Who decides how long a second is? - John Kitching

2,362,668 views ใƒป 2021-01-19

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Naama Lieberman
00:06
In 1967, researchers from around the world
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ื‘-1967, ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœืขื•ืœื
00:10
gathered to answer a long-running scientific questionโ€”
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ื”ืชื›ื ืกื• ืœื“ื•ืŸ ื‘ืฉืืœื” ืžื“ืขื™ืช ืืจื•ื›ืช ืฉื ื™ื --
00:14
just how long is a second?
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ืžื” ืื•ืจืš ื”ืฉื ื™ื”?
00:17
It might seem obvious at first.
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ื–ื” ืื•ืœื™ ื ืจืื” ื‘ืจื•ืจ ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื”.
00:19
A second is the tick of a clock,
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ืฉื ื™ื” ื”ื™ื ืชืงืชื•ืง ืฉืœ ืฉืขื•ืŸ,
00:21
the swing of a pendulum, the time it takes to count to one.
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ื ื“ื ื•ื“ ืฉืœ ืžื˜ื•ื˜ืœืช, ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืœื•ืงื— ืœืกืคื•ืจ ืขื“ ืื—ืช.
00:25
But how precise are those measurements?
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืžื” ืžื“ื•ื™ืงื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื“ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•?
00:28
What is that length based on?
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ืขืœ ืžื” ืื•ืจื›ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืก?
00:30
And how can we scientifically define this fundamental unit of time?
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ื•ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ื“ื™ืจ ืžื“ืขื™ืช ืืช ื™ื—ื™ื“ืช ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช?
00:35
For most of human history, ancient civilizations
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ืœืื•ืจืš ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช, ืฆื™ื‘ื™ืœื™ื–ืฆื™ื•ืช ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช
00:38
measured time with unique calendars
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ืžื“ื“ื• ื–ืžืŸ ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืœื•ื—ื•ืช ืฉื ื” ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื™ื
00:41
that tracked the steady march of the night sky.
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ืฉืขืงื‘ื• ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืžืกืข ื”ื™ืฆื™ื‘ ืฉืœ ืฉืžื™ ื”ืœื™ืœื”.
00:44
In fact, the second as we know it wasnโ€™t introduced until the late 1500โ€™s,
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื”ืฉื ื™ื” ื›ืžื• ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื” ืœื ื ื›ื ืกื” ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืขื“ ืฉืœื”ื™ ื”ืžืื” ื”-16,
00:51
when the Gregorian calendar began to spread across the globe
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ื›ืฉืœื•ื— ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื”ืชืคืฉื˜ ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ื•ืก
00:54
alongside British colonialism.
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ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื”ืงื•ืœื•ื ื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™.
00:57
The Gregorian calendar defined a day as a single revolution of the Earth
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ืœื•ื— ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ ื”ื’ื“ื™ืจ ื™ื•ื ื›ืกื™ื‘ื•ื‘ ื‘ื•ื“ื“ ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
01:02
about its axis.
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ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืฆื™ืจื•.
01:03
Each day could be divided into 24 hours, each hour into 60 minutes,
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ื›ืœ ื™ื•ื ืžื—ื•ืœืง ืœ-24 ืฉืขื•ืช, ื›ืœ ืฉืขื” ืœ-60 ื“ืงื•ืช,
01:09
and each minute into 60 seconds.
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ื•ื›ืœ ื“ืงื” ืžื—ื•ืœืงืช ืœ-60 ืฉื ื™ื•ืช.
01:12
However, when it was first defined,
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ืขื ื–ืืช, ื›ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ื•ื’ื“ืจื” ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื”,
01:15
the second was more of a mathematical idea than a useful unit of time.
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ื”ืฉื ื™ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืžืชืžื˜ื™ ืžื™ื—ื™ื“ืช ืžื™ื“ื” ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉื™ืช ืœื–ืžืŸ.
01:20
Measuring days and hours was sufficient for most tasks in pastoral communities.
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ืžื“ื™ื“ืช ื™ืžื™ื ื•ืฉืขื•ืช ื”ื™ืชื” ืžืกืคื™ืงื” ืœืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžื˜ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื—ืงืœืื™ื•ืช.
01:26
It wasnโ€™t until society became interconnected
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ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืขื“ ืฉื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืžื—ื•ื‘ืจืช
01:29
through fast-moving railways that cities needed to agree on exact timekeeping.
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ื“ืจืš ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช, ืฉืขืจื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื•ืช ืœื”ืกื›ื™ื ืขืœ ืžื“ื™ื“ืช ื–ืžืŸ ืžื“ื•ื™ืงืช.
01:34
By the 1950โ€™s, numerous global systems required every second
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ืขื“ ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-50 ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20, ืื™ืŸ ืกืคื•ืจ ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ื•ืช ื“ืจืฉื• ืฉื›ืœ ืฉื ื™ื”
01:39
to be perfectly accounted for, with as much precision as possible.
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ืชื™ืกืคืจ ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืžื•ืฉืœืžืช, ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืจื‘ ื›ืœืœ ื”ื ื™ืชืŸ.
01:44
And what could be more precise than the atomic scale?
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ื•ืžื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื“ื•ื™ืง ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืงื ื” ื”ืžื™ื“ื” ื”ืื˜ื•ืžื™?
01:49
As early as 1955, researchers began to develop atomic clocks,
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ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘-1955, ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœืคืชื— ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื ืื˜ื•ืžื™ื,
01:54
which relied on the unchanging laws of physics
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ืฉื”ืกืชืžื›ื• ืขืœ ื”ื—ื•ืงื™ื ื”ืœื ืžืฉืชื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื”
01:57
to establish a new foundation for timekeeping.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ืกืก ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ืœืžื“ื™ื“ืช ื–ืžืŸ.
02:01
An atom consists of negatively charged electrons
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ืื˜ื•ื ืžื›ื™ืœ ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ื ืขื ืžื˜ืขืŸ ืฉืœื™ืœื™
02:04
orbiting a positively charged nucleus at a consistent frequency.
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ืฉืžืงื™ืคื™ื ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ ื‘ืขืœ ืžื˜ืขืŸ ื—ื™ื•ื‘ื™ ื‘ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืงื‘ื•ืขื”.
02:09
The laws of quantum mechanics keep these electrons in place,
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ื”ื—ื•ืงื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื›ื ื™ืงื” ืงื•ื•ื ื˜ื™ืช ืฉื•ืžืจื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื‘ืžืงื•ื,
02:13
but if you expose an atom to an electromagnetic field
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื•ืฉืคื™ื ืื˜ื•ื ืœืฉื“ื” ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ืžื’ื ื˜ื™
02:17
such as light or radio waves,
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ื›ืžื• ืื•ืจ ืื• ื’ืœื™ ืจื“ื™ื•,
02:19
you can slightly disturb an electronโ€™s orientation.
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืคืจื™ืข ืžืขื˜ ืœืžืกืœื•ืœ ื”ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ืŸ.
02:24
And if you briefly tweak an electron at just the right frequency,
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ื•ืื ืžื–ื™ื–ื™ื ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ืŸ ืœืจื’ืข ื‘ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืžืชืื™ืžื”,
02:28
you can create a vibration that resembles a ticking pendulum.
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืจื˜ื˜ ืฉื“ื•ืžื” ืœืžื˜ื•ื˜ืœืช ื ืขื”.
02:33
Unlike regular pendulums that quickly lose energy, electrons can tick for centuries.
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ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืžื˜ื•ื˜ืœืช ืจื’ื™ืœื” ืฉืžืื‘ื“ืช ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืชืงืชืง ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื.
02:39
To maintain consistency and make ticks easier to measure,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœ ืื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื•ืœื”ืงืœ ืขืœ ืžื“ื™ื“ืช ื”ืชืงืชื•ืงื™ื,
02:43
researchers vaporize the atoms,
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ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืื™ื™ื“ื• ืืช ื”ืื˜ื•ืžื™ื,
02:46
converting them to a less interactive and volatile state.
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ื•ื”ืคื›ื• ืื•ืชื ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืžื’ื™ื‘ื™ื ื•ืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื.
02:51
But this process doesnโ€™t slow down the atomโ€™s remarkably fast ticking.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื” ืœื ืžืื˜ ืืช ื”ืชืงืชื•ืง ื”ืžื”ื™ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ืฉืœ ื”ืื˜ื•ื.
02:55
Some atoms can oscillate over nine billion times per second,
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ื™ืฉ ืื˜ื•ืžื™ื ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจื˜ื•ื˜ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-9 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืคืขืžื™ื ื‘ืฉื ื™ื”,
03:00
giving atomic clocks an unparalleled resolution for measuring time.
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ืžื” ืฉื ื•ืชืŸ ืœืฉืขื•ื ื™ื ืื˜ื•ืžื™ื ื“ื™ื•ืง ืฉืื™ืŸ ืฉื•ื•ื” ืœื• ืœืžื“ื™ื“ืช ื–ืžืŸ.
03:05
And since every atom of a given elemental isotope is identical,
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ื•ืžืื—ืจ ืฉื›ืœ ืื˜ื•ื ืฉืœ ืื™ื–ื•ื˜ื•ืค ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ืžืกื•ื™ื ื–ื”ื”,
03:10
two researchers using the same element and the same electromagnetic wave
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ืฉื ื™ ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืฉืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื™ืกื•ื“ ื•ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื’ืœ ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ืžื’ื ื˜ื™
03:14
should produce perfectly consistent clocks.
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ืืžื•ืจื™ื ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื ืื—ื™ื“ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื•ืฉืœื.
03:18
But before timekeeping could go fully atomic,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืžื“ื™ื“ืช ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœืื˜ื•ืžื™ืช ืœื’ืžืจื™,
03:21
countries had to decide which atom would work best.
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ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื•ืช ืœื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืื™ื–ื” ืื˜ื•ื ื™ืขื‘ื•ื“ ื”ื›ื™ ื˜ื•ื‘.
03:25
This was the discussion in 1967,
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื”ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘-1967,
03:28
at the Thirteenth General Conference of the International Committee
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ื‘ื•ื•ืขื™ื“ื” ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืขืฉืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ื” ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืœืื•ืžื™ืช
03:32
for Weights and Measures.
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ืœืžืฉืงืœื™ื ื•ืžื™ื“ื•ืช.
03:35
There are 118 elements on the periodic table,
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ื™ืฉ 118 ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื˜ื‘ืœื” ื”ืžื—ื–ื•ืจื™ืช,
03:39
each with their own unique properties.
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ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ื‘ืขืœ ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื•ืช ืžืฉืœื•.
03:41
For this task, the researchers were looking for several things.
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ืœืžืฉื™ืžื” ื”ื–ื•, ื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื—ืคืฉื• ืžืกืคืจ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื.
03:45
The element needed to have long-lived
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ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ื—ื™ื™ื ืืจื•ื›ื™ื
03:47
and high frequency electron oscillation for precise, long-term timekeeping.
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ื•ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ืจื˜ื˜ ื‘ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ืœืžื“ื™ื“ืช ื–ืžืŸ ืืจื•ื›ืช ื˜ื•ื•ื— ื•ืžื“ื•ื™ืงืช.
03:54
To easily track this oscillation,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืงื•ื‘ ื‘ืงืœื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืจื˜ื˜,
03:56
it also needed to have a reliably measurable quantum spinโ€”
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ื”ื•ื ื’ื ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืกืคื™ืŸ ืื˜ื•ืžื™ ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืืžื™ื ื” --
04:00
meaning the orientation of the axis about which the electron rotatesโ€”
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ืจ ืฉืกื‘ื™ื‘ื• ื”ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ืŸ ืจื•ื˜ื˜ --
04:05
as well as a simple energy level structureโ€”
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ื›ืžื• ื’ื ืžื‘ื ื” ืจืžื•ืช ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ --
04:08
meaning the active electrons are few and their state is simple to identify.
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ื”ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ื ื”ืคืขื™ืœื™ื ืžืขื˜ื™ื ื•ื”ืžืฆื‘ ืฉืœื”ื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื–ื™ื”ื•ื™ ื‘ืงืœื•ืช.
04:14
Finally, it needed to be easy to vaporize.
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ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืงืœ ืœืื“ื•ืช ืื•ืชื•.
04:18
The winning atom? Cesium-133.
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ื”ืื˜ื•ื ื”ื–ื•ื›ื”? ืฆื–ื™ื•ื-133.
04:22
Cesium was already a popular element for atomic clock research,
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ืฆื–ื™ื•ื ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื” ื ืคื•ืฅ ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื ืื˜ื•ืžื™ื™ื,
04:26
and by 1968, some cesium clocks were even commercially available.
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ื•ื‘-1968, ืืคื™ืœื• ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื• ื›ืžื” ืฉืขื•ื ื™ ืฆื–ื™ื•ื ื–ืžื™ื ื™ื ืœืจื›ื™ืฉื”.
04:31
All that was left was to determine how many ticks of a cesium atom
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ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื ืฉืืจ ื”ื™ื” ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ื›ืžื” ืชืงืชื•ืงื™ื ืฉืœ ืื˜ื•ื ืฆื–ื™ื•ื
04:35
were in a second.
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ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืฉื ื™ื”.
04:37
The conference used the most precise astronomical measurement
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ื”ื•ื•ืขื™ื“ื” ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื” ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ื”ืืกื˜ืจื•ื ื•ืžื™ืช ื”ืžื“ื•ื™ืงืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
04:40
of a second available at the timeโ€”
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ืฉืœ ืฉื ื™ื” ืฉื”ื™ืชื” ื–ืžื™ื ื” ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ --
04:43
beginning with the number of days in a year and dividing down.
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ื”ื—ืœ ืžืžืกืคืจ ื”ื™ืžื™ื ื•ื—ืœื•ืงืชื ืžื˜ื”.
04:47
When compared to the atomโ€™s ticking rate,
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ื‘ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœืงืฆื‘ ื”ืชืงืชื•ืง ืฉืœ ื”ืื˜ื•ื,
04:50
the results formally defined one second
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ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ื”ื’ื“ื™ืจื• ืจืฉืžื™ืช ื›ืฉื ื™ื” ืื—ืช
04:53
as exactly 9,192,631,770 ticks of a cesium-133 atom.
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ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง 9 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“, 192 ืžืœื™ื•ืŸ, 631 ืืœืฃ,
ื•-770 ืชืงืชื•ืงื™ื ืฉืœ ืฆื–ื™ื•ื-133.
05:06
Today, atomic clocks are used all over the Earthโ€” and beyond it.
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ื”ื™ื•ื, ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื ืื˜ื•ืžื™ื™ื ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื -- ื•ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื•.
05:11
From radio signal transmitters to satellites
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ืžืžืฉื’ืจื™ ืื•ืชื•ืช ืจื“ื™ื• ืœืœื•ื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื
05:14
for global positioning systems,
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ืœ-GPS,
05:16
these devices have been synchronized
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ื”ืžื›ืฉื™ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืกื•ื ื›ืจื ื•
05:19
to help us maintain a globally consistent timeโ€”
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœ ื–ืžืŸ ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ ืื—ื™ื“ --
05:22
with precision thatโ€™s second to none.
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ื‘ื ืืžื ื•ืช ืฉืื™ืŸ ืฉื ื™ื” ืœื”.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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