How one scientist averted a national health crisis - Andrea Tone

1,922,867 views ใƒป 2018-06-07

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Allon Sasson
00:08
In the fall of 1960, Frances Oldham Kelsey
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ื‘ืกืชื™ื• 1960, ืคืจื ืกืก ืื•ืœื“ื”ื ืงืœืกื™
00:11
was one of the Food and Drug Administrationโ€™s newest recruits.
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ื”ื™ืชื” ืื—ืช ื”ืžื’ื•ื™ื™ืกื•ืช ื”ื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื ื”ืœ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื•ื”ืžื–ื•ืŸ.
00:15
Before the year was out,
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ืœืคื ื™ ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืฉื ื”,
00:16
she would begin a fight that would save thousands of lives,
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ื”ื™ื ืคืชื—ื” ื‘ืžืœื—ืžื” ืฉืชืฆื™ืœ ืืœืคื™ ืื ืฉื™ื,
00:19
though no one knew it at the time.
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ื™ื“ืข ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ื–ืžื ื•.
00:21
Although she was new to the FDA, Kelsey was no novice as a scientist.
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ื™ืชื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ FDA, ืงืœืกื™ ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ืžื“ืขื ื™ืช ืžืชื—ื™ืœื”.
00:25
After graduating from high school at age 15,
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ืื—ืจื™ ืกื™ื•ื ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ื” ื‘ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ ื‘ื’ื™ืœ 15,
00:28
she enrolled at McGill University in Montreal
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ื”ื™ื ื ืจืฉืžื” ืœืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืžืงื’ื™ืœ ื‘ืžื•ื ื˜ืจื™ืื•ืœ
00:31
and earned both undergraduate and masterโ€™s degrees in pharmacology.
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ื•ืงื™ื‘ืœื” ืชื•ืืจ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื•ืฉื ื™ ื‘ืคืจืžืงื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”.
00:36
From there, she applied for a research post
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ืžืฉื, ื”ื™ื ื ืจืฉืžื” ืœืžืฉืจืช ื—ื•ืงืจืช
00:38
at the University of Chicagoโ€™s pharmacology department.
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ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืฉื™ืงื’ื• ื‘ืžื—ืœืงืช ื”ืคืจืžืงื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”.
00:41
Her acceptance letter was addressed to Mr. Oldham.
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ืžื›ืชื‘ ื”ืงื‘ืœื” ืฉืœื” ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ืคื ื” ืœ ืžืจ ืื•ืœื“ื”ื.
00:44
Kelsey later joked that had her name been Elizabeth or Mary Jane,
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ืงืœืกื™ ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ืชื‘ื“ื—ื” ืฉืื ืฉืžื” ื”ื™ื” ืืœื™ื–ื‘ืช ืื• ืžืจื™ ื’'ื™ื™ืŸ,
00:48
her career might have ended there.
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ื”ืงืจื™ื™ืจื” ืฉืœื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืžืกืชื™ื™ืžืช ืฉื.
00:50
Fortunately, it didnโ€™t.
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ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืžื–ืœ, ื”ื™ื ืœื.
00:52
She earned her doctorate in pharmacology
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ื”ื™ื ื–ื›ืชื” ื‘ื“ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจื˜ ืฉืœื” ื‘ืคืจืžืงื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”
00:54
and accepted Chicagoโ€™s invitation to stay as faculty,
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ื•ืงื™ื‘ืœื” ืืช ื”ื”ื”ื–ืžื ื” ืฉืœ ืฉื™ืงื’ื• ืœื”ื™ืฉืืจ ื‘ืคืงื•ืœื˜ื”.
00:57
where she undertook pioneering research on drugs and fetal safety.
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ืฉื ื”ื™ื ืœืงื—ื” ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื” ืžื—ืงืจ ืคื•ืจืฅ ื“ืจืš ืขืœ ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื‘ื‘ื˜ื™ื—ื•ืช ืขื•ื‘ืจื™ื.
01:00
In 1950, she earned an MD, her fourth and final degree.
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ื‘ 1950, ื”ื™ื ืงื™ื‘ืœื” ืืช ืชื•ืืจ ื”ืจื•ืคื, ื”ืชื•ืืจ ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™ ื•ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœื”.
01:06
By the time she joined the FDA,
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ื•ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ืฆื˜ืจืคื” ืœ FDA,
01:07
Frances Kelsey was one of the most educated, experienced scientists around.
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ืคืจื ืกืก ืงืœืกื™ ื”ื™ืชื” ืื—ืช ื”ืžื“ืขื ื™ื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ ืžืœื•ืžื“ื•ืช ื•ืžื ื•ืกื•ืช ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
01:12
Yet, as the newest member of the team,
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ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ, ื›ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืฆื•ื•ืช,
01:14
Kelsey was assigned what everyone thought would be an easy review:
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ืงืœืกื™ ืงื™ื‘ืœื” ืžื” ืฉื›ื•ืœื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื“ื™ืงื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ื”:
01:18
an application from the US drug company Merrell
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ื‘ืงืฉื” ืžื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ืช ืžืจืœ
01:21
to sell a drug called thalidomide.
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ืœืžื›ื•ืจ ืชืจื•ืคื” ืฉื ืงืจืื” ืชืœื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื“.
01:24
Thalidomide was a sedative developed in Germany
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ืชืœื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื“ ื”ื™ืชื” ืกื ื”ืจื’ืขื” ืฉืคื•ืชื— ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”
01:26
that was already being widely used in dozens of countries
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ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ืชื” ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื ืจื—ื‘ ื‘ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช
01:29
to treat insomnia and workplace stress.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื ื“ื•ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื ื” ื•ืœื—ืฅ ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”.
01:32
Thalidomideโ€™s anti-nausea properties
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ื”ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื ื•ื’ื“ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ืชืœื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื“
01:35
also made it a popular remedy for pregnant women with morning sickness.
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ื”ืคื›ื• ืื•ืชื” ื’ื ืœืชืจื•ืคื” ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ืช ืœื ืฉื™ื ื‘ื”ืจื™ื•ืŸ ืขื ื‘ื—ื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ื•ืงืจ.
01:39
Reviewing Merrellโ€™s application,
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ื‘ื‘ื“ื™ืงืช ื”ื‘ืงืฉื” ืฉืœ ืžืจืœ,
01:41
Kelsey found its data on thalidomideโ€™s absorption and toxicity inadequate.
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ืงืœืกื™ ื’ื™ืœืชื” ืฉื”ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉืœื” ืขืœ ื”ืกืคื™ื’ื” ืฉืœ ืชืœื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื“ ื•ื”ืจืขื™ืœื•ืช ืฉืœื• ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžืกืคืง.
01:45
Today, the FDA classifies drugs based on their safety for a fetus.
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ื”ื™ื•ื, ื” FDA ืžืกื•ื•ื’ ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื‘ื”ืชื‘ืกืก ืขืœ ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ืŸ ืœืขื•ื‘ืจ.
01:50
But in 1960, many experts believed that the placental barrier
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ 1960, ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื”ืืžื™ื ื• ืฉื”ืžื—ืกื•ื ื”ืฉืœื™ื™ืชื™
01:53
shielded a fetus from harm.
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ืžื’ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืขื•ื‘ืจ ืžืคื’ื™ืขื”.
01:55
Kelsey's earlier animal-based research
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ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืžื•ืงื“ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื—ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงืœืกื™
01:57
demonstrated the opposite:
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ื”ืจืื” ืืช ื”ื”ื™ืคืš:
01:59
drugs could pass from mother to fetus through the placenta.
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ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื”ืื ืœืขื•ื‘ืจ ื“ืจืš ื”ืฉืœื™ื”.
02:02
Like other drug companies at this time,
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ื›ืžื• ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ,
02:04
Merrell had not tested its drug on pregnant animals.
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ืžืจืœ ืœื ื ื™ืกืชื” ืืช ื”ืชืจื•ืคื” ืฉืœื” ืขืœ ื—ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืจื™ื•ืŸ.
02:07
Kelsey later said Merrellโ€™s evidence for thalidomideโ€™s safety seemed
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ืงืœืกื™ ืืžืจื” ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื”ืขื“ื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื‘ื˜ื™ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืชืœื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื“
02:11
โ€œmore like testimonials than the results of well-designed studies.โ€
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"ื”ื™ืชื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื“ื•ืช ืžืืฉืจ ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉืชื•ื›ื ืŸ ื›ื”ืœื›ื”."
02:15
Kelsey rejected Merrellโ€™s application
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ืงืœืกื™ ื“ื—ืชื” ืืช ื”ื‘ืงืฉื” ืฉืœ ืžืจืœ
02:17
and asked them to submit a second backed by better evidence.
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ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉื” ืžื”ื ืœื”ื’ื™ืฉ ื‘ืงืฉื” ืฉื ื™ื” ืฉื ืชืžื›ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช.
02:21
Her FDA colleagues supported this decision.
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ื”ืขืžื™ืชื™ื ืฉืœื” ื‘ FDA ืชืžื›ื• ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜ื”.
02:24
Merrell had expected a quick, affirmative reply
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ืžืจืœ ืฆื™ืคืชื” ืœืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื—ื™ื•ื‘ื™ืช ื•ืžื”ื™ืจื”
02:27
so it could launch thalidomide for the holiday season,
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ื›ืš ืฉืชื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฉื™ืง ืชืœื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื“ ื‘ืขื•ื ืช ื”ื—ื’ื™ื,
02:30
when sedative sales soar.
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ื›ืฉืžื›ื™ืจื•ืช ืžืฉื›ื›ื™ ื”ื›ืื‘ื™ื ืžื–ื ืงื•ืช.
02:32
Instead of supplying Kelsey with the data she requested
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœืกืคืง ืœืงืœืกื™ ืืช ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉื‘ื™ืงืฉื”
02:34
they first tried to convince her to approve the drug
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ื”ื ื ื™ืกื• ืจืืฉื™ืช ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืื•ืชื” ืœืืฉืจ ืืช ื”ืชืจื•ืคื”
02:36
over a series of calls and visits.
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ื‘ืกื“ืจื” ืฉืœ ืฉื™ื—ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจื™ื.
02:39
When these failed to sway her,
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ื›ืฉืืœื” ื ื›ืฉืœื• ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืื•ืชื”,
02:41
Merrell executives complained
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ื”ืžื ื”ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ืžืจืœ ื”ืชืœื•ื ื ื•
02:43
that stubborn and nit-picking Kelsey was the problem,
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ืฉืงืœืกื™ ื”ืขืงืฉื ื™ืช ื•ื”ื“ืงื“ืงื ื™ืช ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ื‘ืขื™ื”,
02:46
not thalidomide.
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ืœื ืชืœื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื“.
02:48
The FDA backed Kelsey,
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ื” FDA ื’ื™ื‘ื” ืืช ืงืœืกื™,
02:49
forcing Merrell to file another application,
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ืžื” ืฉื’ืจื ืœืžืจืœ ืœื”ื’ื™ืฉ ื‘ืงืฉื” ื ื•ืกืคืช,
02:52
and another,
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02:52
and another.
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ื•ื ื•ืกืคืช,
ื•ืขื•ื“ ืื—ืช.
02:54
As Kelsey reviewed and rejected each new application,
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ื›ืฉืงืœืกื™ ื‘ื—ื ื” ื•ื“ื—ืชื” ื›ืœ ื‘ืงืฉื” ื—ื“ืฉื”,
02:57
news of thalidomideโ€™s adverse side effects began to surface.
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ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืขืœ ืชื•ืคืขื•ืช ื”ืœื•ื•ืื™ ื”ืฉืœื™ืœื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืชืœื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื“ ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื”ื•ืคื™ืข.
03:01
Doctors reported cases of nerve damage in early 1961,
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ืจื•ืคืื™ื ื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ื• ืขืœ ืžืงืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื ื–ืง ืขืฆื‘ื™ ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ 1961,
03:05
and by fall, theyโ€™d unmasked a more horrible truth.
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ื•ื‘ืกืชื™ื•, ื”ื ื’ื™ืœื• ืืžืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื ื•ืจืื™ืช.
03:08
Thalidomide, widely used by pregnant women, caused severe birth defects.
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ืชืœื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื“, ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื ืคื•ืฅ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื ืฉื™ื ื‘ื”ืจื™ื•ืŸ, ื’ืจื ืœืคื’ืžื™ื ืžื•ืœื“ื™ื ื—ืžื•ืจื™ื.
03:12
Thousands of babies died in utero,
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ืืœืคื™ ืชื™ื ื•ืงื•ืช ืžืชื• ื‘ืจื—ื,
03:15
and tens of thousands more were born with extra appendages,
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ื•ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืืœืคื™ ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ื ื•ืœื“ื• ืขื ืื‘ืจื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื,
03:18
shorter limbs,
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ื’ืคื™ื™ื ืงืฆืจื•ืช,
03:20
or no limbs at all.
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ืื• ืœืœื ื’ืคื™ื™ื ื‘ื›ืœืœ.
03:21
In November 1961, thalidomide was pulled from the German market.
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ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 1961, ืชืœื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื“ ื”ื•ืฆื ืžื”ืฉื•ืง ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™.
03:26
Nonetheless, Merrell continued trying to get it approved in the US
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ืขื ื–ืืช, ืžืจืœ ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื” ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœืืฉืจ ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช
03:29
for several months before withdrawing their sixth and final application.
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืกืคืจ ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืžืฉื›ื” ืืช ื”ื‘ืงืฉื” ื”ืฉื™ืฉื™ืช ื•ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื”.
03:33
While Kelsey wasnโ€™t the only scientist to identify the risks of thalidomide,
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืงืœืกื™ ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืžื“ืขื ื™ืช ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืฉื–ื™ื”ืชื” ืืช ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืชืœื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื“,
03:37
she sounded the alarm
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ื”ื™ื ื”ืฉืžื™ืข ืืช ื”ืื–ืขืงื”
03:39
that kept it off the multi-billion-dollar American drug market.
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ืฉื”ืจื—ื™ืงื” ืื•ืชื” ืžืฉื•ืง ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ ื”ื“ื•ืœืจื™ื.
03:42
As public awareness of the thalidomide tragedy grew,
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ื›ืฉืžื•ื“ืขื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ื˜ืจื’ื“ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืชืœื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื“ ื’ื“ืœื”,
03:45
the quiet scientist became a media sensation.
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ื”ืžื“ืขื ื™ืช ื”ืฉืงื˜ื” ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืชื•ืคืขื” ืชืงืฉื•ืจืชื™ืช.
03:48
Headlines in newspapers and magazines heralded her heroism
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ื›ื•ืชืจื•ืช ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ื ื™ื ื•ืžื’ื–ื™ื ื™ื ืฉื™ื‘ื—ื• ืืช ื”ื’ื‘ื•ืจื” ืฉืœื”
03:52
while a smiling President John F. Kennedy
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื”ื ืฉื™ื ื’'ื•ืŸ ืค. ืงื ื“ื™ ื”ืžื—ื™ื™ืš
03:54
presented her an award on the White House lawn.
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ื”ืขื ื™ืง ืœื” ืคืจืก ืขืœ ืžื“ืฉืืช ื”ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืœื‘ืŸ.
03:57
After the thalidomide scare,
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ืื—ืจื™ ื‘ื”ืœืช ื”ืชืœื™ื“ื•ืžื™ื“,
03:59
Congress passed laws that expanded the FDAโ€™s authority
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ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ื—ื•ืงื™ื ืฉื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ื• ืืช ื”ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื” FDA
04:02
and toughened requirements for new drug applications.
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ื•ื”ืงืฉื™ื—ื• ืืช ื”ื“ืจื™ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช ืœืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช.
04:05
Kelsey was tapped to head the agencyโ€™s drug investigation branch.
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ืงืœืกื™ ืžื•ื ืชื” ื›ืจืืฉ ืขื ืฃ ื—ืงืจ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืกื•ื›ื ื•ืช.
04:09
Working at the FDA in different capacities into her 90s,
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ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื” ื‘ FDA ื‘ืžืฉืจื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืขื“ ืฉื ื•ืช ื” 90 ืฉืœื”,
04:11
Kelsey was able to witness the changes her actions helped inspire.
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ืงืœืกื™ ื”ื™ืชื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœืช ืœืฆืคื•ืช ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉื”ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืœื” ื ืชื ื• ืœื”ืŸ ื”ืฉืจืื”.
04:16
Her visibility may have dimmed since, but her legacy endures.
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ื”ื ืจืื•ืช ืฉืœื” ืื•ืœื™ ื”ืชืขืžืขืžื” ืžืื–, ืื‘ืœ ื”ืžื•ืจืฉืช ืฉืœื” ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื”.
04:19
Privileging facts over opinions, and patience over shortcuts,
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ื”ืขื“ืคืช ืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช ืขืœ ื“ืขื•ืช, ื•ืกื‘ืœื ื•ืช ืžืขืœ ืงื™ืฆื•ืจื™ ื“ืจืš,
04:23
she made evidence-based medicine the foundation of reforms
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ื”ื™ื ื”ืคื›ื” ืืช ื”ืจืคื•ืื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช ืœื‘ืกื™ืก ื”ืจืคื•ืจืžื•ืช
04:26
that continue to protect people today.
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ืฉืžืžืฉื™ื›ื” ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื™ื•ื.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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