A brief history of banned numbers - Alessandra King

2,807,634 views ใƒป 2017-09-26

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Sigal Tifferet
00:07
They say the pen is mightier than the sword,
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ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉื”ืขื˜ ื—ื–ืงื” ืžื”ื—ืจื‘,
00:10
and authorities have often agreed.
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ื•ืจืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคืขืžื™ื ื”ืกื›ื™ืžื•.
00:13
From outlawed religious tracts and revolutionary manifestos
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ืžืคืกื•ืงื™ื ื“ืชื™ื™ื ืฉื”ื•ืฆืื• ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœื—ื•ืง ื•ืžื ื™ืคืกื˜ื™ื™ื ืžื”ืคื›ื ื™ื™ื
00:17
to censored and burned books,
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ืœืกืคืจื™ื ืฉืฆื•ื ื–ืจื• ื•ื ืฉืจืคื•,
00:19
we know the potential power of words to overturn the social order.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืืช ื›ื•ื— ื”ืžื™ืœื™ื ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืกื“ืจ ื—ื‘ืจืชื™.
00:24
But as strange as it may seem,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืžื” ืฉื–ื” ื ืฉืžืข ืžื•ื–ืจ,
00:26
some numbers have also been considered dangerous enough to ban.
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ื›ืžื” ืžืกืคืจื™ื ื’ื ื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืžืกื•ื›ื ื™ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืืกื•ืจื™ื.
00:31
Our distant ancestors long counted objects using simple tally marks.
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ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื• ื”ืขืชื™ืงื™ื ืกืคืจื• ืขืฆืžื™ื ืขื ืกื™ืžื ื™ ืกื›ื™ืžื”.
00:36
But as they developed agriculture and began living together in larger groups,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืฉื”ื ืคื™ืชื—ื• ืืช ื”ื—ืงืœืื•ืช ื•ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื• ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ื™ื—ื“ ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช,
00:40
this was no longer enough.
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ื–ื” ื›ื‘ืจ ืœื ื”ืกืคื™ืง.
00:43
As numbers grew more complex,
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ื›ืฉื”ืžืกืคืจื™ื ื”ืคื›ื• ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ,
00:45
people began not just using them, but thinking about what they are
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื• ืœื ืจืง ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื”ื, ืืœื ื’ื ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืžื” ื”ื
00:49
and how they work.
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ื•ืื™ืš ื”ื ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื.
00:51
And by 600 B.C.E. in Ancient Greece, the study of numbers was well-developed.
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ื•ื‘ 600 ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืกืคื™ืจื” ื‘ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”, ื—ืงืจ ื”ืžืกืคืจื™ื ื”ื™ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืคื•ืชื—.
00:57
The mathematician Pythagoras and his school of followers
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ื”ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงืื™ ืคื™ืชื’ื•ืจืก ื•ืขื“ืช ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื•
01:00
found numerical patterns in shapes, music, and the stars.
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ื’ื™ืœื• ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ืžืกืคืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืฆื•ืจื•ืช, ืžื•ื–ื™ืงื” ื•ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื.
01:05
For them, mathematics held the deepest secrets of the universe.
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ืžื”ืŸ, ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงืื™ื ื’ื™ืœื• ืืช ื”ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืขืžื•ืงื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืงื•ื.
01:10
But one Pythagorean named Hippasus discovered something disturbing.
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ืื‘ืœ ืคื™ืชื’ื•ืจืื™ ืื—ื“ ื‘ืฉื ื”ื™ืคืืกื•ืก ื’ื™ืœื” ืžืฉื”ื• ืžื˜ืจื™ื“.
01:15
Some quantities, like the diagonal of a square with sides of length one
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ื›ืžื” ืžืกืคืจื™ื, ื›ืžื• ื”ืืœื›ืกื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืจื™ื‘ื•ืข ืขื ืคืื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืจืš ืื—ื“
01:20
couldn't be expressed by any combination of whole numbers or fractions,
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ืœื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื‘ืขื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ืžืกืคืจื™ื ืฉืœืžื™ื ืื• ืฉื‘ืจื™ื,
01:25
no matter how small.
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ืœื ืžืฉื ื” ื›ืžื” ืงื˜ื ื™ื.
01:28
These numbers, which we call irrational numbers,
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ื”ืžืกืคืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”, ืœื”ื ืื ื—ื ื• ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืžืกืคืจื™ื ืœื ืจืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ื,
01:31
were perceived as a threat
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ื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ื›ืื™ื•ื
01:33
to the Pythagorean's notion of a perfect universe.
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ืœืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืคื™ืชื’ื•ืจืื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืงื•ื ื”ืžื•ืฉืœื.
01:37
They imagined a reality that could be described
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ื”ื ื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ืฉื”ื™ืชื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืชื•ืืจืช
01:40
with rational, numerical patterns.
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ืขื ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ืจืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ื•ืช ืžืกืคืจื™ื•ืช.
01:43
Historians write that Hippasus was exhiled for publicizing his findings,
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ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ื ื™ื ื›ื•ืชื‘ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ืคืืกื•ืก ื”ื•ื’ืœื” ื‘ืฉืœ ืคืจืกื•ื ื”ืžืžืฆืื™ื ืฉืœื•,
01:47
while legends claim he was drowned as punishment from the gods.
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื”ืื’ื“ื•ืช ื˜ื•ืขื ื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ื ื˜ื‘ืข ื›ืขื•ื ืฉ ืžื”ืืœื™ื.
01:52
While irrational numbers upset philosophers,
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืžืกืคืจื™ื ืœื ืจืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ื™ื ื”ื˜ืจื™ื“ื• ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื,
01:55
later mathematical inventions would draw attention
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ื”ืžืฆืื•ืช ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงืื™ื•ืช ืžืื•ื—ืจื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื™ืžืฉื›ื• ืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘
01:58
from political and religious authorities, as well.
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ื’ื ืžืจืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ืคื•ืœื˜ื™ื•ืช ื•ื“ืชื™ื•ืช.
02:02
In the Middle Ages, while Europe was still using Roman numerals,
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ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื, ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื” ื‘ืžืกืคืจื™ื ืจื•ืžื™ื™ื,
02:05
other cultures had developed positional systems
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ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ืคื™ืชื—ื• ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืžื™ืงื•ืžื™ื•ืช
02:08
that included a symbol for zero.
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ืฉื›ืœืœื• ืกื™ืžื•ืœ ืœืืคืก.
02:11
When Arab travelers brought this system to the bustling maritime cities of Italy,
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ื›ืฉื”ืžื˜ื™ื™ืœื™ื ื”ืขืจื‘ื™ื ื”ื‘ื™ืื• ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื”ื–ื• ืœืขืจื™ ื”ื ืžืœ ื”ื”ื•ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื™ื˜ืœื™ื”,
02:15
its advantages for merchants and bankers was clear.
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ื”ื™ืชืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื” ืœืกื•ื—ืจื™ื ื•ื‘ื ืงืื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืจื•ืจื•ืช.
02:19
But the authorities were more wary.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืจืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ื—ืฉืฉื• ื™ื•ืชืจ.
02:21
Hindu-Arabic numerals were considered easier to forge or alter,
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ืžืกืคืจื™ื ื”ื™ื ื“ื• ืขืจื‘ื™ื™ื ื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืœืงืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื–ื™ื•ืฃ ื•ืฉื™ื ื•ื™,
02:26
especially since they were less familiar to customers than to merchants.
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ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืžืื—ืจ ื•ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืคื—ื•ืช ืžื•ื›ืจื™ื ืœืœืงื•ื—ื•ืช ืžืืฉืจ ืœืกื•ื—ืจื™ื.
02:30
And the concept of zero opened the door to negative numbers
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ื•ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืืคืก ืคืชื— ืืช ื”ื“ืœืช ืœืžืกืคืจื™ื ืฉืœื™ืœื™ื™ื
02:33
and the recording of debt
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ื•ืชืขื•ื“ ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช
02:34
at a time when moneylending was regarded with suspicion.
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื‘ื• ื”ืœื•ื•ืื•ืช ื ืชืงืœื• ื‘ื—ืฉื“ื ื•ืช.
02:39
In the 13th century, Florence banned the use of Hindu-Arabic numerals
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ื‘ืžืื” ื” 13, ืคื™ืจื ืฆื” ืืกืจื” ืขืœ ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืžืกืคืจื™ื ื”ื™ื ื“ื• ืขืจื‘ื™ื™ื
02:43
for record keeping.
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ืœื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ืกืคืจื™ื.
02:45
And though they soon proved too useful to ignore,
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ื•ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื ื”ืชื’ืœื• ื›ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉื™ื™ื ืžื›ื“ื™ ื”ืชืขืœืžื•ืช,
02:49
controversies over zero and negative numbers
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ื”ื•ื•ื™ื›ื•ื—ื™ื ืขืœ ืืคืก ื•ืžืกืคืจื™ื ืฉืœื™ืœื™ื™ื
02:51
continued for a long time.
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ื ืžืฉื›ื• ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘.
02:54
Negative numbers were dismissed as absurd
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ืžืกืคืจื™ื ืฉืœื™ืœื™ื™ื ื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืื‘ืกื•ืจื“ื™ื™ื
02:56
well into the 19th century.
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ืžืžืฉ ืขื“ ื”ืžืื” ื” 19.
02:59
And prominent mathematicians, like Gerolamo Cardano,
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ื•ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงืื™ื ื‘ื•ืœื˜ื™ื ื›ืžื• ื’'ืจื•ืœืžื• ืงืจื“ื ื•,
03:02
avoided using zero,
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ื ืžื ืขื• ืžืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืืคืก,
03:03
even though it would have made it much easier to find solutions
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžืงืœ ืขืœ ืžืฆื™ืืช ืคืชืจื•ื ื•ืช
03:06
to cubic and the quartic equations.
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ืœืžืฉื•ื•ืื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืขื™ื•ืช ื•ืžื”ืžืขืœื” ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™ืช.
03:10
Even today it's illegal to use some numbers for different reasons.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ื™ื•ื ื–ื” ืœื ื—ื•ืงื™ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื›ืžื” ืžืกืคืจื™ื ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
03:15
Some are banned because of what they represent.
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ื›ืžื” ื ืืกืจื• ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ื ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ื™ื.
03:17
For example, governments have prohibited the display of numbers
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ืžืžืฉืœื•ืช ืืกืจื• ืขืœ ื”ืฆื’ืช ืžืกืคืจื™ื
03:21
that have symbolic meaning,
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ืกื™ืžื‘ื•ืœื™ืช,
03:22
such as the date of a revolution
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ื›ืžื• ืชืืจื™ืš ืžื”ืคื›ื”
03:24
or connections to oppositional political figures or parties.
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ืื• ื”ืงืฉืจื™ื ืœื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืื• ืžืคืœื’ื•ืช ืžื”ืื•ืคื•ื–ื™ืฆื™ื”.
03:28
Other numbers are potentially illegal because of the information they carry.
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ืžืกืคืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืœื ื—ื•ืงื™ื™ื ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœื™ืช ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉื”ื ื ื•ืฉืื™ื.
03:32
Just about any information,
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ื›ืžืขื˜ ื›ืœ ืžื™ื“ืข,
03:34
whether text,
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ื˜ืงืกื˜,
03:35
image,
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ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช,
03:36
video,
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03:36
or executable programs can be translated into a string of numbers.
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ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ื,
ืื• ืชื•ื›ื ื•ืช, ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืชื•ืจื’ืžื•ืช ืœืฉืจืฉืจืช ืฉืœ ืžืกืคืจื™ื.
03:42
But this means that protected information,
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืฉืžื™ื“ืข ืžื•ื’ืŸ,
03:44
whether copyrights,
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ื‘ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื,
03:45
proprietary materials,
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ืžื™ื“ืข ืงื ื™ื™ื ื™,
03:47
or state secrets
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ืื• ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื ื”
03:48
can also be represented as numbers,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื’ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื™ื•ืฆื’ื™ื ื›ืžืกืคืจื™ื,
03:51
so possessing or publishing these numbers may be treated as a criminal offense.
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ืื– ืขื™ื‘ื•ื“ ืื• ืคืจืกื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืกืคืจื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื˜ื•ืคืœ ื›ืขื‘ืจื” ืคืœื™ืœื™ืช.
03:56
This idea gathered attention in 2001
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ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘ ื‘ 2001
03:59
when code that could be used to decrypt DVDs
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ื›ืฉื”ืงื•ื“ ืฉื”ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืคืขื ื— DVD
04:02
was widely shared and distributed in the form of a large prime number.
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ืคื•ืจืกื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืคื•ืžื‘ื™ ื•ื”ื•ืคืฅ ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ืžืกืคืจ ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœ.
04:07
The idea of illegal numbers may sound absurd,
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ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืžืกืคืจื™ื ืœื ื—ื•ืงื™ื™ื ืื•ืœื™ ื ืฉืžืข ืื‘ืกื•ืจื“ื™,
04:10
but like words,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืžื• ืžื™ืœื™ื,
04:11
written numbers are a way of expressing concepts and information.
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ืžืกืคืจื™ื ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื ื”ื ื“ืจืš ืœื”ื‘ืขืช ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืžื™ื“ืข.
04:15
And in a world where calculations and algorithms
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ื•ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื‘ื• ื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืœื’ื•ืจื™ืชืžื™ื
04:18
shape more and more of our lives,
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ืžืขืฆื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•,
04:20
the mathematician's pencil grows stronger by the day.
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ืขืคืจื•ืŸ ื”ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงืื™ ื ืขืฉื” ื—ื–ืง ื™ื•ืชืจ ื›ืœ ื™ื•ื.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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