The chemical reaction that feeds the world - Daniel D. Dulek

742,410 views ใƒป 2013-11-18

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: benyamin zinshtein
00:07
What would you say
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ืžื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื ืื•ืžืจื™ื
00:08
is the most important discovery
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ื”ืชื’ืœื™ืช ื”ื›ื™ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื”
00:09
made in the past few centuries?
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ืฉื ืขืฉืชื” ื‘ืžืื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช?
00:11
Is it the computer?
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ื”ืื ื–ื” ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘?
00:12
The car?
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ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ืช?
00:13
Electricity?
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ื—ืฉืžืœ?
00:14
Or maybe the discovery of the atom?
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ืื• ืื•ืœื™ ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ื”ืื˜ื•ื?
00:16
I would argue that it is this chemical reaction:
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ืื ื™ ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื˜ื•ืขืŸ ืฉื–ื• ื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ืช ื”ื–ื•:
00:19
a nitrogen gas molecule
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ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืช ื’ื– ื—ื ืงืŸ
00:21
plus three hydrogen gas molecules
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ื•ืขื•ื“ ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื’ื– ืžื™ืžืŸ
00:23
gets you two ammonia gas molecules.
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ื™ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืฉืชื™ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื’ื– ืืžื•ื ื™ื”.
00:26
This is the Haber process
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ื–ื” ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื‘ืจ
00:28
of binding nitrogen molecules in the air
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ืฉืœ ืงืฉื™ืจืช ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื—ื ืงืŸ ื‘ืื•ื•ื™ืจ
00:30
to hydrogen molecules,
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ืœืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ืžื™ืžืŸ,
00:32
or turning air into fertilizer.
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ืื• ื”ืคื™ื›ืช ื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ืœื“ืฉืŸ.
00:35
Without this reaction,
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ื‘ืœื™ ื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื”ื–ื•,
00:36
farmers would be capable of producing enough food
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ื—ื•ื•ืื™ื ื™ื”ื™ื• ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœื™ืฆืจ ืžืกืคื™ืง ืื•ื›ืœ
00:39
for only 4 billion people;
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืจืง 4 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืื ืฉื™ื;
00:41
our current population is just over 7 billion people.
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ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ืช ืฉืœื ื• ื”ื™ื ืงืฆืช ืžืขืœ 7 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืื ืฉื™ื.
00:44
So, without the Haber process,
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ืื–, ื‘ืœื™ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื‘ืจ,
00:46
over 3 billion people would be without food.
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ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž 3 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืœืœื ืื•ื›ืœ.
00:51
You see, nitrogen in the form of nitrate, NO3,
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ืืชื ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื, ื—ื ืงืŸ ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื ื™ื˜ืจื˜, NO3,
00:55
is an essential nutrient for plants to survive.
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ื”ื•ื ืžื–ื™ืŸ ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ ืœืฆืžื—ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืจื•ื“.
00:58
As crops grow, they consume the nitrogen,
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ื›ืฉื’ื™ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื’ื“ืœื™ื, ื”ื ืฆื•ืจื›ื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ื ืงืŸ,
01:00
removing it from the soil.
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ืžื•ืฆื™ืื™ื ืื•ืชื• ืžื”ืงืจืงืข.
01:02
The nitrogen can be replenished
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ื”ื—ื ืงืŸ
01:03
through long, natural fertilization processes
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ื“ืจืš ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ ื“ื™ืฉื•ืŸ ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื™ื ืืจื•ื›ื™ื
01:06
like decaying animals,
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ื›ืžื• ื—ื™ื•ืช ื ืจืงื‘ื•ืช,
01:07
but humans want to grow food
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื’ื“ืœ ืื•ื›ืœ
01:09
much faster than that.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ืจ ืžื–ื”.
01:11
Now, here's the frustrating part:
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ื ื” ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ืžืชืกื›ืœ:
01:13
78% of the air is composed of nitrogen,
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78% ืžื”ืื•ื™ืจ ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ืžื—ื ืงืŸ,
01:16
but crops can't just take nitrogen from the air
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืœืงื—ืช ืืช ื”ื—ื ืงืŸ ืžื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจ
01:19
because it contains very strong triple bonds,
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื›ื™ืœ ืงืฉืจื™ื ืžืฉื•ืœืฉื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ื—ื–ืงื™ื,
01:22
which crops cannot break.
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ืฉื’ื™ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉื‘ื•ืจ.
01:24
What Haber did basically
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ืžื” ืฉื”ื‘ืจ ืขืฉื” ื‘ืขื™ืงืจื•ืŸ
01:26
was figure out a way
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ื”ื™ื” ืœืžืฆื•ื ื“ืจืš
01:27
to take this nitrogen in the air
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื—ืช ืืช ื”ื—ื ืงืŸ ื”ื–ื” ืžื”ืื•ื™ืจ
01:29
and put it into the ground.
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ื•ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืื•ืชื• ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืื“ืžื”.
01:31
In 1908, the German chemist Fritz Haber
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ื‘ 1908, ื”ื›ื™ืžืื™ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ ืคืจื™ืฅ ื”ื‘ืจ
01:34
developed a chemical method
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ืคื™ืชื— ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื›ื™ืžื™ืช
01:36
for utilizing the vast supply of nitrogen in the air.
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ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืžืื’ืจ ื”ืขืฆื•ื ืฉืœ ื—ื ืงืŸ ื‘ืื•ื•ื™ืจ.
01:39
Haber found a method
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01:39
which took the nitrogen in the air
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ื”ื‘ืจ ืžืฆื ืฉื™ื˜ื”
ืฉืœื•ืงื—ืช ืืช ื”ื—ื ืงืŸ ืžื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจ
01:41
and bonded it to hydrogen
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ื•ืงื•ืฉืจืช ืื•ืชื• ืœืžื™ืžืŸ
01:43
to form ammonia.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืืžื•ื ื™ื”.
01:45
Ammonia can then be injected into the soil,
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ืืžื•ื ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืื– ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื–ืจืงืช ืœืงืจืงืข,
01:47
where it is quickly converted into nitrate.
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ืฉื ื”ื™ื ืžื•ืžืจืช ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืœื ื™ื˜ืจื˜ื™ื.
01:50
But if Haber's process was going to be used
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื” ืขื•ืžื“ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ
01:53
to feed the world,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืื›ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื,
01:54
he would need to find a way
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืžืฆื•ื ื“ืจืš
01:55
to create a lot of this ammonia quickly and easily.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืืžื•ื ื™ื” ื”ื–ื• ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื•ื‘ืงืœื•ืช.
01:58
In order to understand
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ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
01:59
how Haber accomplished this feat,
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ืื™ืš ื”ื‘ืจ ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ื‘ื–ืืช,
02:01
we need to know something
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื“ืขืช ืžืฉื”ื•
02:02
about chemical equilibrium.
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ืขืœ ืฉื™ื•ื•ื™ ืžืฉืงืœ ื›ื™ืžื™.
02:04
Chemical equilibrium can be achieved
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ืฉื™ื•ื•ื™ ืžืฉืงืœ ื›ื™ืžื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืฉื’
02:06
when you have a reaction in a closed container.
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ื›ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื‘ืžื™ื›ืœ ืกื’ื•ืจ.
02:09
For example, let's say you put
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ื‘ื•ืื• ื ื’ื™ื“ ืฉืืชื ืฉืžื™ื
02:11
hydrogen and nitrogen into a closed container
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ืžื™ืžืŸ ื•ื—ื ืงืŸ ื‘ืชื•ืš ืžื™ื›ืœ ืกื’ื•ืจ
02:14
and allow them to react.
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ื•ืžืืคืฉืจื™ื ืœื”ื ืœื”ื’ื™ื‘.
02:16
In the beginning of the experiment,
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ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื”,
02:17
we have a lot of nitrogen and hydrogen,
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ื—ื ืงืŸ ื•ืžื™ืžืŸ,
02:20
so the formation of ammonia
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ืื– ื”ื”ื•ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืืžื•ื ื™ื”
02:22
proceeds at a high speed.
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ืžืชืงื“ืžื ื‘ืงืฆื‘ ื’ื‘ื•ื”.
02:24
But as the hydrogen and nitrogen react
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืฉื”ืžื™ืžืŸ ื•ื”ื—ื ืงืŸ ืžื’ื™ื‘ื™ื
02:26
and get used up,
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ื•ื ื’ืžืจื™ื,
02:28
the reaction slows down
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ื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืžืื™ื˜ื”
02:29
because there is less nitrogen and hydrogen
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื™ืฉ ืคื—ื•ืช ื—ื ืงืŸ ื•ืžื™ืžืŸ
02:31
in the container.
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ื‘ืžื™ื›ืœ.
02:33
Eventually, the ammonia molecules reach a point
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ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืืžื•ื ื™ื” ืžื’ื™ืขื•ืช ืœื ืงื•ื“ื”
02:36
where they start to decompose
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ื‘ื” ื”ืŸ ืžืชื—ื™ืœื•ืช ืœื”ืชืคืจืง
02:38
back into the nitrogen and hydrogen.
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ื—ื–ืจื” ืœื—ื ืงืŸ ื•ืžื™ืžืŸ.
02:41
After a while, the two reactions,
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ืื—ืจื™ ื–ืžืŸ ืžื”, ืฉืชื™ ื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช,
02:43
creating and breaking down ammonia,
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ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื•ืคื™ืจื•ืง ืืžื•ื ื™ื”,
02:45
will reach the same speed.
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ื™ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืื•ืชื” ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช.
02:47
When these speeds are equal,
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ื›ืฉื”ืžื”ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ืฉื•ื•ืช,
02:49
we say the reaction has reached equilibrium.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ืœืฉื™ื•ื•ื™ ืžืฉืงืœ.
02:53
This might sound good, but it's not
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ื–ื” ืื•ืœื™ ื ืฉืžืข ื˜ื•ื‘, ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืœื
02:55
when what you want
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ื›ืฉืžื” ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืฆื™ื
02:56
is to just create a ton of ammonia.
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ื–ื” ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืืžื•ื ื™ื”.
02:58
Haber doesn't want the ammonia
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ื”ื‘ืจ ืœื ืจื•ืฆื” ืฉื”ืืžื•ื ื™ื”
03:00
to break down at all,
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ืชืชืคืจืง ื‘ื›ืœืœ,
03:01
but if you simply leave the reaction
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ืืชื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืžืฉืื™ืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื”
03:03
in a closed container,
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ื‘ืžื™ื›ืœ ืกื’ื•ืจ,
03:04
that's what will happen.
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ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉื™ืงืจื”.
03:06
Here's where Henry Le Chatelier,
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ืคื” ื”ื ืจื™ ืœื” ืฉื˜ืœื™ื™ืจ,
03:08
a French chemist,
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ื›ื™ืžืื™ ืฆืจืคืชื™,
03:09
can help.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขื–ื•ืจ.
03:11
What he found was
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ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืฆื ื”ื™ื”
03:12
that if you take a system in equilibrium
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ืฉืื ืืชื ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืžืขืจื›ืช ื‘ืฉื™ื•ื•ื™ ืžืฉืงืœ
03:14
and you add something to it,
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ื•ืืชื ืžื•ืกื™ืคื™ื ืžืฉื”ื• ืœื–ื”,
03:16
like, say, nitrogen,
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ื›ืžื• ื ื’ื™ื“ ื—ื ืงืŸ,
03:17
the system will work
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ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ืชืขื‘ื•ื“
03:18
to get back to equilibrium again.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœืฉื™ื•ื•ื™ ืžืฉืงืœ ืฉื•ื‘.
03:20
Le Chatelier also found
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ืœื” ืฉื˜ืœื™ื™ืจ ื’ื ืžืฆื
03:22
that if you increase
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ืฉืื ืžื’ื‘ื™ืจื™ื
03:23
the amount of pressure on a system,
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ืืช ื”ืœื—ืฅ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช,
03:25
the system tries to work
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ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ืžื ืกื” ืœืขื‘ื•ื“
03:26
to return to the pressure it had.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืœื—ืฅ ืฉื”ื™ื” ืœื”.
03:28
It's like being in a crowded room.
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ื–ื” ื›ืžื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื“ืจ ืฆืคื•ืฃ.
03:30
The more molecules there are,
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ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื™ืฉ ืฉื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช,
03:32
the more pressure there is.
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ื™ื”ื™ื” ืฉื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื—ืฅ.
03:33
If we look back at our equation,
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ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื‘ื™ื˜ื™ื ื—ื–ืจื” ื‘ืžืฉื•ื•ืื”,
03:35
we see that on the left-hand side,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืฉืžืฉืžืืœ,
03:37
there are four molecules on the left
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ื™ืฉ ืืจื‘ืข ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ืžืฉืžืืœ
03:39
and just two on the right.
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ื•ืจืง ืฉืชื™ื™ื ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ.
03:41
So, if we want the room to be less crowded,
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ืื–, ืื ืืชื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืฉื”ื—ื“ืจ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืคื—ื•ืช ืฆืคื•ืฃ,
03:44
and therefore have less pressure,
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืขื ืคื—ื•ืช ืœื—ืฅ,
03:45
the system will start
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ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ
03:46
combining nitrogen and hydrogen
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ืœื—ื‘ืจ ื—ื ืงืŸ ื•ืžื™ืžืŸ
03:48
to make the more compact ammonia molecules.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืืช ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืืžื•ื ื™ื” ื”ืงื•ืžืคืงื˜ื™ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ.
03:51
Haber realized that in order to make
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ื”ื‘ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ
03:53
large amounts of ammonia,
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ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืืžื•ื ื™ื”,
03:55
he would have to create a machine
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ืืชื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžื›ื•ื ื”
03:56
that would continually add nitrogen and hydrogen
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ืฉืชื•ืกื™ืฃ ื—ื ืงืŸ ื•ืžื™ืžืŸ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืจืฆื™ืฃ
03:59
while also increasing the pressure
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื”ื™ื ืžื’ื‘ื™ืจื” ืืช ื”ืœื—ืฅ
04:01
on the equilibrium system,
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ืขืœ ื”ืฉื™ื•ื•ื™ ืžืฉืงืœ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช,
04:03
which is exactly what he did.
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ื•ื–ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ื ืขืฉื”.
04:05
Today, ammonia is one of the most produced
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ื”ื™ื•ื, ืืžื•ื ื™ื” ื”ื™ื ืื—ืช ืžื”ืชืจื›ื•ื‘ื•ืช
04:08
chemical compounds in the world.
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ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ ืžื™ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื.
04:10
Roughly 131 million metric tons are produced a year,
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ื‘ืขืจืš 131 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืžืขื•ืงื‘ื™ื ืžื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื‘ืฉื ื”,
04:14
which is about 290 billion pounds of ammonia.
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ืฉื–ื” ื‘ืขืจืš 131 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืงื™ืœื• ืฉืœ ืืžื•ื ื™ื”.
04:18
That's about the mass
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ื–ื• ื‘ืขืจืš ื”ืžืกื”
04:19
of 30 million African elephants,
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ืฉืœ 30 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืคื™ืœื™ื ืืคืจื™ืงืื™ื,
04:21
weighing roughly 10,000 pounds each.
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ืฉืฉื•ืงืœื™ื ื‘ืขืจืš 4500 ืงื™ืœื• ื›ืœ ืื—ื“.
04:24
80% of this ammonia is used in fertilizer production,
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80% ืžื”ืืžื•ื ื™ื” ืžืฉืžืฉืช ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื“ืฉื ื™ื,
04:28
while the rest is used
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื”ืฉืืจ ืžืฉืžืฉ
04:29
in industrial and household cleaners
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ืœื ื™ืงื•ื™ ื‘ื™ืชื™ ื•ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืชื™
04:30
and to produce other nitrogen compounds,
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ื•ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืชืจื›ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื—ื ืงืŸ ืื—ืจื•ืช,
04:33
such as nitric acid.
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ื›ืžื• ื—ื•ืžืฆื” ื—ื ืงืชื™ืช.
04:35
Recent studies have found
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ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื ืžืฆืื•
04:36
that half of the nitrogen from these fertilizers
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ืฉื—ืฆื™ ืžื”ื—ื ืงืŸ ื‘ื“ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืืœื”
04:38
is not assimilated by plants.
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ืœื ืžื•ื˜ืžืข ื‘ืฆืžื—ื™ื.
04:41
Consequently, the nitrogen is found
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ื•ื‘ืฉืœ ื›ืš, ื”ื—ื ืงืŸ ื ืžืฆื
04:42
as a volatile chemical compound
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ื›ื›ื™ืžื™ืงืœ ืคืขื™ืœ
04:44
in the Earth's water supplies and atmosphere,
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ื‘ืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืžื™ื ื•ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”,
04:47
severely damaging our environment.
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ื•ืžืžืฉ ืžื–ื™ืง ืœืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
04:49
Of course, Haber did not foresee this problem
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ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื”ื‘ืจ ืœื ืฆืคื” ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื–ื•
04:51
when he introduced his invention.
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ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ืฆื™ื’ ืืช ื”ื”ืžืฆืื” ืฉืœื•.
04:53
Following his pioneering vision,
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ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ืœื—ื–ื•ืŸ ื”ื—ืœื•ืฆื™ ืฉืœื•,
04:54
scientists today are looking
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ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื”ื™ื•ื ืžื—ืคืฉื™ื
04:56
for a new Haber process of the 21st century,
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ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื‘ืจ ื—ื“ืฉ ืœืžืื” ื” 21,
04:59
which will reach the same level of aid
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ืฉื™ื’ื™ืข ืœืื•ืชื” ืจืžืช ืขื–ืจื”
05:01
without the dangerous consequences.
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ื‘ืœื™ ื”ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ื”ืžืกื•ื›ื ื•ืช.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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