The tiny creature that secretly powers the planet | Penny Chisholm

106,996 views ใƒป 2018-07-23

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Roni Weisman ืขืจื™ื›ื”: hila scherba
00:12
I'd like to introduce you to a tiny microorganism
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ื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื™ ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ ืœื›ื ืžื™ืงืจื•ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื–ืขื™ืจ
00:16
that you've probably never heard of:
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ืฉืงืจื•ื‘ ืœื•ื“ืื™ ืฉืืฃ ืคืขื ืœื ืฉืžืขืชื ืขืœื™ื•:
00:18
its name is Prochlorococcus,
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ืฉืžื• ื”ื•ื ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก,
00:20
and it's really an amazing little being.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืื›ืŸ ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืงื˜ืŸ ืžื“ื”ื™ื.
00:23
For one thing, its ancestors
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ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ, ืื‘ื•ืช ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื•
00:26
changed the earth in ways that made it possible for us to evolve,
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ืฉื™ื ื• ืืช ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืฉืื™ืคืฉืจื• ืœื ื• ืœื”ืชืคืชื—,
00:30
and hidden in its genetic code
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ื•ื‘ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ ืฉืœื• ื—ื‘ื•ื™ื”
00:32
is a blueprint
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ืชื›ื ื™ืช ื”ืื‘
00:34
that may inspire ways to reduce our dependency on fossil fuel.
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ืฉืขืฉื•ื™ื” ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืžืฆื™ืืช ื”ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืœื”ืงื˜ื ืช ื”ืชืœื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ื“ืœืง ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื.
00:40
But the most amazing thing
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
00:42
is that there are three billion billion billion
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“
00:45
of these tiny cells on the planet,
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ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื ื–ืขื™ืจื™ื ืืœื” ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ,
00:46
and we didn't know they existed until 35 years ago.
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ื•ืฉืœื ื™ื“ืขื ื• ื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืงื™ื•ืžื ืขื“ ืœืคื ื™ 35 ืฉื ื”.
00:51
So to tell you their story,
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ืื– ื›ื“ื™ ืœืกืคืจ ืœื›ื ืืช ืกื™ืคื•ืจื,
00:52
I need to first take you way back,
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ืื ื™ ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœืงื—ืช ืืชื›ื ืื—ื•ืจื” ื‘ื–ืžืŸ,
00:55
four billion years ago, when the earth might have looked something like this.
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ืืœ ืœืคื ื™ ืืจื‘ืขื” ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืฉื ื™ื, ื›ืืฉืจ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื ืจืื” ื›ื ืจืื” ื›ืš.
01:00
There was no life on the planet,
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ืœื ื”ื™ื• ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘,
01:02
there was no oxygen in the atmosphere.
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ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”.
01:05
So what happened to change that planet into the one we enjoy today,
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ืื– ืžื” ืงืจื” ืฉืฉื™ื ื” ืืช ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ื–ื” ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืžืžื ื• ืื ื• ื ื”ื ื™ื ื”ื™ื•ื,
01:11
teeming with life,
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ืฉื•ืคืข ื—ื™ื™ื,
01:12
teeming with plants and animals?
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ืฉื•ืคืข ืฆืžื—ื™ื ื•ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื?
01:15
Well, in a word, photosynthesis.
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ื‘ืžื™ืœื” ืื—ืช, ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ื˜ื–ื”.
01:19
About two and a half billion years ago,
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ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืฉื ื™ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื•ื—ืฆื™ ืฉื ื™ื,
01:21
some of these ancient ancestors of Prochlorococcus evolved
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ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ื”ืื‘ื•ืช ื”ืงื“ืžื•ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก
01:25
so that they could use solar energy
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ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืฉืื™ืคืฉืจื” ืœื”ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืื ืจื’ื™ื™ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ
01:27
and absorb it
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ื•ืœืกืคื•ื’ ืื•ืชื”
01:28
and split water into its component parts of oxygen and hydrogen.
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ื•ืœืคืจืง ืืช ืชืจื›ื•ื‘ืช ื”ืžื™ื ืœืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื”, ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื•ืžื™ืžืŸ.
01:33
And they used the chemical energy produced
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ื”ื ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ืช ืฉื”ื•ืคืงื”
01:36
to draw CO2, carbon dioxide, out of the atmosphere
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžืฉื•ืš CO2, ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™, ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”
01:40
and use it to build sugars and proteins and amino acids,
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ื•ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืกื•ื›ืจื™ื, ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื ื•ื—ื•ืžืฆื•ืช ืืžื™ื ื•,
01:44
all the things that life is made of.
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ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื—ื™ื™ื.
01:47
And as they evolved and grew more and more
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ื•ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ื ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ื•ื ืคื•ืฆื• ืขื•ื“ ื•ืขื•ื“
01:50
over millions and millions of years,
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ื ื•ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืฉื ื™ื,
01:52
that oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere.
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ื”ืฆื˜ื‘ืจ ื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื”ื–ื” ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”.
01:57
Until about 500 million years ago,
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ืขื“ ืœืคื ื™ ื›-500 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื”,
02:00
there was enough in the atmosphere that larger organisms could evolve.
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ื”ืฆื˜ื‘ืจ ืžืกืคื™ืง ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชืคืชื—.
02:03
There was an explosion of life-forms,
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ื”ื™ืชื” ืื– ื”ืชืคื•ืฆืฆื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื,
02:05
and, ultimately, we appeared on the scene.
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ื•ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ื”ื•ืคืขื ื• ืื ื—ื ื• ืขืœ ื”ื‘ืžื”.
02:09
While that was going on,
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื›ืœ ื–ื” ื”ืชืจื—ืฉ,
02:11
some of those ancient photosynthesizers died
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ืžืชื• ื—ืœืง ืžืžื—ื•ืœืœื™ ื”ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ื˜ื–ื” ื”ืงื“ื•ืžื™ื ื”ืืœื”
02:14
and were compressed and buried,
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ื•ื ื“ื—ืกื• ื•ื ืงื‘ืจื•,
02:17
and became fossil fuel
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ื•ื ื”ืคื›ื• ืœื“ืœืง ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื
02:19
with sunlight buried in their carbon bonds.
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ื›ืฉืื•ืจ ืฉืžืฉ ืงื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืฉืจืฉืจื•ืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ืฉืœื”ื.
02:23
They're basically buried sunlight in the form of coal and oil.
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ื”ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืื•ืจ ืฉืžืฉ ื”ืงื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ืคื—ื ื•ื ืคื˜.
02:29
Today's photosynthesizers,
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ืžื—ื•ืœืœื™ ื”ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ื˜ื–ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื•ื,
02:30
their engines are descended from those ancient microbes,
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ื”ืžื ื•ืขื™ื ืฉืœื”ื, ื ื‘ืขื• ืžื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื ืงื“ื•ืžื™ื ืืœื”,
02:36
and they feed basically all of life on earth.
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ื•ื”ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ืืช ื›ืœ ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
02:40
Your heart is beating using the solar energy
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ื”ืœื‘ ืฉืœื›ื ืคื•ืขื ื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ืœืื ืจื’ื™ื™ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ
02:43
that some plant processed for you,
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ืฉืฆืžื— ื›ืœืฉื”ื• ืขื™ื‘ื“ ืขื‘ื•ืจื›ื,
02:46
and the stuff your body is made out of
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ื•ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ืžืžื ื• ืขืฉื•ื™ ื’ื•ืคื›ื
02:48
is made out of CO2
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ื ื•ืฆืจ ืžืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™
02:50
that some plant processed for you.
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ืฉืฆืžื— ื›ืœืฉื”ื• ืขื™ื‘ื“ ืขื‘ื•ืจื›ื.
02:53
Basically, we're all made out of sunlight and carbon dioxide.
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ื‘ื‘ืกื™ืก, ืื ื• ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืžืื•ืจ ืฉืžืฉ ื•ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™.
02:58
Fundamentally, we're just hot air.
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ื‘ื™ืกื•ื“, ืื ื—ื ื• ืจืง ืื•ื™ืจ ื—ื.
03:00
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
03:04
So as terrestrial beings,
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ื›ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื™ื‘ืฉืชื™ื™ื,
03:06
we're very familiar with the plants on land:
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ืื ื• ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ื”ื™ื˜ื‘ ืืช ื”ืฆืžื—ื™ื ืฉืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืื“ืžื”:
03:09
the trees, the grasses, the pastures, the crops.
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ื”ืขืฆื™ื, ื”ืขืฉื‘ื™ื, ื”ืชื‘ื•ืื”, ื”ื™ื‘ื•ืœื™ื.
03:14
But the oceans are filled with billions of tons of animals.
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ืืš ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื ืžืœืื™ื ื‘ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ ื˜ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื.
03:17
Do you ever wonder what's feeding them?
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ื”ืื ืชื”ื™ืชื ืžืขื•ื“ื›ื ืžื” ืžื–ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื?
03:21
Well there's an invisible pasture
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื™ืฉ "ืชื‘ื•ืื”" ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืจืื™ืช
03:23
of microscopic photosynthesizers called phytoplankton
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ืฉืœ ืžื—ื•ืœืœื™ ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ื˜ื–ื” ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื™ื ืฉื ืงืจืื™ื ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ
03:27
that fill the upper 200 meters of the ocean,
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ืืฉืจ ืžืžืœืื™ื ืืช 200 ื”ืžื˜ืจื™ื ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก,
03:32
and they feed the entire open ocean ecosystem.
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ื•ืืฉืจ ืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืืงื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื ื”ืคืชื•ื—.
03:35
Some of the animals live among them and eat them,
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ื—ืœืง ืžื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื™ืžื™ื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื ื•ืื•ื›ืœื™ื ืื•ืชื,
03:37
and others swim up to feed on them at night,
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ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉื•ื—ื™ื ื›ืœืคื™ ืžืขืœื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื™ื–ื•ืŸ ืžื”ื ื‘ืœื™ืœื”,
03:40
while others sit in the deep and wait for them to die and settle down
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืื—ืจื™ื ื ืฉืืจื™ื ื‘ืžืขืžืงื™ื ื•ืžื—ื›ื™ื ืฉื”ื ื™ืžื•ืชื• ื•ื™ื™ืฉืงืขื•
03:44
and then they chow down on them.
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ื•ืื– ืื•ื›ืœื™ื ืื•ืชื.
03:47
So these tiny phytoplankton,
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ื”ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ืขื™ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
03:50
collectively, weigh less than one percent of all the plants on land,
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ื™ื—ื“ื™ื•, ืฉื•ืงืœื™ื ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืื—ื•ื– ืื—ื“ ืžื›ืœ ื”ืฆื•ืžื— ืฉื‘ื™ื‘ืฉื”,
03:54
but annually they photosynthesize as much as all of the plants on land,
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื›ืœ ืฉื ื” ื”ื ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ืชื–ื” ื‘ืื•ืชื” ื›ืžื•ืช ื›ืžื• ื›ืœ ื”ืฆื•ืžื— ื”ื™ื‘ืฉืชื™,
03:58
including the Amazon rainforest
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ื™ืขืจื•ืช ื”ื’ืฉื ืฉืœ ื”ืืžืื–ื•ื ืก
04:01
that we consider the lungs of the planet.
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ืฉืื ื• ืžื—ืฉื™ื‘ื™ื ื›ืจื™ืื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืฉืœื ื•.
04:04
Every year, they fix 50 billion tons of carbon
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ื›ืœ ืฉื ื”, ื”ื ืžืงื‘ืขื™ื 50 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื˜ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืคื—ืžืŸ
04:08
in the form of carbon dioxide into their bodies
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ื‘ืฆื•ืจืช ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืืœ ืชื•ืš ื’ื•ืคื
04:11
that feeds the ocean ecosystem.
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ืืฉืจ ืžื–ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืืงื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื.
04:15
How does this tiny amount of biomass
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ืื™ืš ื›ืžื•ืช ื–ืขื™ืจื” ื–ื• ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ื•-ืžืืกื”
04:17
produce as much as all the plants on land?
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ืžืคื™ืงื” ืื•ืชื” ื›ืžื•ืช ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื›ืžื• ื›ืœ ื”ืฆืžื—ื™ื ืฉื‘ื™ื‘ืฉื”?
04:19
Well, they don't have trunks and stems
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื™ืŸ ืœื”ื ื’ื–ืขื™ื ื•ื’ื‘ืขื•ืœื™ื
04:22
and flowers and fruits and all that to maintain.
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ื•ืคืจื—ื™ื ื•ืคื™ืจื•ืช ื•ื›ืœ ื–ื” ืœืชื—ื–ืง.
04:25
All they have to do is grow and divide and grow and divide.
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ื›ืœ ืฉืขืœื™ื”ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื”ื•ื ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ ื•ืœื”ืชื—ืœืง, ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ ื•ืœื”ืชื—ืœืง.
04:28
They're really lean little photosynthesis machines.
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ื”ื ื‘ืขืฆื ืžื›ื•ื ื•ืช ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ื˜ื–ื” ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ื•ืจื–ื•ืช.
04:33
They really crank.
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ื”ื ื‘ืืžืช ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื.
04:39
So there are thousands of different species of phytoplankton,
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ื™ืฉื ื ืืœืคื™ ืžื™ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ,
04:43
come in all different shapes and sizes,
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ื‘ืขืœื™ ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื•ื’ื“ืœื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
04:45
all roughly less than the width of a human hair.
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ื›ื•ืœื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืขื•ื‘ื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ ืฉืขืจื” ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช.
04:48
Here, I'm showing you some of the more beautiful ones,
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ื›ืืŸ, ืื ื™ ืžืจืื” ืœื›ื ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืžื™ื ื™ื ื”ื™ืคื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ,
04:52
the textbook versions.
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ื”ื’ื™ืจืกืื•ืช ืฉืœ ืกืคืจื™ ื”ืœื™ืžื•ื“.
04:54
I call them the charismatic species of phytoplankton.
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ืื ื™ ืงื•ืจืืช ืœื”ื ื”ืžื™ื ื™ื ื”ื›ืจื™ื–ืžื˜ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ.
05:00
And here is Prochlorococcus.
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ื•ื›ืืŸ ื”ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก.
05:04
I know,
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ืื ื™ ื™ื•ื“ืขืช,
05:05
it just looks like a bunch of schmutz on a microscope slide.
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ื–ื” ื ืจืื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ืื•ืกืฃ ืฉืœ ื’'ื™ืคื” ืขืœ ืœื•ื—ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืค.
05:08
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
05:10
But they're in there,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื ื ืžืฆืื™ื ืฉื,
05:12
and I'm going to reveal them to you in a minute.
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ื•ืื ื™ ืขื•ืžื“ืช ืœื—ืฉื•ืฃ ืื•ืชื ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืจื’ืข.
05:15
But first I want to tell you how they were discovered.
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ืืš ืงื•ื“ื ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืกืคืจ ืœื›ื ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ื ื”ืชื’ืœื•.
05:20
About 38 years ago,
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ื‘ืขืจืš ืœืคื ื™ 38 ืฉื ื™ื,
05:22
we were playing around with a technology in my lab called flow cytometry
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ืฉื™ื—ืงื ื• ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ื” ืฉืœื™ ืขื ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉื ืงืจืืช ืื ืœื™ื–ืช ืชืื™ื ื‘ื–ืจื™ืžื”
05:27
that was developed for biomedical research for studying cells like cancer cells,
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ืืฉืจ ืคื•ืชื—ื” ืœืฆื•ืจืš ืžื—ืงืจ ื‘ื™ื•-ืจืคื•ืื™ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืชืื™ื ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืชืื™ ืกืจื˜ืŸ,
05:33
but it turns out we were using it for this off-label purpose
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฆื ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืฉื”ืฉืชืžืฉื ื• ื‘ื” ืœืžื˜ืจื” ืฉืœื ื ื•ืขื“ื” ืœื”
05:36
which was to study phytoplankton, and it was beautifully suited to do that.
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ืฉื”ื™ื ื—ืงืจ ื”ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ, ื•ื”ื™ื ื”ืชืื™ืžื” ืžืฆื•ื™ื™ืŸ ืœืžื˜ืจื” ื–ืืช.
05:41
And here's how it works:
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ื•ื›ืš ื–ื” ืขื•ื‘ื“:
05:43
so you inject a sample in this tiny little capillary tube,
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ืืชื ืžื–ืจื™ืงื™ื ื“ื’ื™ืžื” ืœืชื•ืš ืงืคื™ืœืจื” ืงื˜ื ื” ื–ื•,
05:47
and the cells go single file by a laser,
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ื•ื”ืชืื™ื ืžืกื•ื“ืจื™ื ืœื˜ื•ืจ ืื—ื“ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืœื™ื™ื–ืจ,
05:51
and as they do, they scatter light according to their size
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ื•ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ื›ืš ื”ื ืžืคื–ืจื™ื ืื•ืจ ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœื”ื
05:55
and they emit light according to whatever pigments they might have,
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ื•ื”ื ืคื•ืœื˜ื™ื ืื•ืจ ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœืื•ืชื ืคื™ื’ืžื ื˜ื™ื ืฉืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื”ื,
05:59
whether they're natural or whether you stain them.
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ืื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ืื• ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื”ื›ืชืžื”.
06:01
And the chlorophyl of phytoplankton,
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ื•ื”ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืคื™ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ,
06:05
which is green,
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ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ืจื•ืง,
06:06
emits red light when you shine blue light on it.
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ืคื•ืœื˜ ืื•ืจ ืื“ื•ื ื›ืืฉืจ ืืชื ืžืื™ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืื•ืจ ื›ื—ื•ืœ.
06:10
And so we used this instrument for several years
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ื•ื›ืš ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื ื• ื‘ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ื–ื” ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื ื™ื
06:13
to study our phytoplankton cultures,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ืชืจื‘ื™ื•ืช ื”ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื•,
06:15
species like those charismatic ones that I showed you,
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ืืช ื”ืžื™ื ื™ื ื”ื›ืจื™ื–ืžื˜ื™ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืืœื” ืฉื”ืจืื™ืชื™ ืœื›ื,
06:19
just studying their basic cell biology.
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ื—ืงืจื ื• ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืืช ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
06:22
But all that time, we thought, well wouldn't it be really cool
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืžืฉืš ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื–ื”, ื—ืฉื‘ื ื•, ื›ืžื” ืื“ื™ืจ ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช
06:25
if we could take an instrument like this out on a ship
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ืื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืงื—ืช ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ื›ื–ื” ื”ื—ื•ืฆื” ืขืœ ืกืคื™ื ื”
06:27
and just squirt seawater through it
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ื•ืœื”ื–ืจื™ื ืžื™-ื™ื ื“ืจื›ื•
06:29
and see what all those diversity of phytoplankton would look like.
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ื•ืœืจืื•ืช ืื™ืš ื ืจืื” ื›ืœ ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื”.
06:34
So I managed to get my hands
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ื”ืฆืœื—ืชื™ ืœืฉื™ื ืืช ื™ื“ื™
06:36
on what we call a big rig in flow cytometry,
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ืขืœ ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืงื•ืจืื™ื "ืžืฉืื™ืช" ื‘ืื ืœื™ื–ืช ืชืื™ื ื‘ื–ืจื™ืžื”,
06:39
a large, powerful laser
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ืœื™ื™ื–ืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื•ืขื•ืฆืžืชื™
06:43
with a money-back guarantee from the company
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ืขื ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ืœื”ื—ื–ืจ ื›ืกืคื™ ืžื”ื—ื‘ืจื”
06:46
that if it didn't work on a ship, they would take it back.
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ืฉืื ื”ื•ื ืœื ื™ืขื‘ื•ื“ ืขืœ ืกืคื™ื ื”, ื”ื ื™ื™ืงื—ื• ืื•ืชื• ื‘ื—ื–ืจื”.
06:48
And so a young scientist that I was working with at the time,
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ื•ื›ืš, ืžื“ืขืŸ ืฆืขื™ืจ ืฉืขื‘ื“ืชื™ ืื™ืชื• ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืชืงื•ืคื”,
06:52
Rob Olson, was able to take this thing apart,
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ืจื•ื‘ ืื•ืœืกื•ืŸ, ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœืคืจืง ืืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื–ื” ืœื—ืœืงื™ื•,
06:54
put it on a ship, put it back together and take it off to sea.
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ืœืฉื™ื ืื•ืชื• ืขืœ ืกืคื™ื ื”, ืœื”ืจื›ื™ื‘ ืื•ืชื• ื‘ื—ื–ืจื” ื•ืœืงื—ืช ืื•ืชื• ืœื™ื.
06:58
And it worked like a charm.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืขื‘ื“ ื—ืœืง.
06:59
We didn't think it would, because we thought the ship's vibrations
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ืœื ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืฉื–ื” ื™ืขื‘ื•ื“, ื›ื™ ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืฉืจืขื™ื“ื•ืช ื”ืกืคื™ื ื”
ื™ืคืจื™ืขื• ืœืžื™ืงื•ื“ ืฉืœ ื”ืœื™ื™ื–ืจ,
07:03
would get in the way of the focusing of the laser,
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืขื‘ื“ ื›ืžื• ืงืกื.
07:05
but it really worked like a charm.
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ื•ื›ืš ืžื™ืคื™ื ื• ืืช ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก.
07:07
And so we mapped the phytoplankton distributions across the ocean.
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07:10
For the first time, you could look at them one cell at a time in real time
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ื‘ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืืคืฉืจ ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœื™ื”ื ื‘ืจืžืช ื”ืชื ื”ื‘ื•ื“ื“ ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืืžืช
07:14
and see what was going on -- that was very exciting.
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ื•ืœืจืื•ืช ืžื” ื”ื•ืœืš --- ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžืื“ ืžืœื”ื™ื‘.
07:17
But one day, Rob noticed some faint signals
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ื•ื ืื—ื“, ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ ื‘ื›ืžื” ืื•ืชื•ืช ื—ืœืฉื™ื
07:20
coming out of the instrument
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ืฉืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืžื”ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ
07:21
that we dismissed as electronic noise
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ืฉืคื˜ืจื ื• ื›ืจืขืฉ ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™
07:25
for probably a year
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ื›ืฉื ื”
07:27
before we realized that it wasn't really behaving like noise.
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื‘ื ื• ืฉื”ื ืœื ื‘ืืžืช ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื• ื›ืžื• ืจืขืฉ.
07:31
It had some regular patterns to it.
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ื”ื™ื• ืฉื ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืกื“ื™ืจื•ืช.
07:34
To make a long story short,
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ื‘ืงื™ืฆื•ืจื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ,
07:36
it was tiny, tiny little cells,
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ืืœื” ื”ื™ื• ืชืื™ื ื–ืขื™ืจื™ื ืžืื“,
07:39
less than one-one hundredth the width of a human hair
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ืงื˜ื ื™ื ืžืžืื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžืื™ืช ืžืขื•ื‘ื™ื” ืฉืœ ืฉืขืจื” ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช,
07:42
that contain chlorophyl.
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ืฉืžื›ื™ืœื™ื ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืคื™ืœ.
07:44
That was Prochlorococcus.
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ืืœื” ื”ื™ื• ื”ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก.
07:47
So remember this slide that I showed you?
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ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืฉืงืฃ ื”ื–ื” ืฉื”ืจืื™ืชื™ ืœื›ื?
07:50
If you shine blue light on that same sample,
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ืื ืืชื ืžืื™ืจื™ื ื‘ืื•ืจ ื›ื—ื•ืœ ืขืœ ืื•ืชื” ื“ื’ื™ืžื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง,
07:53
this is what you see:
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ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืชืจืื•:
07:55
two tiny little red light-emitting cells.
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ืฉื ื™ ืชืื™ื ื–ืขื™ืจื™ื ืฉืคื•ืœื˜ื™ื ืื•ืจ ืื“ื•ื.
07:59
Those are Prochlorococcus.
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ืืœื” ื”ื ืชืื™ ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก.
08:02
They are the smallest and most abundant photosynthetic cell on the planet.
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ืืœื• ื”ื ื”ืชืื™ื ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ ื”ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ื˜ื–ื” ื”ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื”ื ืคื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
08:09
At first, we didn't know what they were,
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ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœื”, ืœื ื™ื“ืขื ื• ืžื” ื”ื,
08:11
so we called the "little greens."
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ืื– ืงืจืื ื• ืœื”ื "ื”ื™ืจื•ืงื™ื ื”ืงื˜ื ื™ื".
08:12
It was a very affectionate name for them.
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืฉื ื—ื™ื‘ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจื.
08:14
Ultimately, we knew enough about them to give them the name Prochlorococcus,
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ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ื™ื“ืขื ื• ืขืœื™ื”ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœืชืช ืœื”ื ืืช ื”ืฉื ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก,
08:18
which means "primitive green berry."
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ืฉืžืฉืžืขื• "ื’ืจื’ืจ-ื™ืขืจ ื™ืจื•ืง ืจืืฉื•ื ื™".
08:20
And it was about that time
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืขืจืš ื”ื–ืžืŸ
08:23
that I became so smitten by these little cells
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ื‘ื• ื ืฉื‘ื™ืชื™ ื‘ืงืกืžื ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ืืœื”
08:26
that I redirected my entire lab to study them and nothing else,
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ืขื“ ื›ื“ื™ ื›ืš ืฉื”ื™ืกื‘ืชื™ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืžืขื‘ื“ื” ืฉืœื™ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืชืื™ื ืืœื” ื•ืื•ืชื ื‘ืœื‘ื“,
08:31
and my loyalty to them has really paid off.
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ื•ื”ื ืืžื ื•ืช ืฉืœื™ ืืœื™ื”ื ื”ืฉืชืœืžื”.
08:34
They've given me a tremendous amount, including bringing me here.
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ื”ื ื ืชื ื• ืœื™ ื”ืžื•ืŸ, ื›ื•ืœืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืื•ืชื™ ืœืคื”.
08:39
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
08:45
So over the years, we and others, many others,
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ืฉื ื™ื, ืื ื—ื ื• ื•ืื—ืจื™ื, ื”ืจื‘ื” ืื—ืจื™ื,
08:48
have studied Prochlorococcus across the oceans
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ื—ืงืจื ื• ืืช ื”ืคืจื•ื›ืœืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื
08:52
and found that they're very abundant over wide, wide ranges
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ื•ืžืฆืื ื• ืฉื”ื ืžืื“ ื ืคื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ื ืจื—ื‘ื™ื ืžืื“
08:56
in the open ocean ecosystem.
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ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืืงื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืคืชื•ื—.
08:59
They're particularly abundant in what are called the open ocean gyres.
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ื”ื ื ืคื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืื ื• ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืœื”ื ืžืขืจื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ื–ืจืžื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื ื”ืคืชื•ื—.
09:03
These are sometimes referred to as the deserts of the oceans,
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ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ืืœื” ื ืงืจืื™ื ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก,
09:07
but they're not deserts at all.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื ืžืžืฉ ืœื ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื•ืช.
09:09
Their deep blue water is teeming
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ื”ืžื™ื ื”ืขืžื•ืงื™ื ื”ื›ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืฉืœื”ื ืฉื•ืคืขื™ื
09:12
with a hundred million Prochlorococcus cells per liter.
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ื‘ืžืื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืชืื™ ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก ืœืœื™ื˜ืจ ืžื™ื.
09:16
If you crowd them together like we do in our cultures,
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ืื ืืชื ืžืฆื•ืคืคื™ื ืื•ืชื ื‘ื™ื—ื“ ื›ืžื• ืฉืื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ืชืจื‘ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•,
09:19
you can see their beautiful green chlorophyl.
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ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืคื™ืœ ื”ื™ืจื•ืง ื”ื™ืคื” ืฉืœื”ื.
09:22
One of those test tubes has a billion Prochlorococcus in it,
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ื‘ืžื‘ื—ื ื” ืื—ืช ื›ื–ืืช ื™ืฉ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืชืื™ ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก,
09:27
and as I told you earlier,
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ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉืืžืจืชื™ ืœื›ื ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ,
09:28
there are three billion billion billion of them on the planet.
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ื™ืฉ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืžื”ื ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
09:31
That's three octillion,
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ื–ื” ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืื•ืงื˜ื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ,
09:34
if you care to convert.
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ืื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื›ื ืœื”ืžื™ืจ.
09:36
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
09:38
And collectively, they weigh more than the human population
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ื•ื‘ื™ื—ื“, ื”ื ืฉื•ืงืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ืช ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื
09:42
and they photosynthesize as much as all of the crops on land.
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ื•ื”ื ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ื˜ื–ื” ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ื”ืฉื•ื•ื” ืœื›ืœ ื”ืฆืžื—ื™ื” ืขืœ ื”ื™ื‘ืฉื”.
09:47
They're incredibly important in the global ocean.
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ื”ื ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืขืฆื•ืžื” ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื.
09:51
So over the years, as we were studying them
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ืฉื ื™ื, ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื—ืงืจื ื• ืื•ืชื
09:53
and found how abundant they were,
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ื•ืžืฆืื ื• ื›ืžื” ื ืคื•ืฆื™ื ื”ื,
09:55
we thought, hmm, this is really strange.
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ื—ืฉื‘ื ื•, ื”ืžืž, ื–ื” ืžืžืฉ ืžืฉื•ื ื”.
09:57
How can a single species be so abundant across so many different habitats?
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ืื™ืš ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืžื™ืŸ ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ื” ื ืคื•ืฅ ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช ื›ื” ืฉื•ื ื•ืช?
10:02
And as we isolated more into culture,
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ื•ื›ืฉื‘ื•ื“ื“ื ื• ืชืื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ื‘ืชืจื‘ื™ื•ืช,
10:04
we learned that they are different ecotypes.
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ืœืžื“ื ื• ืฉื”ื ืฉื™ื™ื›ื™ื ืœืืงื•ื˜ื™ืคื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื.
10:06
There are some that are adapted to the high-light intensities
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ื™ืฉื ื ื›ืืœื” ืฉืžื•ืชืืžื™ื ืœืขื•ืฆืžื•ืช ืื•ืจ ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื•ืช
10:09
in the surface water,
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ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืžื™ื,
10:11
and there are some that are adapted to the low light in the deep ocean.
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ื•ื™ืฉื ื ื›ืืœื” ืฉืžื•ืชืืžื™ื ืœืื•ืจ ื”ืงืœื•ืฉ ืฉื‘ืžืขืžืงื™ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก.
10:14
In fact, those cells that live in the bottom of the sunlit zone
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืชืื™ื ืืœื” ืฉื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืงืจืงืขื™ืช ื”ืฉื›ื‘ื” ื”ืžื•ืืจืช
10:18
are the most efficient photosynthesizers of any known cell.
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ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ื˜ื–ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื”ื™ืขื™ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื›ืœ ืชื ื™ื“ื•ืข ืื—ืจ.
10:23
And then we learned that there are some strains
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ื•ืื– ืœืžื“ื ื• ืฉื™ืฉื ื ืžืกืคืจ ืชืช-ืžื™ื ื™ื
10:25
that grow optimally along the equator,
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ืฉื’ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื™ื˜ื‘ื™ ืœืื•ืจืš ืงื•-ื”ืžืฉื•ื•ื”,
10:28
where there are higher temperatures,
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ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืฉื™ืฉ ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื•ืช,
10:30
and some that do better at the cooler temperatures
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ื•ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉื ื•ื— ืœื”ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืงืจื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ
10:33
as you go north and south.
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ื›ื›ืœ ืฉืžืชืงื“ืžื™ื ืฆืคื•ื ื” ืื• ื“ืจื•ืžื”.
10:34
So as we studied these more and more and kept finding more and more diversity,
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ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื—ืงืจื ื• ืื•ืชื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ืžืฆืื ื• ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ื•ืœืš ื•ื’ื“ืœ,
10:38
we thought, oh my God, how diverse are these things?
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ื—ืฉื‘ื ื•, ืืœื•ื”ื™ื, ื›ืžื” ืžื’ื•ื•ื ื™ื ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”?
10:41
And about that time, it became possible to sequence their genomes
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ื•ื‘ืขืจืš ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ, ื”ืคืš ืืคืฉืจื™ ืœืจืฆืฃ ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœื”ื
10:44
and really look under the hood and look at their genetic makeup.
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ื•ืžืžืฉ ืœื—ืฉื•ืฃ ืืช ืชื•ื›ื ื ื•ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื‘ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ ืฉืœื”ื.
10:49
And we've been able to sequence the genomes of cultures that we have,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœืจืฆืฃ ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœ ืื•ืชืŸ ื”ืชืจื‘ื™ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื™ื“ื™ื ื•,
10:53
but also recently, using flow cytometry,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื’ื, ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืื ืœื™ื–ืช ื–ืจื™ืžืช ืชืื™ื,
10:56
we can isolate individual cells from the wild
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ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ื•ื“ื“ ืชืื™ื ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืžื”ื›ืœืœ
10:59
and sequence their individual genomes,
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ื•ืœืจืฆืฃ ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืคืจื˜ื™ ืฉืœื”ื,
11:01
and now we've sequenced hundreds of Prochlorococcus.
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ื•ืขื“ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืจื™ืฆืคื ื• ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœ ืžืื•ืช ืชืื™ ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก,
11:04
And although each cell has roughly 2,000 genes --
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ื•ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉืœื›ืœ ืชื ื™ืฉ ื‘ืขืจืš 2,000 ื’ื ื™ื --
11:08
that's one tenth the size of the human genome --
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืขืฉื™ืจื™ืช ืžืื•ืจืš ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ --
11:12
as you sequence more and more,
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ื›ื›ืœ ืฉืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ืขื•ื“ ื•ืขื•ื“ ืจื™ืฆื•ืคื™ ื’ื ื•ื,
11:13
you find that they only have a thousand of those in common
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ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืจืง ืืœืฃ ื’ื ื™ื ื‘ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ
11:18
and the other thousand for each individual strain
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ื•ื”ืืœืฃ ื”ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืชืช-ืžื™ืŸ
11:21
is drawn from an enormous gene pool,
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ื ืžืฉืš ืžืžืื’ืจ ื’ื ื™ื ืขืฆื•ื,
11:24
and it reflects the particular environment that the cell might have thrived in,
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ื•ื”ื ืžืฉืงืคื™ื ืืช ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื”ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช ืฉืชื ื–ื” ื›ื ืจืื” ืฉื’ืฉื’ ื‘ื”,
11:30
not just high or low light or high or low temperature,
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ืœื ืจืง ืื•ืจ ื—ื–ืง ืื• ื—ืœืฉ ืื• ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ืื• ื ืžื•ื›ื”
11:33
but whether there are nutrients that limit them
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ืืš ื’ื ืื ื™ืฉื ื ื—ืžืจื™ ืžื–ื•ืŸ ืฉืžื’ื‘ื™ืœื™ื ืื•ืชื
11:36
like nitrogen, phosphorus or iron.
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ื›ืžื• ื—ื ืงืŸ, ื–ืจื—ืŸ ืื• ื‘ืจื–ืœ.
11:39
It reflects the habitat that they come from.
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ื–ื” ืžืฉืงืฃ ืืช ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืžืžื ื” ื‘ืื•.
11:42
Think of it this way.
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ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ื–ื” ื›ืš.
11:45
If each cell is a smartphone
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ืื ื›ืœ ืชื ื”ื•ื ื˜ืœืคื•ืŸ ื—ื›ื
11:48
and the apps are the genes,
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ื•ื”ืืคืœื™ืงืฆื™ื•ืช ื”ืŸ ื”ื’ื ื™ื,
11:51
when you get your smartphone, it comes with these built-in apps.
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ื›ืืฉืจ ืืชื” ืžืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ื˜ืœืคื•ืŸ ืฉืœืš, ื”ื•ื ืžื’ื™ืข ืขื ืืคืœื™ืงืฆื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื‘ื ื•ืช ืืœื”.
11:54
Those are the ones that you can't delete if you're an iPhone person.
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ืืœื• ืฉืื™ื ืš ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืžื—ื•ืง ืื ืืชื” ื˜ื™ืคื•ืก ืฉืœ ืื™ื™ืคื•ืŸ.
11:57
You press on them and they don't jiggle and they don't have x's.
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ืืชื” ืœื•ื—ืฅ ืขืœื™ื”ืŸ ื•ื”ืŸ ืœื ื–ื–ื•ืช ื•ืื™ืŸ ืœื”ืŸ ืกื™ืžื•ืŸ X.
ื’ื ืื ืืชื ืœื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืื•ืชืŸ ืืชื ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืคื˜ืจ ืžื”ืŸ.
12:00
Even if you don't want them, you can't get rid of them.
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
12:03
(Laughter)
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12:06
Those are like the core genes of Prochlorococcus.
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ืืœื” ื”ื ื›ืžื• ืœื™ื‘ืช ื”ื’ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก.
12:09
They're the essence of the phone.
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ื”ื ื”ืžื”ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ืœืคื•ืŸ.
12:11
But you have a huge pool of apps to draw upon
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืžืื’ืจ ืขืฆื•ื ืฉืœ ืืคืœื™ืงืฆื™ื•ืช ืœื”ื•ืจื“ื”
12:16
to make your phone custom-designed for your particular lifestyle and habitat.
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ืฉืžืชืื™ืžื•ืช ืืช ื”ื˜ืœืคื•ืŸ ืฉืœื›ื ืœืกื’ื ื•ืŸ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื”ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ืช ืฉืœื›ื.
12:22
If you travel a lot, you'll have a lot of travel apps,
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ืื ืืชื ื ื•ืกืขื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื”, ื™ื”ื™ื• ืœื›ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืืคืœื™ืงืฆื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื ืกื™ืขื•ืช,
12:25
if you're into financial things, you might have a lot of financial apps,
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ืื ืืชื ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื›ืกืคื™ื™ื, ืขืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืœื›ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืืคืœื™ืงืฆื™ื•ืช ืคื™ื ื ืกื™ื•ืช,
12:30
or if you're like me,
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ืื• ืื ืืชื ื›ืžื•ื ื™,
12:32
you probably have a lot of weather apps,
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ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื•ื“ืื™ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืืคืœื™ืงืฆื™ื•ืช ืžื–ื’ ืื•ื™ืจ,
12:34
hoping one of them will tell you what you want to hear.
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ื‘ืชืงื•ื•ื” ืฉืื—ืช ืžื”ืŸ ืชืืžืจ ืœื›ื ืืช ืžื” ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœืฉืžื•ืข.
12:36
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
12:38
And I've learned the last couple days in Vancouver
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืœืžื“ืชื™ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื™ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื•ื•ื ืงื•ื‘ืจ
12:40
that you don't need a weather app -- you just need an umbrella.
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ื”ื•ื ืฉืืชื ืœื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืืคืœื™ืงืฆื™ืช ืžื–ื’ ืื•ื™ืจ -- ืืชื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืจืง ืžื˜ืจื™ื”.
12:43
So --
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ืื– --
12:44
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
12:47
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
12:49
So just as your smartphone tells us something about how you live your life,
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ืื– ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ื˜ืœืคื•ืŸ ื”ื—ื›ื ืฉืœื›ื ืื•ืžืจ ืœื ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืื™ืœื• ื—ื™ื™ื ืืชื ืžื ื”ืœื™ื,
12:55
your lifestyle,
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ืžื” ืกื’ื ื•ืŸ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื›ื,
12:57
reading the genome of a Prochlorococcus cell
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ืงืจื™ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœ ืชื ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก
12:59
tells us what the pressures are in its environment.
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ืื•ืžืจืช ืœื ื• ืžื” ื”ืœื—ืฆื™ื ื”ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœื•.
13:04
It's like reading its diary,
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ื–ื” ื›ืžื• ืœืงืจื•ื ืืช ื”ื™ื•ืžืŸ ืฉืœื•,
13:06
not only telling us how it got through its day or its week,
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ืฉืœื ืจืง ืžืกืคืจ ืœื ื• ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืขื‘ืจ ื™ื•ืžื• ืื• ื”ืฉื‘ื•ืข ืฉืœื•,
13:10
but even its evolutionary history.
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ืืœื ืืคื™ืœื• ืืช ื”ื”ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœื•.
13:14
As we studied -- I said we've sequenced hundreds of these cells,
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ื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ืœื—ืงื™ืจื” ืฉืœื ื• -- ืกื™ืคืจืชื™ ืงื•ื“ื ืฉืจื™ืฆืคื ื• ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœ ืžืื•ืช ืžื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
13:17
and we can now project
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ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื›ืขืช ืœื”ืขืจื™ืš
13:19
what is the total genetic size --
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ืžื”ื• ื”ื’ื•ื“ืœ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ ื”ื›ืœืœื™ --
13:23
gene pool --
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ืžืื’ืจ ื”ื’ื ื™ื --
13:24
of the Prochlorococcus federation, as we call it.
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ืฉืœ ืคื“ืจืฆื™ื™ืช ื”ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก, ื›ืคื™ ืฉืื ื• ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืœื”.
13:28
It's like a superorganism.
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ื–ื” ื›ืžื• ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื-ืขืœ.
13:29
And it turns out that projections are
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ื•ืžืกืชื‘ืจ ืฉื”ืขืจื›ื•ืช ืืœื” ื”ืŸ
13:32
that the collective has 80,000 genes.
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ืฉื™ืฉ 80,000 ื’ื ื™ื ืœืžื›ืœื•ืœ.
13:35
That's four times the size of the human genome.
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ื–ื” ืคื™ ืืจื‘ืขื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™.
13:38
And it's that diversity of gene pools
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืžืื’ืจื™ ื”ื’ื ื™ื
13:43
that makes it possible for them
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ืฉืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื
13:45
to dominate these large regions of the oceans
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ืœื—ืœื•ืฉ ืขืœ ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ื ืจื—ื‘ื™ื ืืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื
13:47
and maintain their stability
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ื•ืœืฉืžืจ ืืช ื”ื™ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื
13:49
year in and year out.
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ืœืื•ืจืš ืฉื ื™ื.
13:52
So when I daydream about Prochlorococcus,
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ื›ืืฉืจ ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืœืžืช ื‘ื”ืงื™ืฅ ืขืœ ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก,
13:55
which I probably do more than is healthy --
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ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืขื•ืฉื” ื‘ื•ื“ืื™ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ืžื™ื ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื --
13:58
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
14:00
I imagine them floating out there,
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ืื ื™ ืžื“ืžื™ื™ื ืช ืื•ืชื ืฆืคื™ื ืœื”ื ืฉื,
14:03
doing their job,
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ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ืืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉืœื”ื,
14:04
maintaining the planet,
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ืžืฉืžืจื™ื ืืช ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
14:06
feeding the animals.
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ืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ืืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื.
14:09
But also I inevitably end up
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ืืš ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืžื ืข ืื ื™ ืžื’ื™ืขื” ื’ื
14:11
thinking about what a masterpiece they are,
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ืœืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ืื™ื–ื• ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืžื•ืคืช ื”ื,
14:15
finely tuned by millions of years of evolution.
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ืžื›ื•ื•ื ื ื™ื ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืจื‘ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื”.
14:19
With 2,000 genes,
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ืขื 2,000 ื’ื ื™ื,
14:21
they can do what all of our human ingenuity
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ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžื” ืฉื›ืœ ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื”ื”ืžืฆืื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช
14:24
has not figured out how to do yet.
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ืœื ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื” ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœืขืฉื•ืช.
14:26
They can take solar energy, CO2
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ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืงื—ืช ืื ืจื’ื™ื™ืช ืฉืžืฉ, ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™
14:29
and turn it into chemical energy in the form of organic carbon,
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ื•ืœื”ืžื™ืจ ืื•ืชื ืœืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื›ื™ืžื™ืช ื‘ืฆื•ืจืช ืคื—ืžืŸ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™,
14:33
locking that sunlight in those carbon bonds.
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ื›ืš ืœื ืขื•ืœ ืื•ืจ ืฉืžืฉ ื–ื” ื‘ืงืฉืจื™ ืคื—ืžืŸ ืืœื”.
14:37
If we could figure out exactly how they do this,
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ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื™ืš ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื–ืืช,
14:41
it could inspire designs
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ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ืคืชืจื•ื ื•ืช
14:44
that could reduce our dependency on fossil fuels,
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ืฉื™ืงื˜ื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ืชืœื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ื“ืœืงื™ ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื,
14:47
which brings my story full circle.
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ืžื” ืฉืžืกื™ื™ื ืืช ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ืžืขื’ืœื™ ืฉืœื™.
14:51
The fossil fuels that are buried that we're burning
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ื“ืœืงื™ ื”ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื ื”ืงื‘ื•ืจื™ื, ืื•ืชื ืื ื• ืฉื•ืจืคื™ื,
14:54
took millions of years for the earth to bury those,
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ืœืงื— ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉื ื™ื ืœืงื‘ื•ืจ ืื•ืชื,
14:58
including those ancestors of Prochlorococcus,
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ืืช ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื”ื ื”ืงื“ืžื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก,
15:01
and we're burning that now in the blink of an eye
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ื•ืื ื• ืฉื•ืจืคื™ื ืื•ืชื ื›ืขืช ื›ื”ืจืฃ ืขื™ืŸ
15:04
on geological timescales.
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ืœืื•ืจืš ืฆื™ืจื™ ื–ืžืŸ ื’ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื.
15:06
Carbon dioxide is increasing in the atmosphere.
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ื›ืžื•ืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืขื•ืœื” ื‘ืื˜ืžื˜ืกืคื™ืจื”.
15:09
It's a greenhouse gas.
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ื–ื”ื• ื’ื– ื—ืžืžื”.
15:11
The oceans are starting to warm.
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ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชื—ืžื.
15:13
So the question is, what is that going to do
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ื›ืš ืขื•ืœื” ื”ืฉืืœื”, ืžื” ื–ื” ื”ื•ืœืš ืœืขืฉื•ืช
15:16
for my Prochlorococcus?
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ืœืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืจื•ืงื•ืก ืฉืœื™?
15:18
And I'm sure you're expecting me to say that my beloved microbes are doomed,
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ืื ื™ ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื” ืฉืืชื ืžืฆืคื™ื ืฉืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื ื”ืื”ื•ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœื™ ืื‘ื•ื“ื™ื,
15:23
but in fact they're not.
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืขืฉื” ื”ื ืœื.
15:25
Projections are that their populations will expand as the ocean warms
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ื”ืฆืคื™ ื”ื•ื ืฉื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื ืชื™ื’ื“ืœื ื” ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื ื™ืชื—ืžืžื•
15:31
to 30 percent larger by the year 2100.
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ืชื’ื“ืœื ื” ื‘-30 ืื—ื•ื– ืขื“ ืฉื ืช 2100.
15:36
Does that make me happy?
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ื”ืื ื–ื” ืžืฉืžื— ืื•ืชื™?
15:38
Well, it makes me happy for Prochlorococcus of course --
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื–ื” ืžืฉืžื— ืื•ืชื™ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ --
15:41
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
15:43
but not for the planet.
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ืืš ืœื ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
15:46
There are winners and losers
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ื™ืฉื ื ืžื ืฆื—ื™ื ื•ื™ืฉ ืžืคืกื™ื“ื™ื
15:47
in this global experiment that we've undertaken,
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ื‘ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ื”ื–ื” ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœื ื• ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื ื•,
15:51
and it's projected that among the losers
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ื•ืฆืคื•ื™ ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืคืกื™ื“ื™ื
15:54
will be some of those larger phytoplankton,
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ื™ื”ื™ื• ื—ืœืง ืžืื•ืชื ืžื™ื ื™ ื”ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ,
15:56
those charismatic ones
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ืืœื” ื”ื›ืจื™ื–ืžื˜ื™ื™ื
15:57
which are expected to be reduced in numbers,
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ืฉืžืกืคืจื ืฆืคื•ื™ ืœืจื“ืช,
16:00
and they're the ones that feed the zooplankton that feed the fish
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ื•ื”ื ืืœื” ืฉืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ืืช ื”ื–ื•ืื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ, ืฉืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ืืช ื”ื“ื’ื™ื
16:03
that we like to harvest.
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ืฉืื ื• ืื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœื“ื•ื’.
16:08
So Prochlorococcus has been my muse for the past 35 years,
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ืื– ื”ืคืจื•ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก ื”ื™ื• ื”ื”ืฉืจืื” ืฉืœื™ ื‘ืžืฉืš 35 ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช,
16:13
but there are legions of other microbes out there
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืœื’ื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉื ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ
16:15
maintaining our planet for us.
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ืฉืžืฉืžืจื™ื ืืช ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืขื‘ื•ืจื ื•.
16:18
They're out there
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ื”ื ืฉื ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ
16:20
ready and waiting for us to find them so they can tell their stories, too.
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ืžื•ื›ื ื™ื ื•ืžืžืชื™ื ื™ื ืฉื ืžืฆื ืื•ืชื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืกืคืจ ื’ื ืืช ืกื™ืคื•ืจื.
16:24
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื”.
16:25
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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