Craig Venter: On the verge of creating synthetic life

202,198 views ใƒป 2008-03-10

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Shaike Katz ืžื‘ืงืจ: Sigal Tifferet
00:19
You know, I've talked about some of these projects before --
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™ ืขืœ ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื‘ืขื‘ืจ,
00:21
about the human genome and what that might mean,
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ืขืœ ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ ื•ืžื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื•,
00:25
and discovering new sets of genes.
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ื•ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ืกื“ืจื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ื ื™ื.
00:28
We're actually starting at a new point:
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื—ื“ืฉื”:
00:31
we've been digitizing biology,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืœื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช,
00:35
and now we're trying to go from that digital code
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ื•ื›ืขืช ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœืœื›ืช ืžื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ ื”ื–ื”
00:38
into a new phase of biology
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ืœืฉืœื‘ ื—ื“ืฉ ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”,
00:40
with designing and synthesizing life.
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ืขื ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื•ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื—ื™ื™ื.
00:43
So, we've always been trying to ask big questions.
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ื‘ืขืฆื ืชืžื™ื“ ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืฉืืœื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช.
00:48
"What is life?" is something that I think many biologists
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"ืžื”ื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื?" ื”ื•ื ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื”ืจื‘ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื
00:50
have been trying to understand
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ื ื™ืกื• ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
00:52
at various levels.
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ื‘ืจืžื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
00:54
We've tried various approaches,
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ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช,
00:57
paring it down to minimal components.
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ืฆืžืฆืžื ื• ืœืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืžืœื™ื™ื.
01:01
We've been digitizing it now for almost 20 years;
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื [ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื] ืœื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ื™ื ื›ื‘ืจ ื›ืžืขื˜ 20 ืฉื ื”.
01:03
when we sequenced the human genome,
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ื›ืฉืจื™ืฆืคื ื• ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™,
01:05
it was going from the analog world of biology
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžืขื‘ืจ ืžื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืื ืœื•ื’ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”
01:08
into the digital world of the computer.
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ืœืขื•ืœื ื”ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘.
01:12
Now we're trying to ask, "Can we regenerate life
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœืฉืื•ืœ, ื”ืื ืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื—ื™ื™ื ืžื—ื“ืฉ,
01:16
or can we create new life
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ืื• ื”ืื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื—ื™ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื,
01:18
out of this digital universe?"
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ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ ื”ื–ื”?
01:21
This is the map of a small organism,
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ื–ื• ื”ืžืคื” ืฉืœ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ืงื˜ืŸ,
01:24
Mycoplasma genitalium,
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ืžื™ืงื•ืคืœื–ืžื” ื’'ื ื™ื˜ืœื™ื•ื,
01:26
that has the smallest genome for a species
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื• ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ื›ื™ ืงื˜ืŸ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื™ืŸ
01:29
that can self-replicate in the laboratory,
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืฉื›ืคืœ ืืช ืขืฆืžื• ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ื”.
01:32
and we've been trying to just see if
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ื•ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ืจืง ืœืจืื•ืช ืื
01:34
we can come up with an even smaller genome.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืžืฆื•ื ื’ื ื•ื ืืคื™ืœื• ืงื˜ืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ
01:38
We're able to knock out on the order of 100 genes
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื ื˜ืจืœ ื‘ืขืจืš ืžืื” ื’ื ื™ื
01:40
out of the 500 or so that are here.
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ืžืชื•ืš ื‘ืขืจืš 500 ืฉื™ืฉ ื›ืืŸ.
01:43
When we look at its metabolic map,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ื‘ืžืคืช ื—ื™ืœื•ืฃ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉืœื•
01:45
it's relatively simple
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ื–ื” ื™ื—ืกื™ืช ืคืฉื•ื˜
01:47
compared to ours --
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ื‘ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœืฉืœื ื•
01:49
trust me, this is simple --
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ืชืืžื™ื ื• ืœื™, ื–ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜.
01:51
but when we look at all the genes
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื”ื’ื ื™ื
01:53
that we can knock out one at a time,
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ, ืื—ื“ ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื,
01:56
it's very unlikely that this would yield
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ื™ืฉ ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ื ืžื•ืš ืžืื“ ืฉื–ื” ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ
01:58
a living cell.
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ืชื ื—ื™.
02:01
So we decided the only way forward
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ืื– ื”ื—ืœื˜ื ื• ืฉื”ื“ืจืš ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืœื”ืชืงื“ื
02:03
was to actually synthesize this chromosome
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ื”ื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืœืกื ืชื– ืืช ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ื–ื”
02:06
so we could vary the components
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื
02:09
to ask some of these most fundamental questions.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืื•ืœ ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ืžืื“ ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื”
02:13
And so we started down the road of:
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ืื– ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ื‘ื“ืจืš ืฉืœ
02:15
can we synthesize a chromosome?
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"ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืกื ืชื– ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื?"
02:19
Can chemistry permit making
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ื”ืื ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ื” ืžืืคืฉืจืช ื™ืฆื™ืจื”
02:21
these really large molecules
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ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืžืื“ ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืืœื”
02:23
where we've never been before?
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ืฉืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ืจืื™ื ื•?
02:25
And if we do, can we boot up a chromosome?
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ื•ืื ื›ืŸ, ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืืชื—ืœ ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื?
02:28
A chromosome, by the way, is just a piece of inert chemical material.
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ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื, ื“ืจืš ืื’ื‘, ื”ื•ื ืจืง ืคื™ืกืช ื—ื•ืžืจ ื›ื™ืžื™ ื“ื•ืžื.
02:32
So, our pace of digitizing life has been increasing
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ืื–, ืงืฆื‘ ื”ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืฆื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืžืชื’ื‘ืจ ื•ื”ื•ืœืš
02:35
at an exponential pace.
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ื‘ืงืฆื‘ ืืงืกืคื•ื ื ืฆื™ืืœื™.
02:38
Our ability to write the genetic code
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ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืฉืœื ื• ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืืช ื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™
02:41
has been moving pretty slowly
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ื–ื–ื” ื™ื—ืกื™ืช ืœืื˜
02:43
but has been increasing,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื ืžืชื’ื‘ืจืช
02:46
and our latest point would put it on, now, an exponential curve.
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ื•ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื” ืฉืžื” ืื•ืชื ื• ื‘ืžื” ืฉืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื”ื•ื ืขืงื•ืžื” ืืงืกืคื•ื ื ืฆื™ืืœื™ืช
02:51
We started this over 15 years ago.
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ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืืช ื–ื” ืœืคื ื™ 15 ืฉื ื”
02:53
It took several stages, in fact,
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ืœืžืขืฉื” ื–ื” ืœืงื— ื›ืžื” ืฉืœื‘ื™ื
02:56
starting with a bioethical review before we did the first experiments.
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ื”ื—ืœ ื‘ืกืงื™ืจื” ื‘ื™ื•-ืืชื™ืช ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืขืฉื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื.
03:00
But it turns out synthesizing DNA
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ืื‘ืœ ืžืกืชื‘ืจ ืฉืœืกื ืชื– ื“ื "ื
03:02
is very difficult.
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ื–ื” ืงืฉื” ืžืื“.
03:04
There are tens of thousands of machines around the world
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ื™ืฉ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืืœืคื™ ืžื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื
03:07
that make small pieces of DNA --
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ืฉื™ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืคื™ืกื•ืช ื“ื "ื ืงื˜ื ื•ืช
03:09
30 to 50 letters in length --
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ื‘ืื•ืจืš 30 ืขื“ 50 ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช,
03:12
and it's a degenerate process, so the longer you make the piece,
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ื•ื–ื” ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืžื™ื“ืจื“ืจ, ื›ืš ืฉื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ืคื™ืกื” ืืจื•ื›ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ
03:15
the more errors there are.
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ื™ืฉ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื’ื™ืื•ืช.
03:17
So we had to create a new method
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ืื– ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื—ื“ืฉื”
03:19
for putting these little pieces together and correct all the errors.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ื‘ืจ ืืช ื”ืคื™ืกื•ืช ื”ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ื•ืœืชืงืŸ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื’ื™ืื•ืช
03:23
And this was our first attempt, starting with the digital information
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื”ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื•, ื›ืฉื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืขื ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ื”ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™
03:26
of the genome of phi X174.
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ืฉืœ ื”ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœ Phi X 174
03:28
It's a small virus that kills bacteria.
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ื–ื” ื•ื•ื™ืจื•ืก ืงื˜ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ืจื’ ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื
03:32
We designed the pieces, went through our error correction
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ืชื›ื ื ื• ืืช ื”ืคื™ืกื•ืช, ื”ืขื‘ืจื ื• ื“ืจืš ืชื™ืงื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื’ื™ืื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•,
03:35
and had a DNA molecule
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ื•ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื ื• ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืช ื“ื "ื
03:37
of about 5,000 letters.
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ืฉืœ ื‘ืขืจืš 5,000 ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช
03:40
The exciting phase came when we took this piece of inert chemical
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ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืžืจื’ืฉ ื”ื’ื™ืข ื›ืฉืœืงื—ื ื• ืืช ืคื™ืกืช ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ืงืœ ื”ื“ื•ืžื ื”ื–ื”
03:44
and put it in the bacteria,
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ื•ืฉืžื ื• ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ื—ื™ื“ืง
03:46
and the bacteria started to read this genetic code,
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ื•ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืง ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœืงืจื•ื ืืช ื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™,
03:50
made the viral particles.
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ื•ื™ืฆืจ ืืช ื”ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ื”ื•ื•ื™ืจืืœื™ื™ื
03:52
The viral particles then were released from the cells
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ื”ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ื”ื•ื•ื™ืจืืœื™ื™ื ืฉื•ื—ืจืจื• ืื– ืžื”ืชืื™ื
03:54
and came back and killed the E. coli.
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ื•ืื– ื—ื–ืจื• ื•ื”ืจื’ื• ืืช ื”ืื™. ืงื•ืœื™ [ื”ื—ื™ื“ืง]
03:57
I was talking to the oil industry recently
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ื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™ ืขื ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ื ืคื˜ ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื”,
04:00
and I said they clearly understood that model.
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ื•ืืžืจืชื™ ืฉื”ื ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื•ื“ืœ ื”ื–ื”
04:03
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
04:06
They laughed more than you guys are. (Laughter)
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ื”ื ืฆื—ืงื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื›ื.
04:10
And so, we think this is a situation
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื–ื” ืžืฆื‘
04:12
where the software can actually build its own hardware
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ื‘ื• ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื” ื‘ืขืฆื ื‘ื•ื ื” ืืช ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื” ืฉืœ ืขืฆืžื”
04:15
in a biological system.
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ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช
04:17
But we wanted to go much larger:
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ืื‘ืœ ืจืฆื™ื ื• ืœืœื›ืช ืขืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ
04:19
we wanted to build the entire bacterial chromosome --
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ืจืฆื™ื ื• ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ืืœื™.
04:22
it's over 580,000 letters of genetic code --
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ื–ื” ืžืขืœ 580,000 ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงื•ื“ ื’ื ื˜ื™.
04:26
so we thought we'd build them in cassettes the size of the viruses
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ืื– ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืฉื ื‘ื ื” ืื•ืชื ื‘ืงืกื˜ื•ืช ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ื”ื•ื•ื™ืจื•ืกื™ื,
04:29
so we could actually vary the cassettes
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืžืขืฉื” ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืงืกื˜ื•ืช
04:31
to understand
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
04:33
what the actual components of a living cell are.
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ืžื”ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ื”ื—ืœืงื™ื ืฉืœ ืชื ื—ื™.
04:36
Design is critical,
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ื”ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืงืจื™ื˜ื™,
04:38
and if you're starting with digital information in the computer,
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ื•ืื ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืขื ืžื™ื“ืข ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ ื‘ืžื—ืฉื‘,
04:41
that digital information has to be really accurate.
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ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ื”ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ ื”ื–ื” ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื“ื•ื™ื™ืง.
04:45
When we first sequenced this genome in 1995,
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ื›ืฉืจื™ืฆืคื ื• ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ื–ื” ื‘ 1995,
04:48
the standard of accuracy was one error per 10,000 base pairs.
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ืชืงืŸ ื”ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ื™ื” ืฉื’ื™ืื” ืื—ืช ืœื›ืœ 10,000 ื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืก.
04:52
We actually found, on resequencing it,
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ืžืฆืื ื• ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื›ืฉืจื™ืฆืคื ื• ืื•ืชื•,
04:54
30 errors; had we used that original sequence,
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30 ืฉื’ื™ืื•ืช. ืื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืจืฆืฃ ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™,
04:57
it never would have been able to be booted up.
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ื”ื•ื ืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœ ืœื”ืชืืชื—ืœ.
05:00
Part of the design is designing pieces
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ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืœืขืฆื‘ ืคื™ืกื•ืช
05:02
that are 50 letters long
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ื‘ืื•ืจืš 50 ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช
05:05
that have to overlap with all the other 50-letter pieces
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ืฉืฆืจื™ื›ื•ืช ืœื—ืคื•ืฃ ืœืฉืืจ ืคื™ืกื•ืช ื” 50 ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช
05:08
to build smaller subunits
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืชืช-ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ
05:10
we have to design so they can go together.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ืื•ืชืŸ ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœื”ืชื—ื‘ืจ
05:13
We design unique elements into this.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชื›ื ื ื™ื ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื™ื ืœืชื•ืš ื–ื”.
05:16
You may have read that we put watermarks in.
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ืื•ืœื™ ืงืจืืชื ืฉืฉืžื ื• 'ืกื™ืžื ื™ ืžื™ื' ื‘ืคื ื™ื
05:18
Think of this:
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ืชื—ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ื–ื”:
05:20
we have a four-letter genetic code -- A, C, G and T.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืงื•ื“ ื’ื ื˜ื™ ื‘ืŸ ืืจื‘ืข ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช: G, C, A ื•- T.
05:23
Triplets of those letters
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ืฉืœืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ืช ื”ื–ืืช -- ื”ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื”
05:26
code for roughly 20 amino acids,
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ืžืงื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืขืจืš 20 ื—ื•ืžืฆื•ืช ืืžื™ื ื• --
05:28
such that there's a single letter designation
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ืฉื™ืฉ ื™ื™ืฆื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืื•ืช ื‘ื•ื“ื“ืช
05:31
for each of the amino acids.
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ืœื›ืœ ืื—ืช ืžื—ื•ืžืฆื•ืช ื”ืืžื™ื ื•.
05:33
So we can use the genetic code to write out words,
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ืื– ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืžื™ืœื™ื,
05:36
sentences, thoughts.
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ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื, ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช.
05:39
Initially, all we did was autograph it.
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ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื”, ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืขืฉื™ื ื• ื”ื™ื” ืœื—ืชื•ื ืขืœ ื–ื”.
05:41
Some people were disappointed there was not poetry.
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ื›ืžื” ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืชืื›ื–ื‘ื• ืฉื–ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืฉื™ืจื”.
05:44
We designed these pieces so
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ืชื›ื ื ื• ืืช ื”ืคื™ืกื•ืช ื”ืืœื”
05:46
we can just chew back with enzymes;
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ื›ืš ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœื—ืชื•ืš ืขื ืื ื–ื™ืžื™ื
05:50
there are enzymes that repair them and put them together.
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ื™ืฉ ืื ื–ื™ืžื™ื ืฉืžืชืงื ื™ื ืื•ืชืŸ ื•ืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืื•ืชืŸ
05:53
And we started making pieces,
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ื•ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืคื™ืกื•ืช,
05:55
starting with pieces that were 5,000 to 7,000 letters,
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ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื” ืคื™ืกื•ืช ืฉืœ 5,000 ืขื“ 7,000 ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช,
05:59
put those together to make 24,000-letter pieces,
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ื—ื™ื‘ืจื ื• ืื•ืชืŸ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืคื™ืกื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืจืš 24,000 ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช
06:03
then put sets of those going up to 72,000.
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ื•ืื– ืฉืžื ื• ืกื˜ื™ื ืฉืœ ื›ืืœื•, ืขื“ ืœืื•ืจืš 72,000.
06:07
At each stage, we grew up these pieces in abundance
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืฉืœื‘, ื™ืฆืจื ื• ืืช ื”ืคื™ืกื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ื‘ืฉืคืข
06:09
so we could sequence them
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืจืฆืฃ ืื•ืชืŸ
06:11
because we're trying to create a process that's extremely robust
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ื›ื™ ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืื“ ืขืžื™ื“ --
06:14
that you can see in a minute.
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ืฉืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื“ืงื”.
06:17
We're trying to get to the point of automation.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืžืฆื‘ ืฉืœ ืื•ื˜ื•ืžืฆื™ื”.
06:20
So, this looks like a basketball playoff.
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ืื–, ื–ื” ื ืจืื” ื›ืžื• ืžืฉื—ืง ื’ืžืจ ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจืกืœ
06:22
When we get into these really large pieces
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ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืœืคื™ืกื•ืช ื”ืžืื“ ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืืœื” --
06:24
over 100,000 base pairs,
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ืžืขืœ 100,000 ื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืก --
06:28
they won't any longer grow readily in E. coli --
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ื”ืŸ ื›ื‘ืจ ืœื ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืกืชื ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืชื•ืš ืื™. ืงื•ืœื™
06:30
it exhausts all the modern tools of molecular biology --
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ื–ื” ืžืžืฆื” ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื›ืœื™ื ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืจื™ืช.
06:34
and so we turned to other mechanisms.
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ืื– ืคื ื™ื ื• ืœืžื ื’ื ื•ื ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
06:38
We knew there's a mechanism called homologous recombination
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ื™ื“ืขื ื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืžื ื’ื ื•ืŸ ืฉื ืงืจื ืจื”-ืงื•ืžื‘ื™ื ืฆื™ื” ื”ื•ืžื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช,
06:41
that biology uses to repair DNA
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ืฉื‘ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉืช ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœืชืงืŸ ื“ื "ื,
06:44
that can put pieces together.
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื—ื‘ืจ ืคื™ืกื•ืช ื™ื—ื“.
06:47
Here's an example of it:
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ื”ื ื” ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืœื›ืš.
06:48
there's an organism called
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ื™ืฉ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ืฉื ืงืจื
06:49
Deinococcus radiodurans
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ื“ื™ื™ื ื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก ืจื“ื™ื•ื“ื•ืจื ืก
06:51
that can take three millions rads of radiation.
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืกืคื•ื’ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืจืื“ ืฉืœ ืงืจื™ื ื”
06:54
You can see in the top panel, its chromosome just gets blown apart.
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ืคืื ืœ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ, ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื ืฉืœื• ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืžืชืคืจืงื™ื
06:58
Twelve to 24 hours later, it put it
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12 ืขื“ 24 ืฉืขื•ืช ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ, ื–ื” ื—ื™ื‘ืจ ืื•ืชื
07:01
back together exactly as it was before.
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ื‘ื—ื–ืจื” ื™ื—ื“ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ืงื•ื“ื
07:03
We have thousands of organisms that can do this.
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ื™ืฉ ืืœืคื™ ืื•ืจื’ื ื–ื™ืžื™ื ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”
07:06
These organisms can be totally desiccated;
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ื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื•ื‘ืฉื™ื ืœื’ืžืจื™
07:08
they can live in a vacuum.
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ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื•ื•ืืงื•ื
07:11
I am absolutely certain that life can exist in outer space,
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ืื ื™ ืžืฉื•ื›ื ืข ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืฉื‘ื—ืœืœ ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ืŸ ื™ืฉ ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœื—ื™ื•ืช
07:14
move around, find a new aqueous environment.
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ืœื”ืกืชื•ื‘ื‘, ืœืžืฆื•ื ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืžื™ืžื™ืช ื—ื“ืฉื”
07:17
In fact, NASA has shown a lot of this is out there.
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื ืืก"ื ื”ืจืืชื” ืฉื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื–ื” ื ืžืฆื ืฉื ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ
07:21
Here's an actual micrograph of the molecule we built
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ื”ื ื” ืžื™ืงืจื•ื’ืจืฃ ืืžื™ืชื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื” ืฉื‘ื ื™ื ื•
07:25
using these processes, actually just using yeast mechanisms
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ืชื•ืš ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื ื”ืืœื• -- ืœืžืขืฉื” ืจืง ืžื ื’ื ื•ื ื™ ืฉืžืจื™ื
07:29
with the right design of the pieces we put them in;
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ืขื ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืกื•ืช ืฉืฉืžื ื• ื‘ืคื ื™ื
07:32
yeast puts them together automatically.
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ืฉืžืจื™ื ืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื ื™ื—ื“ ืื•ื˜ื•ืžื˜ื™ืช.
07:35
This is not an electron micrograph;
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ื–ื” ืœื ืžื™ืงืจื•ื’ืจืฃ ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™
07:37
this is just a regular photomicrograph.
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ื–ื”ื• ืคื•ื˜ื•ืžื™ืงืจื•ื’ืจืฃ ืจื’ื™ืœ
07:39
It's such a large molecule
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ื–ื• ื›ื–ื• ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื”
07:41
we can see it with a light microscope.
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ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืค ืื•ืจ
07:44
These are pictures over about a six-second period.
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ืืœื• ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืœืื•ืจืš ืฉืฉ ืฉื ื™ื•ืช
07:47
So, this is the publication we had just a short while ago.
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ืื– ื–ื” ื”ืคืจืกื•ื ืฉื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืžืžืฉ ืœื ืžื–ืžืŸ
07:51
This is over 580,000 letters of genetic code;
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ื™ืฉ ื›ืืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž 580,000 ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงื•ื“ ื’ื ื˜ื™
07:54
it's the largest molecule ever made by humans of a defined structure.
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ื–ื• ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื” ื‘ืขืœืช ืžื‘ื ื” ืžื•ื’ื“ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื ื•ืฆืจื” ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ืื“ื
07:59
It's over 300 million molecular weight.
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ื”ื™ื ืฉื•ืงืœืช ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœ 300 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืžืฉืงืœ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืจื™
08:02
If we printed it out at a 10 font with no spacing,
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ืื ืžื“ืคื™ืกื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ื’ื•ืคืŸ ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ 10 ืœืœื ืจื•ื•ื—ื™ื
08:05
it takes 142 pages
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ื–ื” ืžืžืœื 142 ื“ืคื™ื
08:07
just to print this genetic code.
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ืจืง ืœื”ื“ืคื™ืก ืืช ื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ ื”ื–ื”.
08:11
Well, how do we boot up a chromosome? How do we activate this?
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื™ืš ืžืืชื—ืœื™ื ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื? ืื™ืš ืžืคืขื™ืœื™ื ืืช ื–ื”?
08:14
Obviously, with a virus it's pretty simple;
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ืžืŸ ื”ืกืชื, ืขื ื•ื•ื™ืจื•ืก ื–ื” ื“ื™ ืคืฉื•ื˜.
08:17
it's much more complicated dealing with bacteria.
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ื–ื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืกื•ื‘ืš ื›ืฉืขื•ืกืงื™ื ื‘ื—ื™ื“ืงื™ื.
08:20
It's also simpler when you go
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ื–ื” ื’ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื›ืฉืขื•ืกืงื™ื
08:22
into eukaryotes like ourselves:
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ื‘ืืื•ืงืจื™ื•ื˜ื™ื (ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืชื ืžื•ืงืฃ ืงืจื•ื) ื›ืžื•ื ื•
08:24
you can just pop out the nucleus
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ืืคืฉืจ ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืœืฉืœื•ืฃ ืืช ื”ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ
08:26
and pop in another one,
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ื•ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืคื ื™ืžื” ืื—ืจ
08:28
and that's what you've all heard about with cloning.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืฉืžืขืชื ืขืœื™ื• ื‘ืงืฉืจ ืœืฉื™ื‘ื•ื˜
08:31
With bacteria and Archaea, the chromosome is integrated into the cell,
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ืขื ื—ื™ื“ืงื™ื ื—ื“ ืชืื™ื™ื ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ืžืฉื•ืœื‘ ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืชื
08:35
but we recently showed that we can do a complete transplant
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื”ืจืื™ื ื• ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื”ืฉืชืœื” ืžื•ืฉืœืžืช
08:39
of a chromosome from one cell to another
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ืฉืœ ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ืžืชื ืื—ื“ ืœืื—ืจ
08:41
and activate it.
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ื•ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืื•ืชื•.
08:44
We purified a chromosome from one microbial species --
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ื–ื™ืงืงื ื• ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ืžืžื™ืŸ ืžื™ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ ืื—ื“
08:48
roughly, these two are as distant as human and mice --
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ืฉื ื™ ืืœื” ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืื“ื ื•ืขื›ื‘ืจ, ืคื—ื•ืช ืื• ื™ื•ืชืจ
08:51
we added a few extra genes
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ื”ื•ืกืคื ื• ืขื•ื“ ื›ืžื” ื’ื ื™ื
08:53
so we could select for this chromosome,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ื–ื”
08:55
we digested it with enzymes
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ืขื™ื›ืœื ื• ืื•ืชื• ืขื ืื ื–ื™ืžื™ื
08:57
to kill all the proteins,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืจื•ื’ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื
08:59
and it was pretty stunning when we put this in the cell --
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืžื“ื”ื™ื ื›ืฉืฉืžื ื• ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืชื --
09:02
and you'll appreciate
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ื•ื‘ื˜ื— ืชืขืจื™ื›ื•
09:04
our very sophisticated graphics here.
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ืืช ื”ื’ืจืคื™ืงื” ืžืชื•ื—ื›ืžืช ืฉืœื ื• ื›ืืŸ --
09:07
The new chromosome went into the cell.
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ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ื ื›ื ืก ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืชื
09:10
In fact, we thought this might be as far as it went,
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืฉื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื”ื›ื™ ืจื—ื•ืง ืฉื ื’ื™ืข
09:12
but we tried to design the process a little bit further.
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ืื‘ืœ ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืงืฆืช ื”ืœืื”
09:15
This is a major mechanism of evolution right here.
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ื–ื”ื• ืžื ื’ื ื•ืŸ ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ืžืจื›ื–ื™, ืžื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื›ืืŸ
09:18
We find all kinds of species
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ื›ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ ืžื™ื ื™ื
09:20
that have taken up a second chromosome
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ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœื• ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ืฉื ื™
09:22
or a third one from somewhere,
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ื•ื’ื ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ืžืื™ืคืฉื”ื•,
09:24
adding thousands of new traits
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ื•ื”ื•ืกื™ืคื• ืืœืคื™ ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช
09:26
in a second to that species.
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ืœืžื™ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ืชื•ืš ืฉื ื™ื™ื”
09:28
So, people who think of evolution
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ืื– ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื”
09:30
as just one gene changing at a time
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ื›ืขืœ ื’ืŸ ืื—ื“ ื‘ืœื‘ื“ ืฉืžืฉืชื ื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื
09:32
have missed much of biology.
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ืคืกืคืกื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”.
09:35
There are enzymes called restriction enzymes
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ื™ืฉ ืื ื–ื™ืžื™ื ืฉื ืงืจืื™ื ืื ื–ื™ืžื™ ืงื™ื˜ื•ืข
09:37
that actually digest DNA.
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ืฉืœืžืขืฉื” ืžืขื›ืœื™ื ื“ื "ื.
09:39
The chromosome that was in the cell
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ืœื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ืชื
09:41
doesn't have one;
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ืื™ืŸ ื›ื–ื”
09:43
the chromosome we put in does.
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ืœืชื -- ืœื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ืฉืฉืžื ื• ื‘ื• -- ื™ืฉ ื›ื–ื”
09:45
It got expressed and it recognized
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ื”ื•ื ื‘ื ืœื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™, ื•ื”ื•ื ื–ื™ื”ื”
09:47
the other chromosome as foreign material,
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ืืช ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ืื—ืจ ื›ื—ื•ืžืจ ื–ืจ
09:50
chewed it up, and so we ended up
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ืื›ืœ ืื•ืชื•, ื•ืื– ื ื•ืชืจื ื•
09:52
just with a cell with the new chromosome.
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ืจืง ืขื ื”ืชื ืขื ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ื—ื“ืฉ
09:56
It turned blue because of the genes we put in it.
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ื”ื•ื ื”ืคืš ื›ื—ื•ืœ ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ื’ื ื™ื ืฉืฉืžื ื• ื‘ื•
09:59
And with a very short period of time,
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ื•ื‘ืคืจืง ื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ ืžืื“
10:01
all the characteristics of one species were lost
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ื›ืœ ื”ืžืืคื™ื™ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ืŸ ืื‘ื“ื•,
10:04
and it converted totally into the new species
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื”ื•ืžืจ ืœืžื™ืŸ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ
10:07
based on the new software that we put in the cell.
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ื‘ื”ืชื‘ืกืก ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ืฉืฉืžื ื• ื‘ืชื
10:10
All the proteins changed,
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ื›ืœ ื”ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื ื”ืฉืชื ื•,
10:12
the membranes changed;
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ืงืจื•ืžื™ ื”ืชื ื”ืฉืชื ื• --
10:14
when we read the genetic code, it's exactly what we had transferred in.
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ื›ืฉืงืจืื ื• ืืช ื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™, ื–ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžื” ืฉื”ืขื‘ืจื ื• ืคื ื™ืžื”
10:18
So, this may sound like genomic alchemy,
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ืื– ื–ื” ืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ื™ืฉืžืข ื›ืืœื›ื™ืžื™ื” ื’ื ื•ืžื™ืช
10:21
but we can, by moving the software of DNA around,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื, ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ืช ื”ื“ื "ื
10:25
change things quite dramatically.
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ืœืฉื ื•ืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื“ื™ ื“ืจืžื˜ื™ืช
10:29
Now I've argued, this is not genesis;
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื˜ืขื ืชื™, ื–ื• ืœื ื‘ืจื™ืื” ืžื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช
10:31
this is building on three and a half billion years of evolution.
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ื–ื• ื”ืชื‘ืกืกื•ืช ืขืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื•ื—ืฆื™ ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื”
10:36
And I've argued that we're about to perhaps
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ื•ื˜ืขื ืชื™ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืื•ืœื™ ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื
10:38
create a new version of the Cambrian explosion,
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ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื’ืจืกื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืฉืœ ื”ืชืคื•ืฆืฆื•ืช [ื”ืชืงื•ืคื”] ื”ืงืžื‘ืจื™ืช
10:41
where there's massive new speciation
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ื›ืฉื™ืฉ ื”ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืžืืกื™ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžื™ื ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื
10:45
based on this digital design.
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ื‘ื”ืชื‘ืกืก ืขืœ ื”ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื”ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ ื”ื–ื”
10:47
Why do this?
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ืœืžื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”?
10:49
I think this is pretty obvious in terms of some of the needs.
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื” ื“ื™ ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืžืืœื™ื• ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ื”ืฆืจื›ื™ื.
10:51
We're about to go from six and a half
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžืฉืฉื” ื•ื—ืฆื™
10:53
to nine billion people over the next 40 years.
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ืœืชืฉืขื” ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ 40 ืฉื ื” ื”ื‘ืื•ืช
10:56
To put it in context for myself:
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉื™ื ื–ืืช ื‘ื”ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื™:
10:58
I was born in 1946.
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ืื ื™ ื ื•ืœื“ืชื™ ื‘ 1946.
11:00
There are now three people on the planet
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ื™ืฉ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืื ืฉื™ื ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
11:02
for every one of us that existed in 1946;
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ืœื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืฉื ื•ืœื“ ื‘ 1946;
11:06
within 40 years, there'll be four.
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ื‘ืชื•ืš 40 ืฉื ื”, ื™ื”ื™ื• ืืจื‘ืขื”.
11:09
We have trouble feeding, providing fresh, clean water,
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื‘ืขื™ื™ื” ืœื”ืื›ื™ืœ, ืœืกืคืง ืžื™ื ื ืงื™ื™ื ื•ื˜ืจื™ื™ื
11:12
medicines, fuel
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ืจืคื•ืื”, ื“ืœืง
11:14
for the six and a half billion.
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ืœืฉืฉื” ื”ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื•ื—ืฆื™.
11:17
It's going to be a stretch to do it for nine.
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ื™ื”ื™ื” ืงืฉื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืชืฉืขื”.
11:19
We use over five billion tons of coal,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื—ืžืฉ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื˜ื•ื ื•ืช ืคื—ื
11:22
30 billion-plus barrels of oil --
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ืžืขืœ 30 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื—ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื ืคื˜
11:25
that's a hundred million barrels a day.
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ื–ื” ืžืื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื—ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ื
11:29
When we try to think of biological processes
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ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื
11:31
or any process to replace that,
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ืื• ื›ืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืฉื™ื—ืœื™ืฃ ืืช ื–ื”
11:34
it's going to be a huge challenge.
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ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ืืชื’ืจ ืขืฆื•ื
11:36
Then of course, there's all that
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ื•ืื–, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื™ืฉ ืืช ื›ืœ
11:38
CO2 from this material
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ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืžื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”
11:40
that ends up in the atmosphere.
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ืฉืžืกื™ื™ื ืืช ื“ืจื›ื• ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”
11:43
We now, from our discovery around the world,
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืžื”ืชื’ืœื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื
11:45
have a database with about 20 million genes,
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ื‘ืกื™ืก ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืขื ื‘ืขืจืš 20 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื’ื ื™ื
11:49
and I like to think of these as the design components of the future.
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ื•ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœื™ื”ื ื›ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ ื”ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืขืชื™ื“.
11:53
The electronics industry only had a dozen or so components,
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ืœืชืขืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ืงื” ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืขืจืš ืชืจื™ืกืจ ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื
11:56
and look at the diversity that came out of that.
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ื•ืชืจืื• ืืช ื”ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื™ืฆื ืžื–ื”
12:00
We're limited here primarily
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœื™ื ื›ืืŸ ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ
12:02
by a biological reality
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช
12:04
and our imagination.
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ื•ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื•
12:07
We now have techniques,
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื›ืขืช ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื•ืช,
12:09
because of these rapid methods of synthesis,
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื”ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืืœื”,
12:12
to do what we're calling combinatorial genomics.
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ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื›ื ื™ื ื’ื ื•ืžื™ืงื” ืจืงื•ืžื‘ื™ื ื ื˜ื™ืช
12:16
We have the ability now to build a large robot
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื›ืขืช ืืช ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜ ื’ื“ื•ืœ
12:19
that can make a million chromosomes a day.
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ื
12:23
When you think of processing these 20 million different genes
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ื›ืฉื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ืขื™ื‘ื•ื“ 20 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื”
12:26
or trying to optimize processes
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ืื• ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœื™ื™ืขืœ ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื
12:28
to produce octane or to produce pharmaceuticals,
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ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืื•ืงื˜ืŸ ืื• ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช
12:31
new vaccines,
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ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื
12:34
we can just with a small team,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉื ื•ืช, ืขื ืฆื•ื•ืช ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ืœื‘ื“
12:37
do more molecular biology
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ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืจื™ืช
12:39
than the last 20 years of all science.
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ืžืืฉืจ ื ืขืฉืชื” ื‘ืขืฉืจื™ื ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืžื“ืข.
12:42
And it's just standard selection:
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ื•ื–ื” ืจืง ื”ืžื‘ื—ืจ ื”ืจื’ื™ืœ.
12:44
we can select for viability,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืœื”ืชืžืงื“ ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืงื™ื•ื,
12:46
chemical or fuel production,
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ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื›ื™ืžื™ ืื• ืฉืœ ื“ืœืง
12:48
vaccine production, etc.
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ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื, ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืœืื”.
12:50
This is a screen snapshot
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ื–ื• ืชืžื•ื ืช ืžืกืš
12:53
of some true design software
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ืฉืœ ืชื•ื›ื ืช ืขื™ืฆื•ื‘ ืืžื™ืชื™ืช
12:56
that we're working on to actually be able to sit down
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืขืœื™ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืžืขืฉื” ืœืฉื‘ืช
12:59
and design species in the computer.
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ื•ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ืžื™ื ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘
13:03
You know, we don't know necessarily what it'll look like:
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ืžืžืฉ ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืื™ืš ื–ื” ื™ื™ืจืื”
13:06
we know exactly what their genetic code looks like.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืื™ืš ื ืจืื” ื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ ืฉืœื”ื
13:09
We're focusing on now fourth-generation fuels.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืขืช ืžืชืจื›ื–ื™ื ื‘ื“ืœืงื™ื ืžื“ื•ืจ ืจื‘ื™ืขื™.
13:15
You've seen recently, corn to ethanol
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ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” ืจืื™ืชื ืฉื”ืคื™ื›ืช ืชื™ืจืก ืœืืชื ื•ืœ
13:17
is just a bad experiment.
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ื”ื•ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ืจืข.
13:19
We have second- and third-generation fuels
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื“ืœืงื™ื ืžื“ื•ืจ ืฉื ื™ ื•ืฉืœื™ืฉื™
13:21
that will be coming out relatively soon
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ืฉื™ื™ืฆืื• ื‘ืงืจื•ื‘
13:24
that are sugar, to much higher-value fuels
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ืฉื”ื ื”ืžืจืช ืกื•ื›ืจ ืœื“ืœืงื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ืขืจืš ืจื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ
13:27
like octane or different types of butanol.
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ื›ืžื• ืื•ืงื˜ืŸ ืื• ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืฉืœ ื‘ื•ื˜ืื ื•ืœ.
13:30
But the only way we think that biology
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืฉื‘ื” ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”
13:33
can have a major impact without
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ืฉืคื™ืข ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ืœืœื
13:36
further increasing the cost of food and limiting its availability
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ื”ื’ื“ืœื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืฉืœ ืขืœื•ืช ื”ืžื–ื•ืŸ ื•ื”ื’ื‘ืœืช ื”ื ื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœื”
13:39
is if we start with CO2 as its feedstock,
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ื”ื™ื ืื ื ืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื›ืžื–ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื”
13:42
and so we're working with designing cells to go down this road.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ืชืื™ื ืฉื™ื™ืœื›ื• ื‘ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื”
13:47
And we think we'll have the first fourth-generation fuels
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ืืช ืชืื™ ื”ื“ืœืง ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืžื“ื•ืจ ืจื‘ื™ืขื™
13:50
in about 18 months.
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ื‘ืขืจืš ืชื•ืš 18 ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื.
13:52
Sunlight and CO2 is one method ...
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ืื•ืจ ืฉืžืฉ ื•ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื”ื ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืื—ืช --
13:54
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
13:59
but in our discovery around the world,
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-- ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืชื’ืœื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื
14:01
we have all kinds of other methods.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื›ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช.
14:03
This is an organism we described in 1996.
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ื–ื”ื• ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ืฉืชื™ืืจื ื• ื‘ 1996
14:07
It lives in the deep ocean,
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ื”ื•ื ื’ืจ ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืขืžื•ืง
14:09
about a mile and a half deep,
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ื‘ืขื•ืžืง ืฉื ื™ ืง"ืž ื•ื—ืฆื™ ื‘ืขืจืš
14:11
almost at boiling-water temperatures.
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ื‘ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื›ืžืขื˜ ืจืชื™ื—ืช ืžื™ื
14:13
It takes CO2 to methane
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืคืš ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืœืžืชืืŸ
14:16
using molecular hydrogen as its energy source.
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ืชื•ืš ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืžื™ืžืŸ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืจื™ ื›ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืฉืœื•
14:19
We're looking to see if we can take
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ื•ื“ืงื™ื ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืงื—ืช
14:21
captured CO2,
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ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื›ืœื•ื
14:23
which can easily be piped to sites,
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ื‘ืงืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื–ืจื ืœืืชืจื™ื
14:25
convert that CO2 back into fuel
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ืœื”ืžื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื”ื–ื” ืœื“ืœืง
14:28
to drive this process.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื ื™ืข ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื”
14:31
So, in a short period of time,
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ื‘ืคืจืง ื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ,
14:33
we think that we might be able to increase
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื ื”ื™ื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœื”ืจื—ื™ื‘
14:37
what the basic question is of "What is life?"
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ืืช ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช ืฉืœ "ืžื”ื ื—ื™ื™ื?"
14:40
We truly, you know,
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื‘ืืžืช, ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื --
14:42
have modest goals
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ืžื˜ืจื•ืช ืฆื ื•ืขื•ืช
14:44
of replacing the whole petrol-chemical industry --
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ืฉืœ ืœื”ื—ืœื™ืฃ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื”ืคื˜ืจื•ื›ื™ืžื™ืช.
14:47
(Laughter) (Applause)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง) (ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
14:50
Yeah. If you can't do that at TED, where can you? --
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ื›ืŸ. ืื ืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ TED, ืื™ืคื” ืขื•ื“ ืืคืฉืจ?
14:53
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
14:55
become a major source of energy ...
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ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœืžืงื•ืจ ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืžืจื›ื–ื™
14:57
But also, we're now working on using these same tools
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ืื‘ืœ ื’ื, ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืจื’ืข ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืื•ืชื ื›ืœื™ื
15:00
to come up with instant sets of vaccines.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื™ื™ื“ื™.
15:03
You've seen this year with flu;
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ืจืื™ืชื ื”ืฉื ื” ืขื ื”ืฉืคืขืช
15:05
we're always a year behind and a dollar short
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืชืžื™ื“ ืฉื ื” ื‘ืื™ื—ื•ืจ ื•ืขื ื“ื•ืœืจ ืื—ื“ ืคื—ื•ืช ืžื“ื™
15:08
when it comes to the right vaccine.
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ื›ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื—ื™ืกื•ืŸ ื”ืžืชืื™ื.
15:10
I think that can be changed
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื” ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™
15:12
by building combinatorial vaccines in advance.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื ืฆื™ืจื•ืคื™ื™ื ืžืจืืฉ
15:16
Here's what the future may begin to look like
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ื”ื ื” ืื™ืš ืฉื”ืขืชื™ื“ ืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ื™ืจืื•ืช
15:19
with changing, now, the evolutionary tree,
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ืขื ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืขื›ืฉื•ื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืขืฅ ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™
15:23
speeding up evolution
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ื”ืืฆืช ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื”
15:25
with synthetic bacteria, Archaea
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ืขื ื—ื™ื“ืงื™ื ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ื™ื, ื—ื“-ืชืื™ื™ื,
15:28
and, eventually, eukaryotes.
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ื•ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืืื•ืงืจื™ื•ื˜ื™ื.
15:32
We're a ways away from improving people:
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืขื•ื“ ื“ืจืš ืืจื•ื›ื” ืขื“ ืฉื ื’ื™ืข ืœืฉื™ืคื•ืจ ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื.
15:34
our goal is just to make sure that we have a chance
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ื”ืžื˜ืจื” ืฉืœื ื• ื”ื™ื ืจืง ืœื•ื•ื“ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืกื™ื›ื•ื™
15:37
to survive long enough to maybe do that. Thank you very much.
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ืœืฉืจื•ื“ ืžืกืคื™ืง ื–ืžืŸ ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื ืขืฉื” ื–ืืช. ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืœื›ื.
15:40
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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