The rise and fall of the Byzantine Empire - Leonora Neville

6,250,458 views ใƒป 2018-04-09

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Shai Hakim
00:06
Most history books will tell you the Roman Empire fell in the fifth century CE.
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ืจื•ื‘ ืกืคืจื™ ื”ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื™ืกืคืจื• ืœื›ื ืฉื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช ื ืคืœื” ื‘ืžืื” ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ืช ืœืกืคื™ืจื”.
00:12
But this wouldโ€™ve come as a great surprise to the millions of people
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื™ื‘ื•ื ื›ื”ืคืชืขื” ืœืžืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืื ืฉื™ื
00:15
who lived in the Roman Empire up through the Middle Ages.
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ืฉื—ื™ื• ื‘ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช ืขื“ ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื.
00:19
This medieval Roman Empire,
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ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื,
00:21
which we usually refer to today as the Byzantine Empire,
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ืืœื™ื” ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืžืชื™ื™ื—ืกื™ื ื”ื™ื•ื ื›ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ืช,
00:25
began in 330 CE.
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ื”ื—ืœื” ื‘ 330 ืœืกืคื™ืจื”.
00:27
Thatโ€™s when Constantine, the first Christian emperor,
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ืื– ืงื•ื ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ืŸ, ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ,
00:31
moved the capital of the Roman Empire to a new city called Constantinople,
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ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื‘ื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช ืœืขื™ืจ ื—ื“ืฉื” ืฉื ืงืจืื” ืงื•ื ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื ื•ืคื•ืœ,
00:36
which he founded on the site of the ancient Greek city Byzantion.
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ืื•ืชื” ื™ื™ืกื“ ืขืœ ื”ืืชืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื” ื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ื•ืŸ.
00:41
When the Visigoths sacked Rome in 410
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ื›ืฉื”ื•ื™ื–ื™ื’ื•ืชื™ื ืคืฉื˜ื• ืขืœ ืจื•ืžื ื‘ 410
00:44
and the Empireโ€™s western provinces were conquered by barbarians,
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ื•ื”ืคืจื•ื‘ื™ื ืฆื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื ื›ื‘ืฉื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ืจื‘ืจื™ื,
00:47
Constantineโ€™s Eastern capital remained the seat of the Roman emperors.
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ื”ื‘ื™ืจื” ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืงื•ื ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ืŸ ื ืฉืืจื” ื›ืก ื”ืงื™ืกืจื™ื ื”ืจื•ืžืื™ื.
00:52
There, generations of emperors ruled for the next 11 centuries.
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ืฉื, ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงื™ืกืจื™ื ืฉืœื˜ื• ื‘ืžืฉืš 11 ืžืื•ืช.
00:58
Sharing continuity with the classical Roman Empire
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ื—ืœื•ืงืช ื”ืžืฉื›ื™ื•ืช ืขื ื”ืืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช ื”ืงืœืืกื™ืช
01:00
gave the Byzantine empire a technological and artistic advantage over its neighbors,
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ื ืชื ื” ืœืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ืช ื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื•ืืžื ื•ืชื™ ืขืœ ื”ืฉื›ื ื™ื,
01:06
whom Byzantines considered barbarians.
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ืื•ืชื ื”ื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ื ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื• ื‘ืจื‘ืจื™ื.
01:09
In the ninth century, visitors from beyond the frontier
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ื‘ืžืื” ื”ืชืฉื™ืขื™ืช, ืžื‘ืงืจื™ื ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช
01:12
were astonished at the graceful stone arches and domes
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ื ื“ื”ืžื• ืžืงืฉืชื•ืช ื”ืื‘ืŸ ื”ื™ืคื•ืช ื•ื”ื›ื™ืคื•ืช
01:16
of the imperial palace in Constantinople.
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ืฉืœ ื”ืืจืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื ื•ืคื•ืœ.
01:19
A pair of golden lions flanked the imperial throne.
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ื–ื•ื’ ืืจื™ื•ืช ื–ื”ื•ื‘ื™ื ืื™ื’ืคื• ืืช ื›ืก ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืช.
01:23
A hidden organ would make the lions roar as guests fell on their knees.
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ืื™ื‘ืจ ืžื•ื—ื‘ื ื”ื™ื” ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœืืจื™ื•ืช ืœืฉืื•ื’ ื›ืฉืื•ืจื—ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื ื•ืคืœื™ื ืขืœ ื‘ืจื›ื™ื™ื”ื.
01:28
Golden birds sung from a nearby golden tree.
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ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืžื•ื–ื”ื‘ื•ืช ืฉืจื• ืžืขืฅ ืžื•ื–ื”ื‘ ืงืจื•ื‘.
01:32
Medieval Roman engineers even used hydraulic engines
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ืžื”ื ื“ืกื™ื ืจื•ืžืื™ื ืžื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ืžื ื•ืขื™ื ื”ื™ื“ืจืื•ืœื™ื™ื
01:35
to raise the imperial throne high into the air.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ืืช ื›ืก ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื” ืœืื•ื™ืจ.
01:39
Other inherited aspects of ancient Roman culture
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ืืกืคืงื˜ ืžื•ืจืฉ ื ื•ืกืฃ ืฉืœ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืจื•ืžืื™ืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”
01:42
could be seen in emperorsโ€™ clothing,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ื‘ื‘ื’ื“ื™ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ,
01:44
from traditional military garb to togas,
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ืžืžืœื‘ื•ืฉื™ื ืฆื‘ืื™ื™ื ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ื™ื ืœื˜ื•ื’ื•ืช,
01:47
and in the courts,
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ื•ื‘ื‘ืชื™ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜,
01:48
which continued to use Roman law.
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ืฉื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื• ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื—ื•ืง ื”ืจื•ืžืื™.
01:51
Working-class Byzantines wouldโ€™ve also had similar lives
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ืœืžืขืžื“ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื ื”ื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ ื’ื ื”ื™ื• ื—ื™ื™ื ื“ื•ืžื™ื
01:54
to their Ancient Roman counterparts;
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ืœืžืงื‘ื™ืœื™ื™ื”ื ืžืจื•ืžื ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”;
01:57
many farmed or plied a specific trade,
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ื”ื™ื• ื—ืงืœืื™ื ืื• ืขืกืงื• ื‘ืžืกื—ืจ ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™,
01:59
such as ceramics,
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ื›ืžื• ืงืจืžื™ืงื”,
02:00
leatherworking,
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ืขื™ื‘ื•ื“ ืขื•ืจ,
02:01
fishing,
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ื“ื™ื™ื’,
02:02
weaving,
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ืืจื™ื’ื”,
02:03
or manufacturing silk.
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ืื• ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžืฉื™.
02:05
But, of course, the Byzantine Empire
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ืื‘ืœ, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ืช
02:07
didnโ€™t just rest on the laurels of Ancient Rome.
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ืœื ื ื—ื” ืขืœ ื–ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ืจื•ืžื ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”.
02:10
Their artists innovated, creating vast mosaics and ornate marble carvings.
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ื”ืืžื ื™ื ื—ื™ื“ืฉื•, ื™ืฆืจื• ืžื–ืื™ืงื•ืช ื ืจื—ื‘ื•ืช ื•ื’ื™ืœื•ืคื™ ืฉื™ืฉ ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื.
02:15
Their architects constructed numerous churches,
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ื”ืืจื›ื™ื˜ืงื˜ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื ื‘ื ื• ืื™ืŸ ืกืคื•ืจ ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช,
02:18
one of which, called Hagia Sophia,
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ืœืื—ืช ืžื”ืŸ, ืฉื ืงืจืืช ื”ื”ืื™ื” ืกื•ืคื™ื”,
02:20
had a dome so high it was said to be hanging on a chain from heaven.
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ื™ืฉ ื›ื™ืคื” ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ืฉื ืืžืจ ืฉื”ื™ื ืชืœื•ื™ื” ื‘ืฉืจืฉืจืช ืžื’ืŸ ืขื“ืŸ.
02:25
The Empire was also home to great intellectuals such as Anna Komnene.
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ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ื’ื ื‘ื™ืช ืœืื™ื ื˜ืœืงื˜ื•ืืœื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื›ืžื• ืื ื” ืงืจื ื™ื ื”.
02:30
As imperial princess in the 12th century,
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ื›ื ืกื™ื›ื” ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ืช ื‘ืžืื” ื” 12,
02:32
Anna dedicated her life to philosophy and history.
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ืื ื” ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉื” ืืช ื—ื™ื™ื” ืœืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื” ื•ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื”.
02:36
Her account of her fatherโ€™s reign is historiansโ€™ foremost source
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ื”ืชืขื•ื“ ืฉืœื” ืฉืœ ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ืื‘ื™ื” ื”ื•ื ื”ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกื
02:40
for Byzantine political history at the time of the first crusade.
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ืœื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช ื”ื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ืช ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืžืกืข ื”ืฆืœื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ.
02:44
Another scholar, Leo the Mathematician,
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ืžืœื•ืžื“ ื ื•ืกืฃ, ืœื™ืื• ื”ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงืื™,
02:46
invented a system of beacons that ran the width of the empireโ€”
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ื”ืžืฆื™ื ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืฉืœ ืื‘ื•ืงื•ืช ืฉื”ื™ืชื” ืคืจื•ืกื” ืœืจื•ื—ื‘ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” --
02:50
whatโ€™s now Greece and Turkey.
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ืžื” ืฉืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื”ืŸ ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื•ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื”.
02:52
Stretching more than 700 kilometers,
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ื ืžืชื—ื• ืขืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž 700 ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจ,
02:55
this system allowed the edge of the Empire to warn the emperor of invading armies
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ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื–ื• ืืคืฉืจื” ืœืงืฆื” ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ืœื”ื–ื”ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืขืœ ืฆื‘ืื•ืช ืคื•ืœืฉื™ื
02:59
within one hour of sighting them at the border.
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ืชื•ืš ืฉืขื” ืžืื™ืชื•ืจื ืขืœ ื”ื’ื‘ื•ืœ.
03:03
But their advances couldnโ€™t protect the Empire forever.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื”ืชืงื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื ืœื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ืœืขื“.
03:07
In 1203, an army of French and Venetian Crusaders
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ื‘ 1203, ืฆื‘ื ืฉืœ ืฆืœื‘ื ื™ื ืฆืจืคืชื™ื ื•ื‘ื ื™ ื•ื•ื ืฆื™ื”
03:11
made a deal with a man named Alexios Angelos.
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ืขืฉื• ืขืกืงื” ืขื ืื™ืฉ ื‘ืฉื ืืœืงืกื™ื•ืก ืื ื’ืœื•ืก.
03:14
Alexios was the son of a deposed emperor,
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ืืœืงืกื™ื•ืก ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื ื• ืฉืœ ืงื™ืกืจ ืžื•ื“ื—,
03:18
and promised the crusaders vast riches
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ื•ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืœืฆืœื‘ื ื™ื ืขื•ืฉืจ ื ืจื—ื‘
03:20
and support to help him retake the throne from his uncle.
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ื•ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœื• ืœืงื—ืช ื—ื–ืจื” ืืช ื”ื›ืชืจ ืžื“ื•ื“ื•.
03:24
Alexios succeeded, but after a year,
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ืืœืงืกื™ื•ืก ื”ืฆืœื™ื—, ืื‘ืœ ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื ื”,
03:27
the population rebelled and Alexios himself was deposed and killed.
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ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื” ื”ืชืžืจื“ื” ื•ืืœืงืกื™ื•ืก ืขืฆืžื• ื”ื•ื“ื— ื•ื ื”ืจื’.
03:32
So Alexiosโ€™s unpaid army turned their aggression on Constantinople.
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ืื– ื”ืฆื‘ื ืฉืœ ืืœืงืกื™ื•ืก ืฉืœื ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืชืฉืœื•ื ื”ืคื ื” ืืช ื”ืขื•ื™ื™ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื• ืœืงื•ื ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื ื•ืคื•ืœ.
03:38
They lit massive fires,
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ื”ื ื”ืฆื™ืชื• ืฉืจื™ืคื•ืช ืžืกื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช,
03:39
which destroyed countless works of ancient and medieval art and literature,
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ืฉื”ืฉืžื™ื“ื• ืื™ืŸ ืกืคื•ืจ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช ืืžื ื•ืช ื•ืกืคืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืขืชื™ืง ื•ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื,
03:43
leaving about one-third of the population homeless.
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ื•ื”ืฉืื™ืจื• ื‘ืขืจืš ืฉืœื™ืฉ ืžื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื” ื—ืกืจื™ ื‘ื™ืช.
03:47
The city was reclaimed 50 years later by the Roman Emperor Michael Palaiologos,
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ื”ืขื™ืจ ื ืชืคืกื” ื—ื–ืจื” 50 ืฉื ื” ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ืจื•ืžืื™ ืžื™ื›ืืœ ืคืœื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื•ืก,
03:52
but his restored Empire never regained all the territory
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืžืฉื•ืงืžืช ืฉืœื• ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ืฉืœื˜ื” ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื˜ื—
03:55
the Crusaders had conquered.
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ืฉื”ืฆืœื‘ื ื™ื ื›ื‘ืฉื•.
03:57
Finally, in 1453, Ottoman Emperor Mehmed the Conqueror captured Constantinople,
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ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ื‘ 1453, ื”ืฉืœื™ื˜ ื”ืขื•ืชื•ืžืื ื™ ืžื—ืžื“ ื”ื›ื•ื‘ืฉ ื›ื‘ืฉ ืืช ืงื•ื ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื ื•ืคื•ืœ,
04:03
bringing a conclusive end to the Roman Empire.
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ื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืงื™ืฆื” ืืช ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช.
04:07
Despite the Ottoman conquest,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ื”ืขื•ืชื•ืžืื ื™,
04:09
many Greek-speaking inhabitants of the Eastern Mediterranean
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื“ื•ื‘ืจื™ ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžื–ืจื— ื”ื™ื ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ
04:13
continued to call themselves Romans until the early 21st century.
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ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื• ืœืงืจื•ื ืœืขืฆืžื ืจื•ืžืื™ื ืขื“ ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื” ื” 21.
04:18
In fact, it wasnโ€™t until the Renaissance
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืขื“ ื”ืจื ืกืื ืก
04:20
that the term โ€œByzantine Empireโ€ was first used.
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ืฉื”ืžื•ื ื— "ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ื‘ื™ื–ืื ื˜ื™ืช" ื”ื•ื˜ืžืข.
04:24
For Western Europeans,
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ืœืžืขืจื‘ ืืจื•ืคืื™ื,
04:25
the Renaissance was about reconnecting with the wisdom of antiquity.
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ื”ืจื ืกืื ืก ื”ื™ื” ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืขื ื”ืชื‘ื•ื ื” ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”.
04:29
And since the existence of a medieval Roman Empire
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ื•ืžืื—ืจ ื•ื”ืงื™ื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžืื™ืช ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื
04:32
suggested there were Europeans whoโ€™d never lost touch with antiquity,
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ื”ืฆื™ืข ืฉื”ื™ื• ืืจื•ืคืื™ื ืฉืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ืื™ื‘ื“ื• ืืช ื”ืงืฉืจ ืขื ื”ืขื‘ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืง,
04:35
Western Europeans wanted to draw clear lines between the ages.
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ืžื–ืจื— ืืจื•ืคืื™ื ืจืฆื• ืœืžืชื•ื— ืงื•ื™ื ื‘ืจื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื–ืžื ื™ื.
04:39
To better distinguish the classical, Latin-speaking, pagan Roman Empire
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื“ื™ืœ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช ื”ืคืื’ืื ื™ืช ื“ื•ื‘ืจืช ื”ืœื˜ื™ื ื™ืช
04:44
from the medieval, Greek-speaking, Christian Roman Empire,
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ืžื–ื• ืžื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ืช ื•ื“ื•ื‘ืจืช ื”ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ืช,
04:47
scholars renamed the latter group Byzantines.
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ืžืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ืฉื™ื ื• ืืช ืฉื ื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ืœื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ื.
04:51
And thus, 100 years after it had fallen, the Byzantine Empire was born.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ, 100 ืฉื ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื”ื™ื ื ืคืœื”, ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ืช ื ื•ืœื“ื”.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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