The secret weapon that let dinosaurs take over the planet | Emma Schachner

119,620 views ใƒป 2020-01-28

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ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

00:00
Translator: Joseph Geni Reviewer: Camille Martรญnez
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ืชืจื’ื•ื: Tal Hemu ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Allon Sasson
00:13
We've all heard about how the dinosaurs died.
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ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืฉืžืขื ื• ืื™ืš ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ืžืชื•.
00:16
The story I'm going to tell you
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ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืื ื™ ื”ื•ืœื›ืช ืœืกืคืจ ืœื›ื
00:18
happened over 200 million years before the dinosaurs went extinct.
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ืงืจื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-200 ืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื” ืœืคื ื™ ื”ื›ื—ื“ืช ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื.
00:23
This story starts at the very beginning,
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ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืžืชื—ื™ืœ ืžืžืฉ ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื”
00:26
when dinosaurs were just getting their start.
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ืจืง ื”ื—ืœื• ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื”ื.
00:29
One of the biggest mysteries in evolutionary biology
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ืื—ืช ื”ืชืขืœื•ืžื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช
00:32
is why dinosaurs were so successful.
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ื”ื™ื ืžื“ื•ืข ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื›ืœ-ื›ืš ืžื•ืฆืœื—ื™ื.
00:35
What led to their global dominance for so many years?
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ืžื” ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืช ืฉืœื”ื ื‘ืžืฉืš ื›ืœ-ื›ืš ื”ืจื‘ื” ืฉื ื™ื?
00:39
When people think about why dinosaurs were so amazing,
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ื›ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืžื“ื•ืข ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื›ืœ-ื›ืš ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื™ื,
00:43
they usually think about the biggest or the smallest dinosaur,
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ื”ื ืœืจื•ื‘ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื• ื”ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ,
00:47
or who was the fastest,
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ืื• ืžื™ ื”ื™ื” ื”ื›ื™ ืžื”ื™ืจ,
00:48
or who had the most feathers,
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ืื• ืœืžื™ ื”ื™ื• ื”ื›ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื ื•ืฆื•ืช,
00:50
the most ridiculous armor, spikes or teeth.
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ืื• ืืช ื”ืฉื™ืจื™ื•ืŸ, ื”ื“ื•ืงืจื ื™ื ืื• ื”ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื ื”ื›ื™ ืžื’ื•ื—ื›ื™ื.
00:54
But perhaps the answer had to do with their internal anatomy --
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ืืš ืื•ืœื™ ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื”ืžืฆื ื‘ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ื” ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ืช ืฉืœื”ื --
00:58
a secret weapon, so to speak.
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ื ืฉืง ืกื•ื“ื™, ืืคืฉืจ ืœื•ืžืจ.
01:00
My colleagues and I, we think it was their lungs.
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ื”ืงื•ืœื’ื•ืช ืฉืœื™ ื•ืื ื™, ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉืืœื• ื”ื™ื• ื”ืจื™ืื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
01:05
I am both a paleontologist and a comparative anatomist,
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ืื ื™ ื’ื ืคืœื™ืื•ื ื˜ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ื•ื’ื ืขื•ืกืงืช ื‘ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ื” ื”ืฉื•ื•ืืชื™ืช,
01:09
and I am interested in understanding
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ื•ืื ื™ ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ื ืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
01:11
how the specialized dinosaur lung helped them take over the planet.
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ืื™ืš ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ืขื–ืจื• ืœื”ื ืœื”ืฉืชืœื˜ ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ-ื”ืืจืฅ.
01:15
So we are going to jump back over 200 million years
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ืœืงืคื•ืฅ 200 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื” ืœืื—ื•ืจ,
01:19
to the Triassic period.
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ืœืชืงื•ืคืช ื˜ืจื™ืืก.
01:21
The environment was extremely harsh,
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ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืงืฉื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™,
01:23
there were no flowering plants,
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ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืฉื•ื ืฆืžื—ื™ื ืคื•ืจื—ื™ื,
01:25
so this means that there was no grass.
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ืžื” ืฉืื•ืžืจ ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื” ื“ืฉื.
01:27
So imagine a landscape filled with all pine trees and ferns.
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ืื– ื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ื ื•ืฃ ืžืœื ื‘ืขืฆื™ ืื•ืจืŸ ื•ืฉืจื›ื™ื.
01:32
At the same time, there were small lizards,
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ื‘ืื•ืชื” ื”ืขืช, ื”ื™ื• ืœื˜ืื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช,
01:36
mammals, insects,
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ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื, ื—ืจืงื™ื,
01:38
and there were also carnivorous and herbivorous reptiles --
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ื•ื’ื ื”ื™ื• ื–ื•ื—ืœื™ื ืื•ื›ืœื™-ื‘ืฉืจ ื•ืื•ื›ืœื™-ืขืฉื‘ --
01:42
all competing for the same resources.
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ื›ื•ืœื ืžืชื—ืจื™ื ืขืœ ืื•ืชื ืžืฉืื‘ื™ื.
01:45
Critical to this story
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ื ืชื•ืŸ ืงืจื™ื˜ื™ ืœืกื™ืคื•ืจ
01:47
is that oxygen levels have been estimated to have been as low as 15 percent,
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ื”ื•ื ืฉืจืžื•ืช ื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื”ื•ืขืจื›ื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื ืžื•ื›ื•ืช ืขื“ ื›ื“ื™ 15 ืื—ื•ื–,
01:52
compared to today's 21 percent.
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ื‘ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœ-21 ืื—ื•ื– ื›ื™ื•ื.
01:54
So it would have been crucial for dinosaurs to be able to breathe
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ืื– ื”ื™ื” ื”ื›ืจื—ื™ ืœื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ืขืœ-ืžื ืช ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœื ืฉื•ื
01:58
in this low-oxygen environment,
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ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื“ืœืช ื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื”ื–ื•,
02:00
not only to survive
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ืœื ืจืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืจื•ื“
02:02
but to thrive and to diversify.
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ืืœื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉื’ืฉื’ ื•ืœื”ืชื’ื•ื•ืŸ.
02:06
So, how do we know what dinosaur lungs were even like,
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ืื–, ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืื™ืš ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื›ืœืœ ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื,
02:09
since all that remains of a dinosaur generally is its fossilized skeleton?
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ืžืื—ืจ ื•ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื ืฉืืจ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจ ื”ื ืฉืœื“ื™ื ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื?
02:15
The method that we use is called "extant phylogenetic bracketing."
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ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื‘ื” ืื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื ืงืจืืช "ืื™ืฉื›ื•ืœ ืคื™ืœื•ื’ื ื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ืžื™ื ื™ื ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื".
02:21
This is a fancy way of saying that we study the anatomy --
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ื–ื• ื“ืจืš ืžืคื•ื ืคื ืช ืœื•ืžืจ ืฉืื ื• ืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ื” --
02:25
specifically in this case, the lungs and skeleton --
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ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™ืช ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื”, ืืช ื”ืจื™ืื•ืช ื•ื”ืฉืœื“ --
02:28
of the living descendants of dinosaurs on the evolutionary tree.
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ืžื”ืฆืืฆืื™ื™ื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืขืฅ ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™.
02:33
So we would look at the anatomy of birds,
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ืื– ืื ื• ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ื” ืฉืœ ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื,
02:36
who are the direct descendants of dinosaurs,
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ืฉื”ืŸ ืฆืืฆืื™ื ื™ืฉื™ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื,
02:39
and we'd look at the anatomy of crocodilians,
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ื•ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ื” ืฉืœ ืงืจื•ืงื•ื“ื™ืœื™ื,
02:41
who are their closest living relatives,
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ืฉื”ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื—ื™ื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื,
02:43
and then we would look at the anatomy of lizards and turtles,
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ื•ืื– ืื ื• ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ื” ืฉืœ ืœื˜ืื•ืช ื•ืฆื‘ื™ื,
02:46
who we can think of like their cousins.
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ืฉืื•ืชื ืื ื• ืžื—ืฉื™ื‘ื™ื ื›ืžืขื™ืŸ ื‘ื ื™-ื“ื•ื“ื™ื.
02:49
And then we apply these anatomical data to the fossil record,
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ื•ืื– ืื ื• ืžื™ื™ืฉืžื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ื”ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ ื”ื–ื” ื‘ืชื™ืขื•ื“ ื”ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื,
02:52
and then we can use that to reconstruct the lungs of dinosaurs.
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ื•ืื– ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื• ืขืœ-ืžื ืช ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ื”ืจื™ืื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื.
02:56
And in this specific instance,
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ื•ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ืžืกื•ื™ื™ื ื”ื–ื”,
02:58
the skeleton of dinosaurs most closely resembles that of modern birds.
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ืฉืœื“ื™ ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ืžื–ื›ื™ืจื™ื ื”ื›ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืืช ืฉืœื“ื™ ื”ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื•ืช.
03:03
So, because dinosaurs were competing with early mammals during this time period,
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ื”ืชื—ืจื• ืขื ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื ืงื“ื•ืžื™ื ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื–ื•,
03:08
it's important to understand the basic blueprint of the mammalian lung.
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ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ ืฉืœ ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื.
03:12
Also, to reintroduce you to lungs in general,
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ื›ืžื•-ื›ืŸ, ืขืœ-ืžื ืช ืœื”ื›ื™ืจ ืœื›ื ืืช ื”ืจื™ืื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœืœื™ื•ืช,
03:15
we will use my dog Mila of Troy,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื›ืœื‘ื” ืฉืœื™, ืžื™ืœื” ืžื˜ืจื•ื™ื”,
03:18
the face that launched a thousand treats,
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ื”ืคื ื™ื ืฉื”ืฉื™ืงื• ืืœืคื™ ื—ื˜ื™ืคื™ื,
03:20
as our model.
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ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื™ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
03:21
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
03:23
This story takes place inside of a chest cavity.
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ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ื–ื” ืžืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ืชื•ืš ื—ืœืœ ื”ื—ื–ื”.
03:26
So I want you to visualize the ribcage of a dog.
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ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืฉืชื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ืืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื–ื” ืฉืœ ื›ืœื‘.
03:30
Think about how the spinal vertebral column
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ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ืื™ืš ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืฉื“ืจื”
03:32
is completely horizontal to the ground.
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ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืื•ืคืงื™ ืœืื“ืžื”.
03:35
This is how the spinal vertebral column is going to be
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ื›ืš ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืฉื“ืจื” ืขื•ืžื“ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช
03:38
in all of the animals that we'll be talking about,
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ื‘ื›ืœ ื‘ืขืœื™ื™-ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืื ื• ื ื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœื™ื”ื,
03:40
whether they walked on two legs
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ื”ื ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ืขืœ ืฉืชื™ ืจื’ืœื™ื™ื
03:42
or four legs.
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ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ืขืœ ืืจื‘ืข.
03:43
Now I want you to climb inside of the imaginary ribcage and look up.
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ื›ืขืช ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืฉื ื˜ืคืก ืืœ ืชื•ืš ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื–ื” ื”ืžื“ื•ืžื™ื™ืŸ ื•ื ื‘ื™ื˜ ืœืžืขืœื”.
03:48
This is our thoracic ceiling.
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืชืงืจืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื–ื”.
03:51
This is where the top surface of the lungs comes into direct contact
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ื–ื”ื• ื”ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ืฉื˜ื— ื”ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื ื‘ืžื’ืข ืคื™ื–ื™ ื™ืฉื™ืจ
03:55
with the ribs and vertebrae.
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ืขื ื”ืฆืœืขื•ืช ื•ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื•ืช.
03:58
This interface is where our story takes place.
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ื”ืžืžืฉืง ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื”ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ืกื™ืคื•ืจื ื• ืžืชืจื—ืฉ.
04:02
Now I want you to visualize the lungs of a dog.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืฉืชื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ืจื™ืื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ืœื‘.
04:05
On the outside, it's like a giant inflatable bag
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ื›ืœืคื™ ื—ื•ืฅ, ื”ืŸ ื›ืžื• ืฉืง ืžืชื ืคื— ืขื ืง
04:08
where all parts of the bag expand during inhalation
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ื‘ื• ื›ืœ ื—ืœืงื™ ื”ืฉืง ืžืชืจื—ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืื™ืคื”
04:12
and contract during exhalation.
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ื•ืžืชื›ื•ื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื ืฉื™ืคื”.
04:14
Inside of the bag, there's a series of branching tubes,
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ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืฉืงื™ืช, ื™ืฉื ืŸ ืกื“ืจื” ืฉืœ ืฆื™ื ื•ืจื•ืช ืžืกืชืขืคื™ื,
04:17
and these tubes are called the bronchial tree.
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ื•ื”ืฆื™ื ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ื ืงืจืื™ื ืขืฅ ื”ืกื™ืžืคื•ื ื•ืช.
04:20
These tubes deliver the inhaled oxygen to, ultimately, the alveolus.
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ื”ืฆื™ื ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ ืฉื ืฉืืฃ ืืœ ื”ื ึนืื“ึดื™ืช (ืฉืง ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ื–ืขื™ืจ ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช).
04:27
They cross over a thin membrane into the bloodstream by diffusion.
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ื”ื ื—ื•ืฆื™ื ืงืจื•ื ื“ืง ืืœ ืชื•ืš ื–ืจื ื”ื“ื ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื“ื™ืคื•ื–ื™ื”.
04:32
Now, this part is critical.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ื–ื” ืงืจื™ื˜ื™.
04:35
The entire mammalian lung is mobile.
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ื”ืจื™ืื” ื›ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื ื”ื™ื ื” ื ื™ื™ื“ืช.
04:38
That means it's moving during the entire respiratory process,
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ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ื™ื ื ืขื” ืœืื•ืจืš ื›ืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื ืฉื™ืžื”,
04:43
so that thin membrane, the blood-gas barrier,
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ื›ืš ืฉื”ืงืจื•ื ื”ื“ืง ื”ื–ื”, ืžื—ืกื•ื ื”ื“ื-ื’ื–,
04:46
cannot be too thin or it will break.
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ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ ื“ืง ืื—ืจืช ื”ื•ื ื™ื™ืงืจืข.
04:49
Now, remember the blood-gas barrier, because we will be returning to this.
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ื–ื›ืจื• ืืช ืžื—ืกื•ื ื”ื“ื-ื’ื– ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืขื•ื“ ื ื—ื–ื•ืจ ืืœื™ื•.
04:53
So, you're still with me?
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ืื–, ืืชื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืื™ืชื™?
04:55
Because we're going to start birds and it gets crazy,
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืื ื• ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืืœ ื”ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ื•ื–ื” ื ื”ื™ื” ืžืฉื•ื’ืข,
04:57
so hold on to your butts.
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ืื– ืชื—ื–ื™ืงื• ื—ื–ืง.
04:59
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
05:01
The bird is completely different from the mammal.
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ืฆื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉื•ื ื” ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืžื™ื•ื ืง.
05:05
And we are going to be using birds as our model
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ื•ืื ื• ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•
05:07
to reconstruct the lungs of dinosaurs.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื.
05:10
So in the bird,
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ืืฆืœ ื”ืฆื™ืคื•ืจ,
05:11
air passes through the lung, but the lung does not expand or contract.
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ืื•ื™ืจ ืขื•ื‘ืจ ื“ืจืš ื”ืจื™ืื”, ืืš ื”ืจื™ืื” ืœื ืžืชืจื—ื‘ืช ืื• ืžืชื›ื•ื•ืฆืช.
05:16
The lung is immobilized,
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ื”ืจื™ืื” ื”ื™ื ืžืงื•ื‘ืขืช,
05:18
it has the texture of a dense sponge
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ื”ื™ื ื‘ืขืœืช ืžืจืงื ืฉืœ ืกืคื•ื’ ื“ื—ื•ืก
05:20
and it's inflexible and locked into place on the top and sides by the ribcage
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืื™ื ื” ื’ืžื™ืฉื” ื•ื ืขื•ืœื” ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืฉืœื” ื‘ื—ืœืงื• ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ืฆื“ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื–ื”
05:26
and on the bottom by a horizontal membrane.
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ื•ื‘ืชื—ืชื™ืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืงืจื•ื ืื•ืคืงื™.
05:30
It is then unidirectionally ventilated
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ื”ื™ื ืžืชืื•ื•ืจืจืช ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื—ื“-ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ืช
05:33
by a series of flexible, bag-like structures
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ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืกื“ืจืช ืžื‘ื ื™ื ื’ืžื™ืฉื™ื ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ืฉืงื™ื
05:37
that branch off of the bronchial tree,
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ื”ืžืกืชืขืคื™ื ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืขืฅ ื”ืกืžื ืคื•ื ื•ืช,
05:40
beyond the lung itself,
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ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืจื™ืื” ืขืฆืžื”,
05:41
and these are called air sacs.
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ื•ื”ื ื ืงืจืื™ื ื›ืจื™ื•ืช ืื•ื•ื™ืจ.
05:44
Now, this entire extremely delicate setup is locked into place
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื›ืœ ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืจื’ื™ืฉ ืžืื•ื“ ื”ื–ื” ืžืงื•ื‘ืข ื‘ืžืงื•ื
05:49
by a series of forked ribs
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ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ืกื“ืจื” ืฉืœ ืฆืœืขื•ืช ืžืคื•ืฆืœื•ืช
05:52
all along the thoracic ceiling.
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ืœื›ืœ ืื•ืจืš ืชืงืจืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื–ื”.
05:55
Also, in many species of birds,
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ื›ืžื•-ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืžื™ื ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื,
05:58
extensions arise from the lung
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ืฉืœื•ื—ื•ืช ืขื•ืœื•ืช ืžืŸ ื”ืจื™ืื”
06:01
and the air sacs,
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ื•ื›ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจ,
06:02
they invade the skeletal tissues --
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ื”ืŸ ืขื•ื‘ืจื•ืช ืืช ืจืงืžื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื“ --
06:05
usually the vertebrae, sometimes the ribs --
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ืœืจื•ื‘ ืืช ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื•ืช, ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืืช ื”ืฆืœืขื•ืช --
06:08
and they lock the respiratory system into place.
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ื•ื ื•ืขืœื•ืช ืืช ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื ืฉื™ืžื” ื‘ืžืงื•ื.
06:11
And this is called "vertebral pneumaticity."
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"ืคึฐึผื ึตืื•ึผืžึธื˜ึดื™ื” ื—ื•ืœื™ืชื™ืช".
06:14
The forked ribs and the vertebral pneumaticity
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ื”ืฆืœืขื•ืช ื”ืžืคื•ืฆืœื•ืช ื•ื”ืคื ืื•ืžื˜ื™ื” ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ืชื™ืช
06:17
are two clues that we can hunt for in the fossil record,
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ื”ื ืฉื ื™ ืจืžื–ื™ื ืฉืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฆื•ื“ ืื—ืจื™ื”ื ื‘ืชื™ืขื•ื“ ื”ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื,
06:21
because these two skeletal traits
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืฉืชื™ ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื“ ื”ืืœื•
06:23
would indicate that regions of the respiratory system of dinosaurs
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ื™ืฆื‘ื™ืขื• ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื ืฉื™ืžื” ืฉืœ ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื
06:28
are immobilized.
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ื”ื™ื ื ืžืงื•ื‘ืขื™ื.
06:33
This anchoring of the respiratory system
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ืขื™ื’ื•ืŸ ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื ืฉื™ืžื”
06:35
facilitated the evolution of the thinning of the blood-gas barrier,
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ืกื™ื™ืข ื‘ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื“ืงืงื•ืช ืžื—ืกื•ื ื”ื“ื-ื’ื–,
06:39
that thin membrane over which oxygen was diffusing into the bloodstream.
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ื”ืงืจื•ื ื”ื“ืง ื”ื”ื•ื ืฉื—ืžืฆืŸ ืคืขืคืข ื“ืจื›ื• ืืœ ืชื•ืš ื–ืจื ื”ื“ื.
06:46
The immobility permits this because a thin barrier is a weak barrier,
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ื”ื ื™ื™ื—ื•ืช ื”ื–ื• ืžืืคืฉืจืช ื–ืืช ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืžื—ืกื•ื ื“ืง ื”ื•ื ืžื—ืกื•ื ื—ืœืฉ,
06:52
and the weak barrier would rupture if it was actively being ventilated
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ื•ื”ืžื—ืกื•ื ื”ื—ืœืฉ ื”ื™ื” ื ืงืจืข ืื ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืžืื•ื•ืจืจ ื ืžืจืฆื•ืช
06:57
like a mammalian lung.
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ื›ืžื• ืจื™ืืช ื”ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื.
07:00
So why do we care about this?
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ืื– ืœืžื” ืื›ืคืช ืœื ื• ืžื›ืœ ื–ื”?
07:01
Why does this even matter?
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ืœืžื” ื–ื” ื‘ื›ืœืœ ืžืฉื ื”?
07:04
Oxygen more easily diffuses across a thin membrane,
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ื—ืžืฆืŸ ืžืคืขืคืข ื‘ื™ืชืจ ืงืœื•ืช ื“ืจืš ืงืจื•ื ื“ืง,
07:09
and a thin membrane is one way of enhancing respiration
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ื•ืงืจื•ื ื“ืง ื”ื•ื ื“ืจืš ืื—ืจืช ืœื”ืขืฉืจืช ื”ื ืฉื™ืžื”
07:15
under low-oxygen conditions --
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ืชื—ืช ืชื ืื™ื ื“ืœื™-ื—ืžืฆืŸ --
07:18
low-oxygen conditions like that of the Triassic period.
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ืชื ืื™ื ื“ืœื™-ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ื™ื• ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ื˜ืจื™ืืก.
07:23
So, if dinosaurs did indeed have this type of lung,
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ืื–, ืื ืœื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ืื›ืŸ ื”ื™ื• ืกื•ื’ ื”ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ื–ื”,
07:28
they'd be better equipped to breathe than all other animals,
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ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืฆื•ื™ื™ื“ื™ื ืœื ืฉื•ื ื‘ื™ื—ืก ืœื›ืœ ืฉืืจ ื‘ืขืœื™-ื”ื—ื™ื™ื,
07:32
including mammals.
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื.
07:34
So do you remember the extant phylogenetic bracket method
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ืืชื ื–ื•ื›ืจื™ื ืืช ืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”"ืื™ืฉื›ื•ืœ ืคื™ืœื•ื’ื ื˜ื™ ืœืคื™ ืžื™ื ื™ื ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื"
07:38
where we take the anatomy of modern animals,
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ื‘ื” ืื ื• ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ื” ืฉืœ ื‘ืขืœื™-ื—ื™ื™ื ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื™ื,
07:41
and we apply that to the fossil record?
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ื•ืžื™ื™ืฉืžื™ื ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืชื™ืขื•ื“ ื”ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื?
07:43
So, clue number one was the forked ribs of modern birds.
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ืื–, ืจืžื– ืžืกืคืจ ืื—ืช ื”ื™ื” ื”ืฆืœืขื•ืช ื”ืžืคื•ืฆืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื•ืช.
07:48
Well, we find that in pretty much the majority of dinosaurs.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื.
07:53
So that means that the top surface of the lungs of dinosaurs
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ืื– ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื—ืœืงืŸ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื
07:58
would be locked into place,
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ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžืงื•ื‘ืข ื‘ืžืงื•ื.
08:00
just like modern birds.
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ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ื‘ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื•ืช.
08:03
Clue number two is vertebral pneumaticity.
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ืจืžื– ืžืกืคืจ ืฉืชื™ื™ื ื”ื•ื ืคื ืื•ืžื˜ื™ื” ื—ื•ืœื™ืชื™ืช.
08:07
We find this in sauropod dinosaurs and theropod dinosaurs,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ื–ืืช ื‘ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ืžืกื•ื’ื™ ื–ืื•ืจื•ืคื•ื“ื” ื•ืชืจื•ืคื•ื“ื”,
08:12
which is the group that contains predatory dinosaurs
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ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ื”ืžื›ื™ืœื” ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ื˜ื•ืจืคื™ื
08:15
and gave rise to modern birds.
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ื•ื”ื™ื•ื• ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื•ืช.
08:18
And while we don't find evidence of fossilized lung tissue in dinosaurs,
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ื•ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉืื ื• ืœื ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ื”ื•ื›ื—ื” ืœืจืงืžืช ืจื™ืื” ืžืื•ื‘ื ืช ื‘ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื,
08:23
vertebral pneumaticity gives us evidence of what the lung was doing
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ืคื ืื•ืžื˜ื™ื” ื—ื•ืœื™ืชื™ืช ืžืขื ื™ืงื” ืœื ื• ื”ื•ื›ื—ื” ืœืžื” ื”ืจื™ืื” ืขืฉืชื”
08:28
during the life of these animals.
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื—ื™ื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื‘ืขืœื™-ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืืœื•.
08:31
Lung tissue or air sac tissue was invading the vertebrae,
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ืจืงืžืช ืจื™ืื” ืื• ืจืงืžื” ืฉืœ ื›ืจื™ืช ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ืคืœืฉื” ืืœ ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื•ืช,
08:36
hollowing them out just like a modern bird,
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ื—ื•ืจืจื” ืื•ืชืŸ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ื‘ืฆื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช,
08:39
and locking regions of the respiratory system into place,
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ื•ื ืขืœื” ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื ืฉื™ืžื” ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื,
08:43
immobilizing them.
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ื•ืœื ืืคืฉืจื” ื ื™ื™ื“ื•ืช.
08:46
The forked ribs
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ื”ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืžืคื•ืฆืœื•ืช
08:47
and the vertebral pneumaticity together
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ื•ื”ืคื ืื•ืžื˜ื™ื” ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ืชื™ืช ื™ื—ื“ื™ื•
08:50
were creating an immobilized, rigid framework
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ื™ืฆืจื• ืžืกื’ืจืช ื ื™ื™ื—ืช ื•ื ื•ืงืฉื”
08:55
that locked the respiratory system into place
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ืฉื ืขืœื” ืืช ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื ืฉื™ืžื” ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื”
08:58
that permitted the evolution of that superthin, superdelicate blood-gas barrier
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ืฉืืคืฉืจื” ืืช ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ืฉืœ ืžื—ืกื•ื ื”ื“ื-ื’ื– ื”ืžืื•ื“ ื“ืงื™ืง, ืžืื•ื“ ืจื’ื™ืฉ
09:04
that we see today in modern birds.
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ืฉืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื ื‘ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื•ืช.
09:07
Evidence of this straightjacketed lung in dinosaurs
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ื”ื”ื•ื›ื—ื” ืœืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ื”ื ื•ืงืฉื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื‘ืจื™ืืช ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื
09:10
means that they had the capability to evolve a lung
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ืื•ืžืจืช ื›ื™ ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืœืคืชื— ืจื™ืื”
09:14
that would have been able to breathe
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ืฉืชื”ื™ื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœืช ืœื ืฉื•ื
09:16
under the hypoxic, or low-oxygen, atmosphere of the Triassic period.
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ืชื—ืช ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ื”ื™ืคื•ืงืกื™ืช, ืื• ื“ืœืช-ื—ืžืฆืŸ, ืฉืœ ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ื˜ืจื™ืืก.
09:21
This rigid skeletal setup in dinosaurs would have given them
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ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืฉืœื“ื™ ื”ื ื•ืงืฉื” ื”ื–ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื ื”ื™ื” ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื
09:27
a significant adaptive advantage over other animals, particularly mammals,
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ื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ื”ืกืชื’ืœื•ืช ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ืฉืืจ ื‘ืขืœื™ื™-ื”ื—ื™ื™ื, ื‘ื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื,
09:32
whose flexible lung couldn't have adapted
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ืฉื”ืจื™ืื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืžืกืคื™ืง ื’ืžื™ืฉื•ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืกืชื’ืœ
09:35
to the hypoxic, or low-oxygen, atmosphere of the Triassic.
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ืœืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” ื”ื”ื™ืคื•ืงืกื™ืช, ืื• ื“ืœืช-ื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ, ืฉืœ ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ื˜ืจื™ืืก.
09:39
This anatomy may have been the secret weapon of dinosaurs
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ื”ืื ื˜ื•ืžื™ื” ื”ื–ื• ืขืฉื•ื™ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื ืฉืงื ื”ืกื•ื“ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื
09:44
that gave them that advantage over other animals.
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ืฉื”ืขื ื™ืง ืœื”ื ืืช ื”ื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ืฉืืจ ื”ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื.
09:48
And this gives us an excellent launchpad
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ื•ื–ื” ื ื•ืชืŸ ืœื ื• ืงืจืฉ ืงืคื™ืฆื” ืžืฆื•ื™ื™ืŸ
09:50
to start testing the hypotheses of dinosaurian diversification.
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ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื”ืฉืขืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ื’ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื‘ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื.
09:55
This is the story of the dinosaurs' beginning,
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ื–ื”ื• ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืชื—ื™ืœืชื ืฉืœ ื”ื“ื™ื ื•ื–ืื•ืจื™ื,
09:59
and it's just the beginning of the story of our research into this subject.
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ื•ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืจืง ื”ื”ืชื—ืœื” ืฉืœ ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ื—ืงืจ ืฉืœื ื• ืืœ ืชื•ืš ื”ื ื•ืฉื ื”ื–ื”.
10:04
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื”.
10:06
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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