Michael Merzenich: Growing evidence of brain plasticity

翻译人员: Yujian Li 校对人员: Zhu Jie

This machine, which we all have residing in our skulls,

我们每个人脑袋中的这台机器，

reminds me of an aphorism, of a

让我想起

comment of Woody Allen

Woody Allen的一句名言，

to ask about what is the very best thing to have within your skull.

就是问你脑袋里最好的东西是什么。

And it's this machine.

答案就是这台机器。

And it's constructed for change. It's all about change.

它是为改变而构建的。一切均与改变有关。

It confers on us the ability to do things tomorrow that we can't do today,

它可以让我们明天做今天无法做到之事，

things today that we couldn't do yesterday.

今天做昨天无法做到之事。

And of course it's born stupid.

当然，它刚出生的时候是愚蠢的。

The last time you were in the presence of a baby --

上次你见到婴儿的时候——

this happens to be my granddaughter, Mitra.

刚好这是我的孙女Mitra。

Isn't she fabulous?

她很棒吧？

(Laughter)

（笑声）

But nonetheless when she popped out

不管怎样，当她出生的时候，

despite the fact that her brain had actually been progressing

尽管事实上她的大脑已经

in its development for several months before

在子宫内

on the basis of her experiences in the womb --

发育了好几个月。

nonetheless she had very limited abilities,

但是跟任何一个

as does every infant

自然出生的婴儿一样，

at the time of normal, natural full-term birth.

她的能力非常有限。

If we were to assay her perceptual abilities, they would be crude.

如果我们测试她的感知能力，我们会发现这些能力是非常原始的。

There is no real indication that there is any real thinking going on.

而且没有确切的迹象表明她有真正的思考能力。

In fact there is little evidence that there is any

实际上，几乎没有证据表明

cognitive ability in a very young infant.

一个刚出生的婴儿有任何认知能力。

Infants don't respond to much.

婴儿没有什么反应。

There is not really much of an indication in fact that there is a person on board.

没有什么迹象表明大脑里有个人在掌控。

(Laughter)

（笑声）

And they can only in a very primitive way, and in a very limited way

而且他们只能以一种非常原始的，非常有限的方式

control their movements.

来控制他们的动作。

It would be several months before this infant

几个月后，这个婴儿

could do something as simple as reach out and grasp

才能在随意控制下做一些简单的动作

under voluntary control an object and retrieve it,

比如伸手抓握东西并拿回来，

usually to the mouth.

通常送到嘴巴里。

And it will be some months beforeward,

还得再过几个月，

and we see a long steady progression

经过漫长稳定的发展，

of the evolution from the first wiggles,

才能一步步从晃动身体，

to rolling over, and sitting up, and crawling,

到翻身，到坐起，到爬行，

standing, walking,

站立，走路，

before we get to that magical point

然后我们才能到达到这个神奇的时刻，

in which we can motate in the world.

可以在世界上自由行动。

And yet, when we look forward in the brain

然而，当我们研究大脑时，

we see really remarkable advance.

我们发现非常显著的进化。

By this age the brain can actually store.

到这个年龄时大脑实际上能够储存东西了。

It has stored, recorded,

它已经可以储存，记录，

can fastly retrieve

并且很快的检索出

the meanings of thousands,

成千上万个物体，行为，

tens of thousands of objects,

以及它们在这个世界上

actions, and their relationships in the world.

的各种关系的意义。

And those relationships can in fact be constructed in hundreds of thousands,

而且这些关系其实能够以成千上万

potentially millions of ways.

甚至上百万种方式来组建。

By this age the brain controls very refined perceptual abilities.

到这个年龄时，大脑拥有非常精细的知觉能力。

And it actually has a growing repertoire of cognitive skills.

并且其认知技巧也在不断发展。

This brain is very much a thinking machine.

大脑基本上已经是一个思考的机器。

And by this age there is absolutely no question

到这个年龄时，毫无疑问的是，

that this brain, it has a person on board.

大脑里已经有一个“人”来掌控了。

And in fact at this age it is substantially controlling its own self-development.

事实上，在这个年龄，大脑在很大程度上控制着自身的发展。

And by this age we see a remarkable evolution

在这个年龄，我们可以发现

in its capacity to control movement.

它在控制动作的能力上有显著的进化。

Now movement has advanced to the point

现在，其控制动作的能力进化到

where it can actually control movement simultaneously,

它可以以复杂的方式同步控制

in a complex sequence, in complex ways

一些复杂组合的动作，

as would be required for example

比如像踢足球，

for playing a complicated game,

这类复杂的运动

like soccer.

所需的复杂组合动作。

Now this boy can bounce a soccer ball on his head.

这个男孩可以用头顶颠球。

And where this boy comes from, Sao Paulo, Brazil,

他来自巴西的圣保罗，

about 40 percent of boys of his age have this ability.

当地这么大的男孩有大约百分之40的拥有这个能力。

You could go out into the community in Monterey,

但你若去蒙特雷的社区，

and you'd have difficulty finding a boy that has this ability.

找到一个拥有这种能力的男孩是困难的。

And if you did he'd probably be from Sao Paulo.

如果你找到一个，说不定还是从圣保罗来的。

(Laughter)

（笑声）

That's all another way of saying

这说明了

that our individual skills and abilities

我们个人的技巧和能力

are very much shaped by our environments.

基本是由环境塑造的。

That environment extends into our contemporary culture,

这个环境可扩大至我们的当代文化，

the thing our brain is challenged with.

其为我们的大脑提供挑战。

Because what we've done in our personal evolutions

因为我们每个人在个人进化中所做的，

is build up a large repertoire of specific skills and abilities

是建立一套巨大的特定的

that are specific to our own individual histories.

受我们个人经历影响的技能与能力。

And in fact they result in a wonderful

实际上，人类奇妙的差异性

differentiation in humankind,

就是这样造成的。

in the way that, in fact, no two of us

也就是说，我们每个人都是

are quite alike.

独一无二的。

Every one of us has a different set of acquired skills and abilities

我们每个人都拥有一套与众不同的技巧和能力，

that all derive out of the plasticity,

而这些技巧和能力全部都是由

the adaptability of this really remarkable adaptive machine.

大脑这个具有非凡适应性机器的可塑性和适应性发展而来。

In an adult brain of course we've built up

对于一个成人的大脑，当然我们已经掌握了

a large repertoire of mastered skills and abilities

一套数量巨大的技能和能力，

that we can perform more or less automatically from memory,

我们或多或少地能够根据记忆自动行动，

and that define us as acting, moving, thinking creatures.

这也让我们成为行动的，移动的，思考的生物。

Now we study this,

我们作为大学实验室的科学家，

as the nerdy, laboratory, university-based scientists that we are,

书呆子，正研究这方面的问题，

by engaging the brains

我们研究动物的大脑，

of animals like rats, or monkeys,

如老鼠，猴子的，

or of this particularly curious creature --

还有这个奇妙的生物的，

one of the more bizarre forms of life on earth --

这个地球上很奇怪的生物形态，

to engage them in learning new skills and abilities.

我们研究这些大脑是如何学习新技能和能力的。

And we try to track the changes that occur

并且我们试图记录在获得新技能或能力的同时，

as the new skill or ability is acquired.

大脑发生了怎样的变化。

In fact we do this in individuals

实际上我们在这些不同物种

of any age, in these different species --

的所有年龄阶段都做研究。

that is to say from infancies,

也就是说，从婴儿期，

infancy up to adulthood and old age.

幼儿期，一直到成年期和老年期。

So we might engage a rat, for example,

举例来说，我们可能研究一只

to acquire a new skill or ability

老鼠是如何获得新技能或能力的，

that might involve the rat using its paw

这技能可能是用它的爪子

to master particular manual grasp behaviors

掌握一个特定的抓握行动，

just like we might examine a child

与此类同的是，我们可能会研究一个孩子

and their ability to acquire the sub-skills,

研究他们如何获得

or the general overall skill of accomplishing something

像掌握阅读的整体技能

like mastering the ability to read.

或其中的次级技能。

Or you might look in an older individual

或者我们可能研究一个更年长的个体

who has mastered a complex set of abilities

其所掌握的一套复杂的能力

that might relate to reading musical notation

跟其阅读音乐符号的能力之间的关联，

or performing the mechanical acts of performance

或其执行机械行为的能力

that apply to musical performance.

如何应用到演奏乐器方面。

From these studies we defined two great epochs

通过这些研究，我们确定了大脑塑造期

of the plastic history of the brain.

的两个重要时期。

The first great epoch is commonly called the "Critical Period."

第一个重要时期是通常所谓的“关键时期”。

And that is the period in which the brain is setting up

在这个时期，大脑形成其最初的形态，

in its initial form its basic processing machinery.

其基本的运行设置。

This is actually a period of dramatic change

这个时期大脑会发生巨大的变化，

in which it doesn't take learning, per se, to drive

但本质上而言，它并不需要通过学习

the initial differentiation of the machinery of the brain.

来启动大脑最初的不同设置。

All it takes for example in the sound domain,

举例来说，在声音方面，

is exposure to sound.

只需要周围有声音即可。

And the brain actually is at the mercy

而大脑其实完全受制于

of the sound environment in which it is reared.

其生长环境的声音。

So for example I can rear an animal

举例来说，我可以在一个

in an environment in which there is meaningless dumb sound,

充满无意义声音的环境里饲养一只动物。

a repertoire of sound that I make up,

这些声音是我制造出来的。

that I make, just by exposure, artificially important

我通过将它置于该环境下，这些声音人为的

to the animal and its young brain.

对这个动物及其幼小的大脑产生重要影响。

And what I see is that the animal's brain sets up

我所发现的是，这个动物的大脑

its initial processing of that sound

设置了针对这个声音的初始运行，

in a form that's idealized, within the limits of its processing achievements

在其运行能力限制之下，大脑将声音

to represent it in an organized and orderly way.

加工成一种有组织有秩序的理想形态。

The sound doesn't have to be valuable to the animal:

这个声音不必对这个动物有价值。

I could raise the animal in something that could be hypothetically valuable,

我可以让这个动物生长在一个假设有价值的声音环境里，

like the sounds that simulate

比如把声音背景设置成模仿

the sounds of a native language of a child.

一个小孩母语的声音。

And I see the brain actually develop a processor that is specialized --

我可以观察到大脑实际上也会发展出一个专门的处理器。

specialized for that complex array, a repertoire of sounds.

专门针对这一套复杂的序列的声音的。

It actually exaggerates their separateness of representation,

它实际上在多维神经表征项上，

in multi-dimensional neuronal representational terms.

夸大了它们表征的差异性。

Or I can expose the animal to a completely meaningless and destructive sound.

或者我可以将这个动物置于一个完全无意义且具有破坏性的声音环境之下。

I can raise an animal under conditions

我可以把动物放在一个

that would be equivalent to raising a baby

发出持续噪音的环境里饲养，

under a moderately loud ceiling fan,

这样等同于把一个婴儿放在

in the presence of continuous noise.

有中等强度声音的吊扇的环境里养育。

And when I do that I actually specialize the brain

当这么做的时候，我实际上是让大脑

to be a master processor for that meaningless sound.

成为一个专门针对这些无意义的声音的主处理器。

And I frustrate its ability

结果是，我破坏了

to represent any meaningful sound as a consequence.

大脑表征任何有意义的声音的能力。

Such things in the early history of babies

这种情况发生在真实的婴儿身上，

occur in real babies.

在他们的早期阶段。

And they account for, for example

这些可以说明，举例来说，

the beautiful evolution of a language-specific processor

在每一个正常发育的婴儿身上，

in every normally developing baby.

语言特定处理器的精彩进化。

And so they also account for

这些也可以解释

development of defective processing

有相当数量的儿童

in a substantial population of children

发展出有问题的运行能力，

who are more limited, as a consequence,

结果在他们更年长的时候，

in their language abilities at an older age.

在语言能力上会有缺陷。

Now in this early period of plasticity

在大脑塑造的早期，

the brain actually changes outside of a learning context.

大脑的改变与学习无关。

I don't have to be paying attention to what I hear.

我不必专注于我听到了什么。

The input doesn't really have to be meaningful.

输入的信息不一定非得有意义。

I don't have to be in a behavioral context.

我不需要在一个行为环境中。

This is required so the brain sets up it's processing

而大脑需要如此来设置运行，

so that it can act differentially,

以便于作出不同的行动，

so that it can act selectively,

以便于作出有选择的行动，

so that the creature that wears it, that carries it,

以便于这个特定的动物

can begin to operate on it in a selective way.

可以用一种有选择的方式来运行大脑。

In the next great epoch of life, which applies for most of life,

在下一个生命的重要时期，也就是生命的大部分时间，

the brain is actually refining its machinery

大脑实际上在学习掌握广泛的技能和能力的同时，

as it masters a wide repertoire of skills and abilities.

使它的运行设置更加完善。

And in this epoch,

在这个阶段，

which extends from late in the first year of life to death;

从生命第一年的晚些时候一直到死亡。

it's actually doing this under behavioral control.

实际上大脑在这个过程中是处于行为控制的。

And that's another way of saying

也就是说，

the brain has strategies that define

大脑有策略地定义

the significance of the input to the brain.

输入大脑信号的重要性。

And it's focusing on skill after skill,

它专注于一个又一个技能，

or ability after ability,

一个接一个的能力，

under specific attentional control.

这些都需要特定的注意力控制才行。

It's a function of whether a goal in a behavior is achieved

这个功能在于行为是否完成，

or whether the individual is rewarded in the behavior.

或个体在这个行为中是否得到奖励。

This is actually very powerful.

这功能其实是非常强大的。

This lifelong capacity for plasticity, for brain change,

这个持续终生的大脑塑造能力，改变能力

is powerfully expressed.

非常强烈的表现出来。

It is the basis of our real differentiation,

这也是我们每个人

one individual from another.

真正与众不同的基础。

You can look down in the brain of an animal

我们可以检测一个学习特定技巧

that's engaged in a specific skill,

的动物的大脑，

and you can witness or document this change on a variety of levels.

我们可以在不同的水平上观测或记录这个改变。

So here is a very simple experiment.

这是一个非常简单的实验。

It was actually conducted about five years ago

这个实验其实是五年前

in collaboration with scientists from the University of Provence

在马赛与普罗旺斯大学的科学家

in Marseilles.

合作完成的。

It's a very simple experiment where a monkey has been trained

这是一个非常简单的实验，就是训练一只猴子

in a task that involves it manipulating a tool

让它学习操作一个工具，

that's equivalent in its difficulty

其难度等同于

to a child learning to manipulate or handle a spoon.

让一个小孩学习使用一只勺子。

The monkey actually mastered the task

这个猴子实际上大约尝试了700次之后

in about 700 practice tries.

完成了这个任务。

So in the beginning the monkey could not perform this task at all.

而起初的时候，这只猴子完全不能执行这个任务。

It had a success rate of about one in eight tries.

它的成功率大约在八分之一。

Those tries were elaborate.

猴子的这些尝试是精心的。

Each attempt was substantially different from the other.

每一次次尝试都与其他尝试有重要的不同。

But the monkey gradually developed a strategy.

但这个猴子渐渐地发展出一个策略。

And 700 or so tries later

大约经过700次尝试之后，

the monkey is performing it flawlessly -- never fails.

这只猴子可以把它执行地完美无缺。

He's successful in his retrieval of food with this tool every time.

他每次都可以成功地用这个工具取回食物。

At this point the task is being performed

到这一步的时候，这个任务

in a beautifully stereotyped way:

是以一种完美的模式化方式执行。

very beautifully regulated and highly repeated, trial to trial.

非常完美的控制，重复与尝试。

We can look down in the brain of the monkey.

我们可以研究这只猴子的大脑内部。

And we see that it's distorted.

我们可以观察到它的变形。

We can track these changes, and have tracked these changes

我们可以记录这些改变，并且随着时间变化，可以记录

in many such behaviors across time.

许多的因类似行为变换引起的变化。

And here we see the distortion

我们可以看到这个变形，

reflected in the map of the skin surfaces of the hand of the monkey.

这个脑图映射的是猴子手掌的皮肤。

Now this is a map, down in the surface of the brain,

这是一个脑成像图，在大脑的表层上，

in which, in a very elaborate experiment we've reconstructed the responses,

我们用一个很精巧的实验，在每个区域

location by location,

都重建了大脑的反应，

in a highly detailed response mapping of the responses of its neurons.

这是对神经元反应所做的非常详细的测绘。

We see here a reconstruction of how

我们在这里看到的是，

the hand is represented in the brain.

大脑如何表征手掌的重建。

We've actually distorted the map by the exercise.

我们实际上通过这个实验使脑图变形。

And that is indicated in the pink. We have a couple fingertip surfaces that are larger.

就在这个粉红色表示的区域。我们可以看到其中两个指尖的表皮增大。

These are the surfaces the monkey is using to manipulate the tool.

这些表皮是猴子用来控制工具的。

If we look at the selectivity of responses

如果我们研究猴子大脑皮层

in the cortex of the monkey,

反应的选择性，

we see that the monkey has actually changed the filter characteristics

我们可以发现其实这只猴子已经改变了

which represents input from the skin

对来自所使用的手指头皮肤

of the fingertips that are engaged.

输入表征的过滤特征。

In other words there is still a single, simple representation of the fingertips

也就是说，在这个最具组织性的，对应身体皮肤表层的

in this most organized of cortical areas

大脑皮层区域，仍然有一个

of the surface of the skin of the body.

单一的，简单的对手指头的表征。

Monkey has like you have.

猴子和我们一样都有。

And yet now it's represented in substantially finer grain.

然而现在其表征区域呈现为更细腻的质地。

The monkey is getting more detailed information from these surfaces.

这只猴子从这些表面获得更详细的信息。

And that is an unknown -- unsuspected, maybe, by you --

而这些伴随获得技能或能力产生的改变，

part of acquiring the skill or ability.

你可能对此一无所知或无所察觉。

Now actually we've looked in several different cortical areas

实际上，在研究猴子学习任务的过程中，

in the monkey learning this task.

我们研究了其大脑皮层几个不同的区域。

And each one of them changes in ways that are specific

每个区域都根据所学技能或能力

to the skill or ability.

作出特定的改变。

So for example we can look to the cortical area

举例来说，我们研究猴子大脑皮层中

that represents input that's controlling the posture of the monkey.

表征输入控制姿势信号的区域。

We look in cortical areas that control specific movements,

我们研究了大脑皮层区域中

and the sequences of movements

控制特定动作及动作序列

that are required in the behavior, and so forth.

等部位，猴子的行为需要这些部位参与。

They are all remodeled. They all become specialized for the task at hand.

它们全部被重建了。它们全部特化于当前的任务。

There are 15 or 20 cortical areas that are changed specifically

当你学一个像这样的简单技巧时，有15或20个

when you learn a simple skill like this.

皮层区域进行了特定的改变。

And that represents in your brain, really massive change.

那代表在你大脑里会发生巨大的改变。

It represents the change in a reliable way

它代表着你大脑中上千万或上亿

of the responses of tens of millions,

的神经元反应

possibly hundreds of millions of neurons in your brain.

以一种稳定的方式发生了改变。

It represents changes

它代表你大脑中

of hundreds of millions, possibly billions

上亿或上十亿的突触

of synaptic connections in your brain.

发生改变。

This is constructed by physical change.

这是以物理方式构建的。

And the level of construction that occurs is massive.

构建发生的数量是巨大的。

Think about the changes that occur in the brain of a child

想一下在儿童获得普通行为能力的过程中，

through the course of acquiring their movement behavior abilities in general.

其大脑中所发生的变化吧。

Or acquiring their native language abilities.

或者是在习得其母语能力的过程中。

The changes are massive.

这些改变是巨量的。

What it's all about is the selective representations

决定对大脑而言什么是重要事物的

of things that are important to the brain.

选择性表征决定了这一切的发生。

Because in most of the life of the brain

因为在大脑生命的绝大部分时间里，

this is under control of behavioral context.

其处于行为环境的控制下。

It's what you pay attention to.

也就是你所注意的东西。

It's what's rewarding to you.

是对你而言有奖励的东西。

It's what the brain regards, itself,

是大脑认为

as positive and important to you.

对你有积极意义或很重要的东西。

It's all about cortical processing

这一切取决于大脑皮层运行

and forebrain specialization.

和前脑特化。

And that underlies your specialization.

而这些造成了你个人的特化。

That is why you, in your many skills and abilities,

这也是为什么你是一个拥有

are a unique specialist:

众多技能和能力的独一无二的特别之人。

a specialist that's vastly different

一个大脑在物理细节上

in your physical brain in detail

与100年前的人相比

than the brain of an individual 100 years ago;

发生了很大变化的特别之人。

enormously different in the details

与1000年前的普通个体的大脑相比，

from the brain of the average individual 1,000 years ago.

这些细节的变化更是巨大的。

Now, one of the characteristics of this change process

那么，这改变过程中的一个特点是，

is that information is always related

信息总是与其他

to other inputs or information that is occurring

同步发生的，时间上前后紧密相连的

in immediate time, in context.

输入或信息相关。

And that's because the brain is constructing representations of things

这是因为大脑构建表征的各个事物，

that are correlated in little moments of time

是同时互相联系的

and that relate to one another in little moments of successive time.

并且在极短的连续时间里也是相互关联的。

The brain is recording all information

大脑记录下所有的信息

and driving all change

并在时间维度上

in temporal context.

驱动所有改变。

Now overwhelmingly the most powerful context

那么，在你的大脑中产生的

that's occurred in your brain is you.

最强大的压倒性的环境，就是你自己。

Billions of events have occurred in your history

在你个人历史上发生了数十亿件事情，

that are related in time to yourself

它们都在时间上与你相关，

as the receiver,

你作为一个接受者，

or yourself as the actor, yourself as the thinker,

或执行者，或思考者，

yourself as the mover.

或行动者。

Billions of times little pieces of sensation have come in

作为一个接收者，你无时无刻不

from the surface of your body

从你的身体表面

that are always associated with you as the receiver,

接收数十亿的感觉的小片段信息，

and that result in

而其结果是让你

the embodiment of you.

感觉到身体的具体存在。

You are constructed, your self is constructed

你自身是通过这数十亿次事件

from these billions of events.

而构建起来的。

It's constructed. It's created in your brain.

你是被构建的，在大脑中构建的。

And it's created in the brain via physical change.

这是在大脑中通过物理变化而创建的。

This is a marvelously constructed thing

这个宏大的被构建的东西

that results in individual form

导致了个体形态的存在，

because each one of us has vastly different histories,

因为我们每个人都有非常不同的历史,

and vastly different experiences,

及非常不同的经历，

that drive in to us this marvelous differentiation of self,

而这将推动我们自我，人格

of personhood.

上的巨大差异。

Now we've used this research

我们使用这个研究

to try to understand not just how a normal person develops,

不止为了尝试理解一个正常人是如何发展的，

and elaborates their skills and abilities,

如何发展他们的技能与能力，

but also try to understand

同时也是为了尝试理解

the origins of impairment,

缺陷发生的起点，

and the origins of differences or variations

变化或变异的起点，

that might limit the capacities of a child, or an adult.

这些可能会限制孩子或成人的能力。

I'm going to talk about using these strategies

我会谈一下利用这些策略

to actually design brain plasticity-based

来实际设计以大脑重塑为基础的方式，

approach to drive corrections in the machinery of a child

来矫正孩子的大脑设置，

that increases the competence of the child

来增加孩子

as a language receiver and user

在语言接收，使用，阅读

and, thereafter, as a reader.

上的能力。

And I'm going to talk about experiments that involve

并且我会谈一些实验，

actually using this brain science,

它们确实应用了脑科学。

first of all to understand how it contributes to the loss of function as we age.

首先，要理解在衰老过程中它是如何促使我们失去一些功能的。

And then, by using it in a targeted approach

然后，通过一种有目的的方式，

we're going to try to differentiate

我们会使用它来区分一些大脑设置

the machinery to recover function in old age.

以便恢复因年老造成的功能损失。

So the first example I'm going to talk about

我要谈的第一个例子是与

relates to children with learning impairments.

孩子的学习障碍有关。

We now have a large body of literature

我们有许多资料展示，

that demonstrates that the fundamental

在大多数早期有语言缺陷的孩子，

problem that occurs in the majority of children

他们以后会在学习阅读上

that have early language impairments,

出现问题，

and that are going to struggle to learn to read,

这其中的根本问题在于，

is that their language processor

他们的语言处理器

is created in a defective form.

是以一种有缺陷的形态创建出来的。

And the reason that it rises in a defective form

它之所以是以有缺陷的形式发展的，

is because early in the baby's brain's life

是因为在婴儿大脑的早期，

the machine process is noisy.

大脑机器的运行是嘈杂的。

It's that simple.

就是这么简单。

It's a signal-to-noise problem. Okay?

它是一个噪音信号的问题。好吧？

And there are a lot of things that contribute to that.

而造成这个问题的原因很多。

There are numerous inherited faults

有许多遗传上的缺陷

that could make the machine process noisier.

可能导致大脑运行的噪音更多。

Now I might say the noise problem could also occur

但噪音问题的产生

on the basis of information provided

也可能基于周围环境的信息，

in the world from the ears.

来自于耳朵。

If any -- those of you who are older in the audience know

在座各位年长的朋友知道

that when I was a child we understood that a child born with a cleft palate

当我们还小的时候，我们认为一个天生腭裂的孩子

was born with what we called mental retardation.

是天生白痴。

We knew that they were going to be slow cognitively;

我们知道他们的认知发展会很慢。

we knew they were going to struggle to learn to develop normal language abilities;

我们知道他们学习发展正常语言能力会有困难。

and we knew that they were going to struggle to learn to read.

我们知道他们学习阅读会有困难。

Most of them would be intellectual and academic failures.

他们当中绝大多数在智商与学业上不及格。

That's disappeared. That no longer applies.

但现在这种看法消失了，不适用了。

That inherited weakness, that inherited condition

那些有关遗传的缺点，遗传的状况

has evaporated.

的观点消失了。

We don't hear about that anymore. Where did it go?

我们不再听到这样的观点了。这是如何发生的呢？

Well, it was understood by a Dutch surgeon,

嗯，在35年前，一个荷兰

about 35 years ago,

外科医师发现，

that if you simply fix the problem early enough,

如果你能够足够早的解决问题，

when the brain is still in this initial plastic period

也就是当大脑还在最初塑造时，

so it can set up this machinery adequately,

那么它就可以在关键时期的起始设置期间，

in this initial set up time in the critical period,

把大脑设置的足够好，

none of that happens.

那么那些问题就都不会发生。

What are you doing by operating on the cleft palate to correct it?

那么我们如何通过手术矫正腭裂呢？

You're basically opening up

基本上，我们打开

the tubes that drain fluid from the middle ears,

自中耳排出液体的管子，

which have had them reliably full.

它们充满了液体。

Every sound the child hears uncorrected is muffled.

孩子听到的每一个未经矫正的声音都是模糊的，

It's degraded.

削弱的。

The child's native language is such a case is not English.

在这种情况下，孩子的母语不是英语，

It's not Japanese.

不是日语，

It's muffled English. It's degraded Japanese.

是杂乱的英语，模糊的日语。

It's crap.

就是垃圾。

And the brain specializes for it.

而大脑却针对这些进行特化。

It creates a representation of language crap.

对语言垃圾建立表征。

And then the child is stuck with it.

然后孩子就无法摆脱它。

Now the crap doesn't just happen in the ear.

这些垃圾不只会发生在耳朵里，

It can also happen in the brain.

也会发生在大脑里。

The brain itself can be noisy. It's commonly noisy.

大脑本身可以是嘈杂的。正常的嘈杂。

There are many inherited faults that can make it noisier.

但有些遗传的缺陷可以使它更加嘈杂。

And the native language for a child with such a brain

而在这样的大脑里，这个孩子的母语

is degraded.

就会被削弱。

It's not English. It's noisy English.

就会变成不是英语，而是杂乱的英语。

And that results in defective representations of sounds of words --

这个大脑机器因有异常的空间常数设置，

not normal -- a different strategy,

就会发展出不正常的，不同的策略，

by a machine that has different time constants and different space constants.

导致产生对语音表征的缺陷。

And you can look in the brain of such a child and record those time constants.

我们可以检查孩子的大脑并记录那些时间常数。

They are about an order of magnitude longer,

它们的大小比普通孩子高一个等级，

about 11 times longer in duration on average,

大约平均而言比正常孩子

than in a normal child.

高11倍。

Space constants are about three times greater.

空间常数大约是正常孩子的3倍。

Such a child will have memory and cognitive deficits

这样的孩子在这方面会有

in this domain.

记忆与认知的缺陷。

Of course they will. Because as a receiver of language,

他们当然会有问题。因为作为语言的接受者，

they are receiving it and representing it,

他们会接受并表征语言。

and in information it's representing crap.

而其表征的信息却是垃圾。

And they are going to have poor reading skills.

所以他们将会有贫乏的阅读技巧。

Because reading is dependent upon the translation of word sounds

因为阅读依赖于将词语的声音转换成

into this orthographic or visual

这种拼写或视觉

representational form.

表征形态。

If you don't have a brain representation of word sounds

如果你的大脑不能正确表征语音，

that translation makes no sense.

那么这种转换就毫无意义。

And you are going to have corresponding abnormal neurology.

你就会有与此对应不正常的神经问题。

Then these children increasingly

我们对这些孩子

in evaluation after evaluation,

在语言能力，阅读能力上逐步

in their operations in language, and their operations in reading --

进行了一次又一次的评测，

we document that abnormal neurology.

我们记录了这个不正常的神经问题。

The point is is that you can train the brain out of this.

关键是我们可以通过训练来摆脱这个问题。

A way to think about this is you can actually re-refine

你可以把它想象成，你其实可以通过改变

the processing capacity of the machinery

来重新完善

by changing it.

大脑的运行能力。

Changing it in detail. It takes about 30 hours on the average.

从细节来改变。平均要花30个小时。

And we've accomplished that in about 430,000 kids today.

今天，我们已经在大约43万个孩子身上成功了。

Actually, probably about 15,000 children are being trained as we speak.

实际上，大约有1万5千个孩子现在正在接受训练。

And actually when you look at the impacts, the impacts are substantial.

实际上，当你查看其影响时，这是有重大意义的。

So here we're looking at the normal distribution.

我们看一下正态分布。

What we're most interested in is these kids on the left side of the distribution.

我们最感兴趣的是这些在分布左侧的孩子。

This is from about 3,000 children.

这大约是从3000个孩子中出来的。

You can see that most of the children on the left side of the distribution

你可以发现大多数在分布左侧的孩子

are moving into the middle or the right.

正在移向中间或右边。

This is in a broad assessment of their language abilities.

这是一个广泛测量他们语言能力的测试。

This is like an IQ test for language.

有点像对语言的IQ测试。

The impact in the distribution, if you trained every child

如果你训练每个美国小孩，那么对这个分布的影响将是，

in the United States, would be to shift the whole distribution to the right

整个分布向右移，

and narrow the distribution.

并且分布变窄。

This is a substantially large impact.

这会产生非常重大的作用。

Think of a classroom of children in the language arts.

想象一下上语言技能班的孩子。

Think of the children on the slow side of the class.

想象一下班上较迟钝的孩子。

We have the potential to move most of those children

我们有可能把大多数那样的孩子

to the middle or to the right side.

移到中间或右边。

In addition to accurate language training

除了精确的语言训练，

it also fixes memory and cognition

它也会改善记忆与认知，

speech fluency and speech production.

语言流利性与丰富性。

And an important language dependent skill is enabled by this training --

而该训练也能为学生提供一项重要的语言依赖技巧

that is to say reading.

——即阅读。

And to a large extent it fixes the brain.

在很大程度上，可以说该训练是修复大脑的。

You can look down in the brain of a child

在由斯坦福大学，麻省理工学院，旧金山加利福尼亚大学，

in a variety of tasks that scientists have at Stanford,

加利福尼亚大学洛杉矶分校及其他机构进行的不同训练中，

and MIT, and UCSF, and UCLA, and a number of other institutions.

我们可以看到在孩子的大脑中产生的变化。

And children operating in various language behaviors,

孩子们在进行不同的语言行为

or in various reading behaviors,

或不同的阅读行为时，

you see for the most extent,

在很大程度上，

for most children, their neuronal responses,

对绝大多数孩子而言，他们的神经元反应

complexly abnormal before you start,

在训练前复杂异常，

are normalized by the training.

但经过训练达到正常化。

Now you can also take the same approach

那么，我们也可以用同样的方式

to address problems in aging.

来解决衰老的问题。

Where again the machinery is deteriorating now

在此，大脑机器设置也在恶化，

from competent machinery, it's going south.

本来是有能力的大脑，随着年龄一路下滑。

Noise is increasing in the brain.

大脑中的噪音增多。

And learning modulation and control is deteriorating.

学习和控制的调节装置在恶化。

And you can actually look down on the brain of such an individual

其实我们可以看到在这样的个体的大脑里，

and witness a change in the time constants and space constants

其时间常数与空间常数都在改变，

with which, for example, the brain is representing language again.

举例来说，我们以对语言的表征为例。

Just as the brain came out of chaos at the beginning,

正如同大脑产生时一片混乱一样，

it's going back into chaos in the end.

在快结束时大脑也会返回混乱状态。

This results in declines in memory

造成记忆，认知，

in cognition, and in postural ability and agility.

控制身体与灵活性都会下滑。

It turns out you can train the brain of such an individual --

而结果是，我们能够训练这样的个体的大脑，

this is a small population of such individuals --

这是其中一小部分人，

train equally intensively for about 30 hours.

用同样的强度训练大约30小时。

These are 80- to 90-year-olds.

他们是80到90岁的老年人。

And what you see are substantial improvements of their immediate memory,

我们发现得到改善的包括短时记忆，

of their ability to remember things after a delay,

延迟一段时间后记住事物的能力，

of their ability to control their attention,

控制注意力的能力，

their language abilities and visual-spatial abilities.

语言能力及视觉，空间能力。

The overall neuropsychological index

这些受训个体的总体

of these trained individuals in this population

神经心理指数

is about two standard deviations.

大约是比平均低两个标准差。

That means that if you sit at the left side of the distribution,

这意味着，如果你处于分布的左侧，

and I'm looking at your neuropyschological abilities,

我检查你的神经心理能力的话，

the average person has moved to the middle

正常的人已移动到中间

or the right side of the distribution.

或分布的右边。

It means that most people who are at risk for senility,

这意味着，大多数或迟或早

more or less immediately,

面临衰老威胁的人，

are now in a protected position.

现在已得到保护。

My issues are to try to get to rescuing

我的观点是要更加完全的

older citizens more completely and in larger numbers,

在更大的数量上救助年老的平民。

because I think this can be done in this arena on a vast scale --

因为我认为这是可行的，对在座各位大部分都可行。

and the same for kids.

对孩子也是一样。

My main interest is how to elaborate this science to address other maladies.

我的主要兴趣在于如何使用这项科学解决其他疾病。

I'm specifically interested in things like autism,

我特别感兴趣于自闭症

and cerebral palsy, these great childhood catastrophes.

和脑瘫，这些疾病对于儿童来说是灾难。

And in older age conditions like Parkinsonism,

还有老年问题如帕金森症，

and in other acquired impairments like schizophrenia.

还有其他后天缺陷如精神分裂症。

Your issues as it relates to this science,

这个科学中与你相关的是，

is how to maintain your own high-functioning learning machine.

如何保持你自己高效的学习机器。

And of course, a well-ordered life

当然，还有有秩序的生活，

in which learning is a continuous part of it, is key.

而学习是其中持续的，关键的一环。

But also in your future is brain aerobics.

在你们的未来会有大脑体操。

Get ready for it. It's going to be a part of every life

准备好吧。它将成为日常生活的一部分，

not too far in the future,

在不太远的未来。

just like physical exercise

正如体育锻炼在当今已成为

is a part of every well organized life in the contemporary period.

每一个正常有条理的生命的一部分一样。

The other way that we will ultimately come to consider this

我们认为该文献和科学

literature and the science that is important to you

对诸位产生重要影响的终极方式是，

is in a consideration of how to nurture yourself.

考虑如何培养自己。

Now that you know, now that science is telling us

因为现在你知道，科学告诉我们

that you are in charge,

你是可以掌控自己的，

that it's under your control,

你是在自己的控制之下，

that your happiness, your well-being,

你的幸福，福利，

your abilities, your capacities,

能力，潜力

are capable of continuous modification,

是可以得到持续的改变，

continuous improvement,

持续的改善，

and you're the responsible agent and party.

你是对自己负责的一方。

Of course a lot of people will ignore this advice.

当然，许多人会忽视这个建议。

It will be a long time before they really understand it.

要他们真正理解时日尚远。

(Laughter)

（笑声）

Now that's another issue and not my fault.

这就是另外一个问题了，不关我的事。

Okay. Thank you.

好吧。谢谢各位。

(Applause)

（掌声）