 kilometers.
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ืฉื”ืฉืชืจืขื” ืœืื•ืจืš ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-60,000 ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจื™ื.
03:57
Their imperial successes relied on the well-being of their horsesโ€”
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ื”ื”ืฆืœื—ื•ืช ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื ื”ืกืชืžื›ื• ืขืœ ืจื•ื•ื—ืช ืกื•ืกื™ื”ืโ€”
04:02
and leaders knew it.
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ื•ื”ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ื ื™ื“ืขื• ื–ืืช.
04:03
In 1252, before launching his next military campaigns,
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ื‘ืฉื ืช 1252, ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ืฉื™ืง ืืช ืžืกืขื•ืชื™ื• ื”ืฆื‘ืื™ื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื,
04:08
Mรถngke Khan sent officials ahead to prohibit cattle grazing
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ืžื•ื ื’ืงื” ื—ืืŸ ืฉืœื— ืคืงื™ื“ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืืกื•ืจ ืขืœ ืจืขื™ื™ืช ื‘ืงืจ
04:13
so thereโ€™d be plentiful pastureland for their steeds.
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ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืฉื˜ื—ื™ ืžืจืขื” ื‘ืฉืคืข ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืกื•ืกื™ื ืฉืœื”ื.
04:17
Horses continued to spread,
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ืกื•ืกื™ื ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื• ืœื”ืชืคืฉื˜,
04:19
eventually spurring equestrian empires reaching a south of the Sahara.
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ื•ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืื• ืœืื™ืžืคืจื™ื•ืช ืกื•ืกื™ื ืฉื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืขื“ ื“ืจื•ื ื”ืกื”ืจื”.
04:24
By the mid-14th century, the Mali Empire was said to have had
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ืขื“ ืืžืฆืข ื”ืžืื” ื”-14, ื ืืžืจ ื›ื™ ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื™ืช ืžืืœื™ ื”ื™ื™ืชื”
04:28
a cavalry of more than 10,000
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ื‘ืขืœืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-10,000 ืคืจืฉื™ื
04:31
that controlled some 1 million square kilometers of West Africa.
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ืฉืฉืœื˜ื• ื‘ื›ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืงืžโ€œืจ ืฉืœ ืžืขืจื‘ ืืคืจื™ืงื”.
04:36
And by 1500, horses were finally reintroduced to the Americas.
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ื•ืขื“ ืฉื ืช 1500, ืกื•ืกื™ื ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื•ืฉื‘ื• ืœืืžืจื™ืงื”.
04:42
They appear to have escaped Spanish control rapidly
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ื ืจืื” ืฉื”ื ื ืžืœื˜ื• ืžื”ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ืช ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช
04:45
as Indigenous people from the Pampas to the Great Plains
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื™ืœื™ื“ื™ ื”ืคืžืคืก ื•ื”ืžื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื
04:48
exchanged them via expansive trade networks.
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ืฉื™ื•ื•ืงื• ืื•ืชื ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืจืฉืชื•ืช ืกื—ืจ ื ืจื—ื‘ื•ืช.
04:53
Colonization and trade spread horses even further around the globe.
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ืงื•ืœื•ื ื™ื–ืฆื™ื” ื•ืกื—ืจ ื”ืคื™ืฆื• ืกื•ืกื™ื ืืคื™ืœื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื.
04:58
And well into the 20th century they were a widespread and essential means
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ื•ื”ืจื‘ื” ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืืžืฆืขื™ ื ืคื•ืฅ ื•ื—ื™ื•ื ื™
05:02
of travel and transport.
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ืœืžืกืขื•ืช ื•ืชื—ื‘ื•ืจื”.
05:04
This didnโ€™t come without problems:
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ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืœื ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช:
05:06
issues of hygiene and animal welfare emerged,
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ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื’ื™ื™ื ื” ื•ืจื•ื•ื—ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืฆืฆื”,
05:09
especially in cities.
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ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืขืจื™ื.
05:11
And many human hubs transformed with the introduction
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ื•ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื”ืฉืชื ื• ืขื ื”ื”ืฆื’ื”
05:15
of non-living modes of transport, like the automobile.
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ืฉืœ ืืžืฆืขื™ ืชื—ื‘ื•ืจื” ืฉืื™ื ื ื—ื™ื™ื, ื›ืžื• ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช.
05:19
Nevertheless, people have maintained their multifaceted relationships with horsesโ€”
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ืขื ื–ืืช, ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืžืจื• ืขืœ ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื”ื™ื—ืกื™ื ื”ืจื‘-ื’ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื ืขื ืกื•ืกื™ืโ€”
05:24
riding, herding, racing, or admiring themโ€”
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ืจื›ื™ื‘ื”, ืจืขื™ื™ื”, ื”ืชื—ืจื•ืช ืื• ื”ืขืจืฆื” ืฉืœื”ืโ€”
05:27
from the steppes of Mongolia to the prairies of Montana,
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ืžื”ืขืจื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื•ื ื’ื•ืœื™ื” ืœืขืจื‘ื•ืช ืžื•ื ื˜ื ื”,
05:30
ever since.
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ืžืื– ื•ืžืชืžื™ื“.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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