Rob Dunbar: The threat of ocean acidification

105,242 views ใƒป 2010-09-13

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Ariel Gera ืžื‘ืงืจ: Sigal Tifferet
00:15
If you really want to understand
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ืื ืืชื ื‘ืืžืช ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
00:18
the problem that we're facing with the oceans,
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ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ืฉืขื•ืžื“ืช ื‘ืคื ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื,
00:21
you have to think about the biology
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ืืชื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”
00:23
at the same time you think about the physics.
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ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืืชื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื”.
00:26
We can't solve the problems
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ืœื ื ื”ื™ื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช
00:28
unless we start studying the ocean
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ืืœื ืื ื›ืŸ ื ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก
00:30
in a very much more interdisciplinary way.
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ื‘ื“ืจืš ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ-ืชื—ื•ืžื™ืช.
00:33
So I'm going to demonstrate that through
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ืื– ืื ื™ ื”ื•ืœืš ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ื ืืช ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ื–ื• ื“ืจืš
00:35
discussion of some of the climate change things that are going on in the ocean.
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ืžืกืคืจ ืืœืžื ื˜ื™ื ืฉืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ืืงืœื™ื ืฉืžืชืจื—ืฉื™ื ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก.
00:38
We'll look at sea level rise.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื‘ื’ื•ื‘ื” ืคื ื™ ื”ื™ื
00:40
We'll look at ocean warming.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก
00:42
And then the last thing on the list there, ocean acidification --
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืžื•ืคื™ืข ืฉื ื‘ืจืฉื™ืžื”, ื”ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื‘ื—ื•ืžืฆื™ื•ืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก -
00:45
if you were to ask me, you know, "What do you worry about the most?
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ืื ื”ื™ื™ืชื ืฉื•ืืœื™ื ืื•ืชื™: "ืžื” ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื”ื›ื™ ืžื“ืื™ื’ ืื•ืชืš?
00:48
What frightens you?"
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ืžื” ืžืคื—ื™ื“ ืื•ืชืš?"
00:50
for me, it's ocean acidification.
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ืื– ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืชื™ ื–ื• ื”ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื‘ื—ื•ืžืฆื™ื•ืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก.
00:52
And this has come onto the stage pretty recently.
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ื•ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืกื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉื ื›ื ืกื” ืœืื•ืจ ื”ื–ืจืงื•ืจื™ื ื™ื—ืกื™ืช ืœื ืžื–ืžืŸ.
00:54
So I will spend a little time at the end.
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ืื– ืื ื™ ืืงื“ื™ืฉ ืœื›ืš ืžืขื˜ ื–ืžืŸ ื‘ืกื•ืฃ.
00:57
I was in Copenhagen in December
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ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื‘ืงื•ืคื ื”ืื’ืŸ,
00:59
like a number of you in this room.
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ื›ืžื• ื›ืžื” ืžื›ื ืฉื ืžืฆืื™ื ืคื” ื‘ื—ื“ืจ,
01:01
And I think we all found it, simultaneously,
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ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื›ื•ืœื ื• ืจืื™ื ื• ื‘ื–ื” ื—ื•ื•ื™ื”
01:04
an eye-opening
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ืฉื”ื™ื ืžืื™ืจืช ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื
01:06
and a very frustrating experience.
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ื•ื‘ื• ื–ืžื ื™ืช ืžืื•ื“ ืžืชืกื›ืœืช.
01:08
I sat in this large negotiation hall,
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ืื ื™ ื™ืฉื‘ืชื™ ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ื›ืœืฉื”ื• ื‘ืื•ืœื ื“ื™ื•ื ื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื›ื–ื”,
01:11
at one point, for three or four hours,
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ืฉืœื•ืฉ-ืืจื‘ืข ืฉืขื•ืช,
01:13
without hearing the word "oceans" one time.
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ืžื‘ืœื™ ืœืฉืžื•ืข ืคืขื ืื—ืช ืืช ื”ืžื™ืœื” 'ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื'.
01:17
It really wasn't on the radar screen.
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ื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืœืงืกื™ืงื•ืŸ.
01:20
The nations that brought it up
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ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืฉื›ืŸ ื”ืขืœื• ืืช ื–ื” -
01:22
when we had the speeches of the national leaders --
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื™ื• ื”ื ืื•ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช -
01:24
it tended to be the leaders of the small island states,
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ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื™ื ื”ืงื˜ื ื•ืช,
01:27
the low-lying island states.
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ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื™ื ื”ื ืžื•ื›ื•ืช.
01:29
And by this weird quirk
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ื•ื‘ืื™ื–ืฉื”ื• ืขื™ื•ื•ืช ืžื•ื–ืจ
01:31
of alphabetical order of the nations,
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ืกื“ืจ ื”ืืœืคื‘ื™ืชื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช,
01:34
a lot of the low-lying states,
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ืืช ื”ื ืฆื™ื’ื™ื ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื•ืช ืžื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ื ืžื•ื›ื•ืช,
01:36
like Kiribati and Nauru,
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ื›ืžื• ืงื™ืจื™ื‘ื˜ื™ ื•ื ืื•ืจื•,
01:38
they were seated at the very end of these immensely long rows.
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ื”ื•ืฉื™ื‘ื• ืžืžืฉ ื‘ืงืฆื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืืจื•ื›ื•ืช ื”ืืœื”.
01:41
You know, they were marginalized
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ืืชื ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื, ื”ื ื ื“ื—ืงื• ืœืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
01:43
in the negotiation room.
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ื‘ื—ื“ืจ ื”ื“ื™ื•ื ื™ื.
01:45
One of the problems
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ืื—ืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช
01:47
is coming up with the right target.
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ื”ื™ื ืœืžืฆื•ื ืืช ื”ื™ืขื“ ื”ื ื›ื•ืŸ.
01:49
It's not clear what the target should be.
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ื–ื” ืœื ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืžื” ืื•ืชื• ื”ื™ืขื“ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช.
01:51
And how can you figure out how to fix something
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ื•ืื™ืš ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืœืชืงืŸ ืžืฉื”ื•
01:53
if you don't have a clear target?
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ืื ืื™ืŸ ืœืš ื™ืขื“ ื‘ืจื•ืจ?
01:55
Now, you've heard about "two degrees":
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืืชื ืฉืžืขืชื ืขืœ ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ 'ืฉืชื™ ืžืขืœื•ืช':
01:57
that we should limit temperature rise to no more than two degrees.
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื’ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื‘ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ื›ืš ืฉืœื ืชื”ื™ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืฉืชื™ ืžืขืœื•ืช.
02:00
But there's not a lot of science behind that number.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื™ืŸ ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื“ืข ืฉืขื•ืžื“ ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ื”ืžืกืคืจ ื”ื–ื”.
02:03
We've also talked about
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื“ื™ื‘ืจื ื• ื’ื ืขืœ
02:05
concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
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ืจื™ื›ื•ื–ื™ื ืฉืœ ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”.
02:07
Should it be 450? Should it be 400?
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ื”ืื ื”ืจื™ื›ื•ื– ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช 450? ื”ืื ื”ื•ื ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช 400?
02:10
There's not a lot of science behind that one either.
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ื’ื ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ื–ื” ืœื ืขื•ืžื“ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื“ืข.
02:13
Most of the science that is behind these numbers,
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžื“ืข ืฉืขื•ืžื“ ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ื”ืžืกืคืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
02:15
these potential targets,
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ื”ื™ืขื“ื™ื ื”ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœื™ื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
02:17
is based on studies on land.
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ืžื‘ื•ืกืก ืขืœ ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืฉื ืขืจื›ื• ื‘ื™ื‘ืฉื”.
02:19
And I would say, for the people that work in the ocean
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ื•ืื ื™ ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืื•ืžืจ, ื‘ืฉื ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก
02:22
and think about what the targets should be,
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ื•ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืžื” ืื•ืชื ื™ืขื“ื™ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช,
02:24
we would argue that they must be much lower.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื˜ื•ืขื ื™ื ืฉื”ื ืžื•ื›ืจื—ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื ืžื•ื›ื™ื.
02:26
You know, from an oceanic perspective,
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ืžื ืงื•ื“ืช ืžื‘ื˜ ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื,
02:28
450 is way too high.
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450 ื–ื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ ื’ื‘ื•ื”.
02:30
Now there's compelling evidence
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืงื™ื™ืžืช ืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžืฉื›ื ืขื•ืช
02:32
that it really needs to be 350.
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ืฉื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช 350.
02:34
We are, right now, at 390 parts per million
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ื›ืจื’ืข ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ืขืœ 390 ื—ืœืงื™ื ืœืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ
02:37
of CO2 in the atmosphere.
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ืฉืœ ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”.
02:39
We're not going to put the brakes on in time to stop at 450,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื ืฆืœื™ื— ืœื‘ืœื•ื ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืฆื•ืจ ืขืœ 450,
02:42
so we've got to accept we're going to do an overshoot,
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ื›ืš ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉื ื—ื˜ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื˜ืจื”
02:45
and the discussion as we go forward
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ื•ื”ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ื›ื›ืœ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชืงื“ืžื™ื
02:47
has to focus on how far the overshoot goes
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ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ืชืžืงื“ ื‘ืฉืืœื” ื‘ื›ืžื” ืื ื• ื ื—ื˜ื™ื ืื•ืชื”
02:50
and what's the pathway back to 350.
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ื•ืžื”ื™ ื”ื“ืจืš ื—ื–ืจื” ืœ-350.
02:53
Now, why is this so complicated?
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืœืžื” ื‘ืขืฆื ื–ื” ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืžืกื•ื‘ืš?
02:55
Why don't we know some of these things a little bit better?
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ืœืžื” ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืงืฆืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื˜ื•ื‘ื”?
02:57
Well, the problem is that
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื
02:59
we've got very complicated forces in the climate system.
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ืžืกื•ื‘ื›ื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืืงืœื™ืžื™ืช.
03:01
There's all kinds of natural causes of climate change.
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ื™ืฉื ื ื›ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ืืงืœื™ื.
03:04
There's air-sea interactions.
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ื™ืฉ ืื™ื ื˜ืจืืงืฆื™ื•ืช ืื•ื•ื™ืจ-ื™ื.
03:06
Here in Galapagos,
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ื›ืืŸ ื‘ืื™ื™ ื’ืœืคื’ื•ืก
03:08
we're affected by El Ninos and La Nina.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ืฉืคืขื™ื ืž'ืืœ ื ื™ื ื™ื•' ื•'ืœื” ื ื™ื ื™ื”'.
03:10
But the entire planet warms up when there's a big El Nino.
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช ื›ื•ืœื• ืžืชื—ืžื ื›ืฉื™ืฉ 'ืืœ ื ื™ื ื™ื•' ื’ื“ื•ืœ.
03:13
Volcanoes eject aerosols into the atmosphere.
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ื”ืจื™ ื’ืขืฉ ืคื•ืœื˜ื™ื ืชืจืกื™ืกื™ื ืœืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”.
03:16
That changes our climate.
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ื–ื” ืžืฉื ื” ืืช ื”ืืงืœื™ื ืฉืœื ื•.
03:18
The ocean contains most of the exchangeable heat on the planet.
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ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ืžื›ื™ืœ ืืช ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื—ื•ื ื‘ืจ-ื”ื”ืžืจื” ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
03:21
So anything that influences
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ื›ืš ืฉื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉืžืฉืคื™ืข
03:23
how ocean surface waters mix with the deep water
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ืขืœ ื”ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ื• ื”ืžื™ื ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ืฉื ืžืฆืื™ื ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืžืชืขืจื‘ื‘ื™ื ืขื ื”ืžื™ื ื”ืขืžื•ืงื™ื
03:26
changes the ocean of the planet.
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ืžืฉื ื” ืืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
03:28
And we know the solar output's not constant through time.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื’ื ืฉื”ืชืคื•ืงื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืื™ื ื ื” ืงื‘ื•ืขื” ืœืื•ืจืš ื–ืžืŸ.
03:31
So those are all natural causes of climate change.
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ืื– ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืžื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ืืงืœื™ื.
03:34
And then we have the human-induced causes
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ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืืœื™ื”ืŸ ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื’ื ืืช ื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช
03:36
of climate change as well.
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ืžืขืฉื™ ื™ื“ื™ ืื“ื ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ืืงืœื™ื.
03:38
We're changing the characteristics of the surface of the land,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฉื ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืืคื™ื™ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืงืจืงืข,
03:40
the reflectivity.
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ืืช ื”ืจืคืœืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช.
03:42
We inject our own aerosols into the atmosphere,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื›ื ื™ืกื™ื ืชืจืกื™ืกื™ื ืžืฉืœื ื• ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”,
03:44
and we have trace gases, and not just carbon dioxide --
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื’ื–ื™ื, ื•ืœื ืจืง ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ -
03:47
it's methane, ozone,
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ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ืžืชืืŸ, ืื•ื–ื•ืŸ,
03:49
oxides of sulfur and nitrogen.
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ืชื—ืžื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ื•ืคืจื™ืช ื•ื—ื ืงืŸ.
03:51
So here's the thing. It sounds like a simple question.
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ืื– ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื›ื–ื”. ื–ื• ื ืฉืžืขืช ื›ืžื• ืฉืืœื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ื” -
03:53
Is CO2 produced by man's activities
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ื”ืื ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืฉื ื•ืฆืจ ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืื“ื
03:56
causing the planet to warm up?
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ื’ื•ืจื ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืœื”ืชื—ืžื?
03:58
But to answer that question,
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ืืš ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื–ืืช,
04:00
to make a clear attribution to carbon dioxide,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ื™ื—ืก ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืœืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™,
04:03
you have to know something about
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื“ืขืช ืžืฉื”ื• ืขืœ
04:05
all of these other agents of change.
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ื›ืœ ืื•ืชื ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉืžื‘ื™ืื™ื ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™.
04:07
But the fact is we do know a lot about all of those things.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืืžืช ื”ื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”.
04:10
You know, thousands of scientists
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ืืœืคื™ ืžื“ืขื ื™ื
04:12
have been working on understanding
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ืขื‘ื“ื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ
04:14
all of these man-made causes
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ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืžืขืฉื™ ื™ื“ื™ ืื“ื ื”ืœืœื•
04:16
and the natural causes.
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ื•ืืช ื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช.
04:18
And we've got it worked out, and we can say,
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื‘ื ื• ืืช ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ, ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ื“:
04:21
"Yes, CO2 is causing the planet to warm up now."
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"ื›ืŸ, ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื’ื•ืจื ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืœื”ืชื—ืžื."
04:25
Now, we have many ways to study natural variability.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช.
04:28
I'll show you a few examples of this now.
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ื›ืขืช ืื ื™ ืืจืื” ืœื›ื ื›ืžื” ื“ื•ื’ืžืื•ืช ืœื›ืš.
04:30
This is the ship that I spent the last three months on in the Antarctic.
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื”ืื•ื ื™ื™ื” ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ืœื™ืชื™ ืืช ืฉืœื•ืฉืช ื”ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื˜ื‘ ื”ื“ืจื•ืžื™.
04:33
It's a scientific drilling vessel.
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ื–ื• ืื•ื ื™ื™ืช ืงื™ื“ื•ื— ืžื“ืขื™ืช.
04:36
We go out for months at a time and drill into the sea bed
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ืฆืื™ื, ืœืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉืœ ืžืกืคืจ ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ื›ืœ ืคืขื, ื•ืงื•ื“ื—ื™ื ื‘ืงืจืงืขื™ืช ื”ื™ื
04:39
to recover sediments
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ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืžืฉืงืขื™ื
04:41
that tell us stories of climate change, right.
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ืฉืžืกืคืจื™ื ืœื ื• ืขืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ืืงืœื™ื.
04:44
Like one of the ways to understand our greenhouse future
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ืื—ืช ื”ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื ืช ื”ืขืชื™ื“ ืฉืืคืงื˜ ื”ื—ืžืžื” ืฆื•ืคืŸ ืœื ื•
04:47
is to drill down in time
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ื”ื™ื ืœืงื“ื•ื— ืžื˜ื” ื‘ื–ืžืŸ,
04:49
to the last period
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ืœืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื”
04:51
where we had CO2 double what it is today.
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ืฉื‘ื” ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื‘ื›ืžื•ืช ื›ืคื•ืœื” ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ื• ืฉื™ืฉ ื”ื™ื•ื.
04:53
And so that's what we've done with this ship.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืขืฉื™ื ื• ืขื ื”ืื•ื ื™ื™ื” ื”ื–ืืช.
04:55
This was -- this is south of the Antarctic Circle.
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ื–ื” ืžื“ืจื•ื ืœื—ื•ื’ ื”ืงื•ื˜ื‘ ื”ื“ืจื•ืžื™.
04:58
It looks downright tropical there.
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ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ื–ื” ื ืจืื” ืžืžืฉ ื˜ืจื•ืคื™.
05:00
One day where we had calm seas and sun,
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ื–ื” ืžื™ื•ื ืื—ื“ ืฉื‘ื• ื–ื›ื™ื ื• ืœื™ื ืฉืงื˜ ื•ืœืฉืžืฉ,
05:03
which was the reason I could get off the ship.
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ืฉื–ื• ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœืชื™ ืœืจื“ืช ืžื”ืื•ื ื™ื™ื”.
05:05
Most of the time it looked like this.
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื–ื” ื ืจืื” ื›ืš.
05:07
We had a waves up to 50 ft.
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ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ื’ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ืขื“ 15 ืžื˜ืจ
05:10
and winds averaging
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ื•ืจื•ื—ื•ืช ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืžืžื•ืฆืขืช
05:12
about 40 knots for most of the voyage
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ืฉืœ ื‘ืขืจืš 75 ืงืž"ืฉ ืœืื•ืจืš ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžืกืข
05:14
and up to 70 or 80 knots.
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ื•ื›ืืœื• ืฉื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ 130-150 ืงืž"ืฉ.
05:16
So that trip just ended,
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ืื– ื”ื ืกื™ืขื” ื”ื–ื• ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ืกืชื™ื™ืžื”,
05:18
and I can't show you too many results from that right now,
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ื•ื›ืจื’ืข ืื ื™ ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืœื›ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ืžืฉื.
05:20
but we'll go back one more year,
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื•ืื• ื ืœืš ืื—ื•ืจื” ืขื•ื“ ืฉื ื”,
05:22
to another drilling expedition I've been involved in.
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ืœืžืฉืœื—ืช ืงื™ื“ื•ื— ืื—ืจืช ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžืขื•ืจื‘ ื‘ื”.
05:25
This was led by Ross Powell and Tim Naish.
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ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ื”ื•ื‘ืœืช ืจื•ืก ืคืื•ื•ืœ ื•ื˜ื™ื ื ื™ื™ืฉ.
05:28
It's the ANDRILL project.
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ื–ื” ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ 'ืื ื“ืจื™ืœ'.
05:30
And we made the very first bore hole
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ืฆืจื ื• ืืช ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืงื™ื“ื•ื— ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ
05:32
through the largest floating ice shelf on the planet.
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ืืœ ืชื•ืš ืžื“ืฃ ื”ืงืจื— ื”ืฆืฃ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
05:34
This is a crazy thing, this big drill rig wrapped in a blanket
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ื–ื” ื“ื‘ืจ ืžื˜ื•ืจืฃ, ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ืงื™ื“ื•ื— ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื›ื–ื” ืขื˜ื•ืฃ ื‘ืฉืžื™ื›ื”
05:37
to keep everybody warm,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืœื›ื•ืœื ื™ื”ื™ื” ื—ื,
05:39
drilling at temperatures of minus 40.
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ืงื•ื“ื— ื‘ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื™ื ื•ืก 40 ืžืขืœื•ืช.
05:41
And we drilled in the Ross Sea.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืงื“ื—ื ื• ื‘ื™ื ืจื•ืก.
05:43
That's the Ross Sea Ice Shelf on the right there.
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ื”ื ื”, ืคื” ื–ื” ืžื“ืฃ ื”ืงืจื— ืฉืœ ื™ื ืจื•ืก, ืžืฆื“ ื™ืžื™ืŸ.
05:46
So, this huge floating ice shelf
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ืื– ืžื“ืฃ ื”ืงืจื— ื”ืฆืฃ ื”ืขืฆื•ื ื”ื–ื”
05:48
the size of Alaska
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ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ืืœืกืงื”
05:50
comes from West Antarctica.
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ืžื’ื™ืข ืžืžืขืจื‘ ืื ื˜ืืจืงื˜ื™ืงื”.
05:52
Now, West Antarctica is the part of the continent
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืžืขืจื‘ ืื ื˜ืืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ื–ื” ื”ื—ืœืง ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื‘ืฉืช
05:55
where the ice is grounded on sea floor
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ื‘ื• ื”ืงืจื— ื™ื•ืฉื‘ ืžืขืœ ืงืจืงืขื™ืช
05:57
as much as 2,000 meters deep.
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ืฉื ืžืฆืืช ื‘ืขื•ืžืง ืฉืœ ืขื“ 2000 ืžื˜ืจ.
06:00
So that ice sheet is partly floating,
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ืื– ื™ืจื™ืขืช ื”ืงืจื— ื”ื–ื• ืฆืคื” ืœืžื—ืฆื”,
06:02
and it's exposed to the ocean, to the ocean heat.
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ื•ื”ื™ื ื—ืฉื•ืคื” ืœืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก, ืœื—ื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก.
06:06
This is the part of Antarctica that we worry about.
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ื–ื”ื• ื”ื—ืœืง ืฉืœ ืื ื˜ืืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ืฉืื ื• ืžื•ื“ืื’ื™ื ืœื’ื‘ื™ื•.
06:08
Because it's partly floating, you can imagine,
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ื™ื ืฆืคื” ืœืžื—ืฆื”, ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืชืืจ ืœืขืฆืžื›ื,
06:10
is sea level rises a little bit,
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ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื’ื•ื‘ื” ืคื ื™ ื”ื™ื ืขื•ืœื” ืงืฆืช
06:12
the ice lifts off the bed, and then it can break off and float north.
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ื”ืงืจื— ืžืชืจื•ืžื ืžืขืœ ื”ืงืจืงืขื™ืช, ื•ืื– ื”ื•ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืชื ืชืง ื•ืœืฆื•ืฃ ืฆืคื•ื ื”.
06:15
When that ice melts, sea level rises by six meters.
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืงืจื— ื ืžืก, ื’ื•ื‘ื” ืคื ื™ ื”ื™ื ืขื•ืœื” ื‘ืฉื™ืฉื” ืžื˜ืจื™ื.
06:19
So we drill back in time to see how often that's happened,
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืงื•ื“ื—ื™ื ืื—ื•ืจื” ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืจืื•ืช ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื–ื” ืงืจื” ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช,
06:22
and exactly how fast that ice can melt.
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ื•ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืจ ื”ืงืจื— ื”ื–ื” ื ืžืก.
06:25
Here's the cartoon on the left there.
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ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืื™ื•ืจ ืฉื ืžืฆื“ ืฉืžืืœ.
06:28
We drilled through a hundred meters of floating ice shelf
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืงื“ื—ื ื• ื“ืจืš ืžืื” ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื“ืฃ ื”ืงืจื— ื”ืฆืฃ,
06:31
then through 900 meters of water
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ืื—ืจ ื›ืš ื“ืจืš 900 ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื™ื
06:33
and then 1,300 meters into the sea floor.
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ื•ืื– ืขื•ื“ 1,300 ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืœืชื•ืš ืงืจืงืขื™ืช ื”ื™ื.
06:36
So it's the deepest geological bore hole ever drilled.
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ื›ืš ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืงื™ื“ื•ื— ื”ื’ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื”ืขืžื•ืง ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื™ ืคืขื.
06:39
It took about 10 years to put this project together.
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ื–ื” ืœืงื— ื‘ืขืจืš 10 ืฉื ื™ื ืœืืจื’ืŸ ืืช ื”ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ื”ื–ื”.
06:42
And here's what we found.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฆืื ื•.
06:44
Now, there's 40 scientists working on this project,
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ืื– 40 ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื™ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื•ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ื”ื–ื”,
06:46
and people are doing all kinds of really complicated
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ื•ืื ืฉื™ื ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ื›ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ ืื ืœื™ื–ื•ืช ืฉื”ืŸ
06:48
and expensive analyses.
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ืžืžืฉ ืžืกื•ื‘ื›ื•ืช ื•ื™ืงืจื•ืช.
06:51
But it turns out, you know, the thing that told the best story
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ืื‘ืœ ืžืกืชื‘ืจ ืฉืžื” ืฉืกื™ืคืจ ืืช ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ื›ื™ ื˜ื•ื‘ื”
06:54
was this simple visual description.
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ื”ื™ื” ื”ืชื™ืื•ืจ ื”ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื”ื–ื”.
06:56
You know, we saw this in the core samples as they came up.
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ืื ื—ื ื• ืจืื™ื ื• ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ื“ื’ื™ืžื•ืช ื”ืœื™ื‘ื” ื›ืฉื”ืŸ ืขืœื• ืœืžืขืœื”.
06:59
We saw these alternations
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ืจืื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ื—ื™ืœื•ืคื™ื ื”ืืœื”
07:01
between sediments that look like this --
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืฉืงืขื™ื ืฉื ืจืื™ื ื›ื›ื” -
07:03
there's gravel and cobbles in there
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ื›ืืŸ ื™ืฉ ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ืฆืฅ
07:05
and a bunch of sand.
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ื•ื”ืจื‘ื” ื—ื•ืœ.
07:07
That's the kind of material in the deep sea.
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ื–ื” ืกื•ื’ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ืฉื ืžืฆื ื‘ืขื•ืžืง ื”ื™ื.
07:09
It can only get there if it's carried out by ice.
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ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืฉื ื”ื™ื ืื ืงืจื— ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืื•ืชื• ื”ื—ื•ืฆื”.
07:12
So we know there's an ice shelf overhead.
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉืžืœืžืขืœื” ื™ืฉื ื• ืžื“ืฃ ืงืจื—.
07:14
And that alternates with a sediment that looks like this.
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ื•ืœืฆื“ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื–ื” ืžื•ืคื™ืข ืœื—ื™ืœื•ืคื™ืŸ ืžืฉืงืข ืฉื ืจืื” ื›ืš.
07:17
This is absolutely beautiful stuff.
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ื–ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื™ืคื”ืคื”.
07:19
This sediment is 100 percent made up
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ื”ืžืฉืงืข ื”ื–ื” ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ื›ืœ ื›ื•ืœื•
07:21
of the shells of microscopic plants.
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ืžืงืœื™ืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฆืžื—ื™ื ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื™ื.
07:24
And these plants need sunlight,
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ื”ืฆืžื—ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœืื•ืจ ืฉืžืฉ,
07:26
so we know when we find that sediment
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ืื– ื›ืฉืื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืฉืงืข ื”ื–ื” ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื
07:28
there's no ice overhead.
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ืฉืžืœืžืขืœื” ืื™ืŸ ืงืจื—.
07:30
And we saw about 35 alternations
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืจืื™ื ื• ื‘ืขืจืš 35 ื—ื™ืœื•ืคื™ื ื›ืืœื”
07:32
between open water and ice-covered water,
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื™ื ืคืชื•ื—ื™ื ืœืžื™ื ืžื›ื•ืกื™ื ื‘ืงืจื—,
07:35
between gravels and these plant sediments.
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื—ืฆืฅ ืœืžืฉืงืขื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฆืžื—ื™ื.
07:38
So what that means is, what it tells us
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ืื– ืžื” ืฉื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืœื ื•, ื”ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ื–ื”
07:41
is that the Ross Sea region, this ice shelf,
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ื”ื™ื ืฉืื™ื–ื•ืจ ื™ื ืจื•ืก, ืžื“ืฃ ื”ืงืจื— ื”ื–ื”,
07:44
melted back and formed anew
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ื ืžืก ื•ื ื•ืฆืจ ืžื—ื“ืฉ
07:46
about 35 times.
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ื‘ืขืจืš 35 ืคืขืžื™ื.
07:48
And this is in the past four million years.
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ื•ื–ื” ื‘-4 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช.
07:52
This was completely unexpected.
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื‘ืœืชื™ ืฆืคื•ื™.
07:54
Nobody imagined that the West Antarctic Ice Sheet
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ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ืชื™ืืจ ืœืขืฆืžื• ืฉื™ืจื™ืขืช ื”ืงืจื— ืฉืœ ืžืขืจื‘ ืื ื˜ืืจืงื˜ื™ืงื”
07:56
was this dynamic.
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ื”ื™ื ืขื“ ื›ื“ื™ ื›ืš ื“ื™ื ืžื™ืช.
07:58
In fact, the lore for many years has been,
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื‘ืžืฉืš ืฉื ื™ื ื”ื“ืขื” ื”ืจื•ื•ื—ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื”
08:01
"The ice formed many tens of millions of years ago,
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"ื”ืงืจื— ื ื•ืฆืจ ืœืคื ื™ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉื ื™ื,
08:03
and it's been there ever since."
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื ืžืฆื ืฉื ืžืื–."
08:05
And now we know that in our recent past
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ื›ืขืช ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื‘ืขื‘ืจ ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ ืฉืœื ื•
08:07
it melted back and formed again,
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ื”ืงืจื— ื ืžืก ื•ื ื•ืฆืจ ืฉื•ื‘
08:09
and sea level went up and down, six meters at a time.
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ื•ื’ื•ื‘ื” ืคื ื™ ื”ื™ื ืขืœื” ื•ื™ืจื“, ืฉื™ืฉื” ืžื˜ืจื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื.
08:12
What caused it?
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ืžื” ื’ืจื ืœื›ืš?
08:14
Well, we're pretty sure that it's very small changes
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ื—ื ื• ื“ื™ ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื™ื ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ืงื˜ื ื™ื
08:16
in the amount of sunlight reaching Antarctica,
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ื‘ื›ืžื•ืช ืื•ืจ ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืฉืžื’ื™ืขื” ืœืื ื˜ืืจืงื˜ื™ืงื”,
08:19
just caused by natural changes in the orbit of the Earth.
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ื•ื–ื” ื ื’ืจื ืจืง ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื™ื ื‘ืžืกืœื•ืœื• ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
08:22
But here's the key thing:
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืžืคืชื—:
08:24
you know, the other thing we found out
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื ื•ืกืฃ ืฉื’ื™ืœื™ื ื•
08:26
is that the ice sheet passed a threshold,
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื™ืจื™ืขืช ื”ืงืจื— ืขื‘ืจื” ืื™ื–ืฉื”ื• ืกืฃ,
08:28
that the planet warmed up enough --
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ืฉื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ืชื—ืžื ืžืกืคื™ืง -
08:30
and the number's about one degree to one and a half degrees Centigrade --
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ื”ืžืกืคืจ ื”ื•ื ืžืฉื”ื• ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืขืœืช ืฆืœื–ื™ื•ืก ืื—ืช ืœืžืขืœื” ื•ื—ืฆื™ -
08:32
the planet warmed up enough that it became ...
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ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ืชื—ืžื ืžืกืคื™ืง ื›ืš ืฉื”ื•ื ื ื”ื™ื”...
08:35
that ice sheet became very dynamic
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ื›ืš ืฉื™ืจื™ืขืช ื”ืงืจื— ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžืื•ื“ ื“ื™ื ืžื™ืช
08:37
and was very easily melted.
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ื•ื ืžืกื” ื‘ืงืœื•ืช ืจื‘ื” ืžืื•ื“.
08:39
And you know what?
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ื•ืžื” ืžืกืชื‘ืจ?
08:41
We've actually changed the temperature in the last century
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ื‘ืžืื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ืขืฆื ืฉื™ื ื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื”
08:43
just the right amount.
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ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ื”ืžืชืื™ืžื”.
08:45
So many of us are convinced now
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ืื– ื›ืขืช ืจื‘ื™ื ืžืื™ืชื ื• ืžืฉื•ื›ื ืขื™ื
08:48
that West Antarctica, the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, is starting to melt.
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ืฉืžืขืจื‘ ืื ื˜ืืจืงื˜ื™ืงื”, ื™ืจื™ืขืช ื”ืงืจื— ืฉืœ ืžืขืจื‘ ืื ื˜ืืจื˜ื™ืงื”, ืžืชื—ื™ืœื” ืœื”ื™ืžืก.
08:51
We do expect to see a sea-level rise
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืŸ ืžืฆืคื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื‘ื’ื•ื‘ื” ืคื ื™ ื”ื™ื
08:54
on the order of one to two meters by the end of this century.
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ื‘ืกื“ืจ ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ 1-2 ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืขื“ ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžืื” ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ืช.
08:57
And it could be larger than that.
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ื•ื”ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื’ื ืขืœื•ืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื™ื•ืชืจ.
09:00
This is a serious consequence
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ืืœื• ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ื—ืžื•ืจื•ืช
09:02
for nations like Kiribati,
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืงื™ืจื™ื‘ื˜ื™ ืœืžืฉืœ,
09:04
you know, where the average elevation
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ื”ื ื”ื’ื•ื‘ื” ื”ืžืžื•ืฆืข
09:06
is about a little over a meter above sea level.
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ื”ื•ื ืงืฆืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื˜ืจ ืžืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ื™ื.
09:08
Okay, the second story takes place here in Galapagos.
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ื˜ื•ื‘, ืื– ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉืื ื™ ืืกืคืจ ืžืชืจื—ืฉ ื›ืืŸ ื‘ื’ืœืคื’ื•ืก.
09:11
This is a bleached coral,
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ื–ื” ืืœืžื•ื’ ืฉื”ื•ืœื‘ืŸ,
09:13
coral that died during the 1982-'83 El Nino.
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ืืœืžื•ื’ ืฉืžืช ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”'ืืœ ื ื™ื ื™ื•' ืฉืœ 1982-83.
09:16
This is from Champion Island.
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ื–ื” ืžื”ืื™ ืฆ'ืžืคื™ื•ืŸ.
09:18
It's about a meter tall Pavona clavus colony.
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ืŸ 'ืคืื‘ื•ื ื” ืงืœืื‘ื•ืก', ื‘ืขืจืš ื‘ื’ื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœ ืžื˜ืจ.
09:21
And it's covered with algae. That's what happens.
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืžื›ื•ืกื” ื‘ืืฆื•ืช. ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื”.
09:24
When these things die,
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื• ืžืชื™ื,
09:26
immediately, organisms come in
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ืžื™ื“ ื ื›ื ืกื™ื ืœืฉื ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื
09:28
and encrust and live on that dead surface.
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ื•ื”ื ืžืฆืคื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืฉื˜ื— ื”ืžืช ื”ื–ื” ื•ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœื™ื•.
09:31
And so, when a coral colony is killed
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ื›ืš, ื›ืืฉืจ ืžื•ืฉื‘ืช ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื ืžืชื”
09:33
by an El Nino event,
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ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžืื™ืจื•ืข ืฉืœ 'ืืœ ื ื™ื ื™ื•'
09:35
it leaves this indelible record.
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ื–ื” ืžืฉืื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืชื™ืขื•ื“ ื”ื‘ืœืชื™ ืžื—ื™ืง ื”ื–ื”.
09:37
You can go then and study corals
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ื•ืื– ืืคืฉืจ ื‘ืขืฆื ืœืœื›ืช ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื
09:39
and figure out how often do you see this.
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ื•ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ืื™ื–ื• ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื–ื”.
09:41
So one of the things thought of in the '80s
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ืื– ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื—ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœื™ื”ื ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืฉืžื•ื ื™ื
09:43
was to go back and take cores
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ื”ื™ื” ืœืœื›ืช ื•ืœืงื—ืช ืœื™ื‘ื•ืช
09:45
of coral heads throughout the Galapagos
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ืžืชื•ืš ืจืืฉื™ ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื’ืœืคื’ื•ืก
09:47
and find out how often was there a devastating event.
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ื•ืœื’ืœื•ืช ื›ืœ ื›ืžื” ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืชืจื—ืฉ ืื™ืจื•ืข ื”ืจืกื ื™.
09:50
And just so you know, 1982-'83,
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ื•ืจืง ืฉืชื“ืขื•, ื”'ืืœ ื ื™ื ื™ื•' ืฉืœ 1982-83
09:53
that El Nino killed 95 percent
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ื”ืจื’ 95 ืื—ื•ื–
09:55
of all the corals here in Galapagos.
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ืžื›ืœ ื”ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื ื›ืืŸ ื‘ื’ืœืคื’ื•ืก.
09:58
Then there was similar mortality in '97-'98.
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ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืชืžื•ืชื” ื“ื•ืžื” ื‘-97'-98'.
10:01
And what we found
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ื•ืœืื—ืจ ืฉืงื“ื—ื ื• ืื—ื•ืจื” ื‘ื–ืžืŸ
10:03
after drilling back in time two to 400 years
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ื‘ื™ืŸ 200 ืœ-400 ืฉื ื”, ืžื” ืฉื’ื™ืœื™ื ื•
10:05
was that these were unique events.
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ื”ื™ื” ืฉื”ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ื”ื™ื• ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื™ื.
10:07
We saw no other mass mortality events.
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ืœื ืจืื™ื ื• ืืฃ ืื™ืจื•ืข ืื—ืจ ืฉืœ ืชืžื•ืชื” ื”ืžื•ื ื™ืช.
10:10
So these events in our recent past really are unique.
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ื›ืš ืฉืื•ืชื ื”ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ืžื”ืขื‘ืจ ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ ืฉืœื ื• ื”ื ื‘ืืžืช ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื™ื.
10:13
So they're either just truly monster El Ninos,
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ืื– ืื• ืฉื”ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื”ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืžืงืจื™ื ื‘ืืžืช ืžืคืœืฆืชื™ื™ื ืฉืœ 'ืืœ ื ื™ื ื™ื•',
10:15
or they're just very strong El Ninos
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ืื• ืฉื”ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ 'ืืœ ื ื™ื ื™ื•' ืžืื•ื“ ื—ื–ืงื™ื
10:17
that occurred against a backdrop of global warming.
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ืฉืื™ืจืขื• ื›ืืฉืจ ื‘ืจืงืข ืงื™ื™ืžืช ื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืช.
10:21
Either case, it's bad news
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงืจื”, ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืจืขื•ืช
10:23
for the corals of the Galapagos Islands.
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื™ื™ ื’ืœืคื’ื•ืก.
10:27
Here's how we sample the corals.
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ื›ืš ืื ื• ื“ื•ื’ืžื™ื ืืช ื”ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื.
10:29
This is actually Easter Island. Look at this monster.
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื–ื” ื‘ืื™ ื”ืคืกื—ื. ืชืจืื• ืืช ื”ืžืคืœืฆืช ื”ื–ืืช.
10:32
This coral is eight meters tall, right.
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ื”ืืœืžื•ื’ ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื‘ื’ื•ื‘ื” ืฉืžื•ื ื” ืžื˜ืจื™ื, ื›ืŸ?
10:35
And it been growing for about 600 years.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื’ื“ืœ ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ืขืจืš 600 ืฉื ื”.
10:37
Now, Sylvia Earle turned me on to this exact same coral.
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืกื™ืœื‘ื™ื” ืืจืœ ื”ืคื ืชื” ืื•ืชื™ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืœืืœืžื•ื’ ื”ื–ื”.
10:40
And she was diving here with John Lauret -- I think it was 1994 --
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ื”ื™ื ืฆืœืœื” ืคื” ืขื ื’'ื•ืŸ ืœื•ืจื˜, ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘-1994,
10:43
and collected a little nugget and sent it to me.
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืืกืคื” ื’ื•ืฉ ืงื˜ืŸ ื•ืฉืœื—ื” ืื•ืชื• ืืœื™ื™.
10:45
And we started working on it,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืขืœื™ื•,
10:47
and we figured out we could tell the temperature of the ancient ocean
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ื•ื”ื‘ื ื• ืฉืžืชื•ืš ืื ืœื™ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืืœืžื•ื’ ื›ื–ื” ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื
10:49
from analyzing a coral like this.
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ืœื“ืขืช ืžื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืขืชื™ืง.
10:52
So we have a diamond drill.
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ืื– ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืžืงื“ื—ืช ื™ื”ืœื•ื.
10:54
We're not killing the colony; we're taking a small core sample out of the top.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื”ื•ืจื’ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” - ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ื“ื’ื™ืžืช ืœื™ื‘ื” ืงื˜ื ื” ืžืœืžืขืœื”.
10:57
The core comes up as these cylindrical tubes of limestone.
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ื”ืœื™ื‘ื” ื™ื•ืฆืืช ื”ื—ื•ืฆื” ื‘ืชื•ืจ ื’ืœื™ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ืื‘ืŸ ื’ื™ืจ,
11:00
And that material then we take back to the lab and analyze it.
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ื•ืืช ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ื–ื” ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืื—ืจ ื›ืš ืœืžืขื‘ื“ื” ื•ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืœื• ืื ืœื™ื–ื”.
11:04
You can see some of the coral cores there on the right.
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ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืคื” ืžืฆื“ ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื›ืžื” ืžืœื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื.
11:07
So we've done that all over the Eastern Pacific.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขืฉื™ื ื• ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ืžื–ืจื— ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืฉืงื˜.
11:09
We're starting to do it in the Western Pacific as well.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื” ื’ื ื‘ืžืขืจื‘ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืฉืงื˜.
11:12
I'll take you back here to the Galapagos Islands.
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ืื ื™ ืื—ื–ื™ืจ ืืชื›ื ืœืจื’ืข ืœื›ืืŸ, ืœืื™ื™ ื’ืœืคื’ื•ืก.
11:14
And we've been working at this fascinating uplift here in Urbina Bay.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื‘ื“ื ื• ื‘ื”ืชืจื•ืžืžื•ืช ืงืจืงืข ืžืจืชืงืช ืคื” ื‘ืžืคืจืฅ ืื•ืจื‘ื™ื ื”.
11:17
That the place where,
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื”ื–ื”,
11:19
during an earthquake in 1954,
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ื‘ืจืขื™ื“ืช ืื“ืžื” ื‘-1954,
11:21
this marine terrace was lifted up
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ื”ืžืฉื˜ื— ื”ื™ืžื™ ื”ืชืจื•ืžื
11:23
out of the ocean very quickly,
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ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืจื‘ื” ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก,
11:26
and it was lifted up about six to seven meters.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ืชืจื•ืžื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื™ืฉื” ืœืฉื‘ืขื” ืžื˜ืจื™ื.
11:29
And so now you can walk through a coral reef without getting wet.
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ืœื›ืŸ, ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืกืชื•ื‘ื‘ ื‘ืชื•ืš ืฉื•ื ื™ืช ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื ืžื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ื™ืจื˜ื‘.
11:32
If you go on the ground there, it looks like this,
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ืื ืชืœื›ื• ืฉื ืขืœ ื”ืงืจืงืข ื–ื” ื ืจืื” ื›ื›ื”,
11:34
and this is the grandaddy coral.
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ื•ื”ืืœืžื•ื’ ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื’ื•ืœืช ื”ื›ื•ืชืจืช.
11:36
It's 11 meters in diameter,
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ื”ื•ื ื‘ืงื•ื˜ืจ 11 ืžื˜ืจ,
11:38
and we know that it started growing
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ
11:40
in the year 1584.
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ื‘ืฉื ืช 1584.
11:42
Imagine that.
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ืชืืจื• ืœืขืฆืžื›ื.
11:44
And that coral was growing happily in those shallow waters,
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ื”ืืœืžื•ื’ ื”ื–ื” ื’ื“ืœ ืœื• ื‘ืฉืžื—ื” ื‘ืžื™ื ื”ืจื“ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ืืœื•
11:47
until 1954, when the earthquake happened.
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ืขื“ ืœ-1954, ื›ืฉืื™ืจืขื” ืจืขื™ื“ืช ื”ืื“ืžื”.
11:50
Now the reason we know it's 1584
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘-1584
11:52
is that these corals have growth bands.
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ื”ื™ื ืฉืœืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ืฉ ืคืกื™ ื’ื“ื™ืœื”.
11:54
When you cut them, slice those cores in half and x-ray them,
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื—ื•ืชื›ื™ื ืื•ืชื, ืคื•ืจืกื™ื ืืช ื”ืœื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœื—ืฆื™ ื•ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืกืจื™ืงืช ืจื ื˜ื’ืŸ,
11:57
you see these light and dark bands.
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ืจื•ืื™ื ืžืขื™ืŸ ืคืกื™ื ื‘ื”ื™ืจื™ื ื•ื›ื”ื™ื.
11:59
Each one of those is a year.
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ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ื›ื–ื” ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืฉื ื”.
12:01
We know these corals grow about a centimeter and a half a year.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื”ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ื’ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ืขืจืš ืกื ื˜ื™ืžื˜ืจ ื•ื—ืฆื™ ื‘ืฉื ื”,
12:03
And we just count on down to the bottom.
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืกื•ืคืจื™ื ืขื“ ืœืžื˜ื”.
12:06
Then their other attribute is
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื ื•ืกืฃ ืฉืžืืคื™ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื ื”ื•ื
12:08
that they have this great chemistry.
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืืช ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ื” ื”ื ืคืœืื” ื”ื–ืืช.
12:10
We can analyze the carbonate
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืื ืœื™ื–ื” ืœืกื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืคื—ืžืชื™
12:12
that makes up the coral,
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ืžืžื ื• ื”ืืœืžื•ื’ ืžื•ืจื›ื‘,
12:14
and there's a whole bunch of things we can do.
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ื•ืื– ื™ืฉ ื”ืžื•ืŸ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœืขืฉื•ืช.
12:16
But in this case, we measured the different isotopes of oxygen.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื”, ืžื“ื“ื ื• ืืช ื”ืื™ื–ื•ื˜ื•ืคื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ืžืฆืŸ.
12:19
Their ratio tells us the water temperature.
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ื”ื™ื—ืก ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื ืื•ืžืจ ืœื ื• ืžื”ื™ ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ื.
12:21
In this example here,
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ื‘ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ื”ื–ืืช,
12:23
we had monitored this reef in Galapagos
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ื ื™ื˜ืจื ื• ืืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ืช ื”ื–ื• ื‘ืื™ื™ ื’ืœืคื’ื•ืก
12:25
with temperature recorders,
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ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืจืฉืžื™ ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื”,
12:27
so we know the temperature of the water the coral's growing in.
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ื›ืš ืฉืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืืช ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจืช ื”ืžื™ื ืฉื‘ื”ื ื”ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื ื’ื“ืœื™ื.
12:30
Then after we harvest a coral, we measure this ratio,
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ืื–, ืื—ืจื™ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืงื•ืฆืจื™ื ืืœืžื•ื’ ืžืกื•ื™ื, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืืช ื”ื™ื—ืก ื”ื–ื”
12:33
and now you can see, those curves match perfectly.
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ื•ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืœืจืื•ืช, ื™ืฉ ื”ืชืืžื” ืžื•ืฉืœืžืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืขืงื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•.
12:36
In this case, at these islands,
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื”, ื‘ืื™ื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
12:38
you know, corals
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ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื, ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื,
12:40
are instrumental-quality recorders of change in the water.
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ืžืชืขื“ื™ื ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื ื‘ืื™ื›ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื›ืฉื™ืจื™ ืžื“ื™ื“ื”.
12:43
And of course, our thermometers
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ื•ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืฉื›ืืŸ ืžื“ื™ ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืฉืœื ื•
12:45
only take us back 50 years or so here.
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ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืื•ืชื ื• ืจืง ื›-50 ืฉื ื” ืื—ื•ืจื”.
12:47
The coral can take us back
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ื”ืืœืžื•ื’ ืžืกื•ื’ืœ ืœืงื—ืช ืื•ืชื ื•
12:49
hundreds and thousands of years.
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ืžืื•ืช ื•ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื ืื—ื•ืจื”.
12:51
So, what we do:
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ืื– ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื:
12:53
we've merged a lot of different data sets.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืื™ื—ื“ื ื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ืกื“ืจื•ืช ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
12:56
It's not just my group; there's maybe 30 groups worldwide doing this.
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ืœื ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ืจืง ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืฉืœื™ - ื™ืฉ ืื•ืœื™ 30 ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ืฉืขื•ืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”.
12:59
But we get these instrumental- and near-instrumental-quality records
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืจืฉื•ืžื•ืช, ื‘ืื™ื›ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื›ืฉื™ืจื™ ืžื“ื™ื“ื” ืื• ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœื›ืš,
13:02
of temperature change that go back hundreds of years,
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ืฉืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืฉื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ืžืื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื ืื—ื•ืจื”,
13:04
and we put them together.
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืงื‘ืฆื™ื ืื•ืชืŸ ื‘ื™ื—ื“.
13:06
Here's a synthetic diagram.
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ื”ื ื” ืชืจืฉื™ื ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™.
13:08
There's a whole family of curves here.
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ื™ืฉ ืคื” ืžืฉืคื—ื” ืฉืœืžื” ืฉืœ ืขืงื•ืžื•ืช.
13:10
But what's happening: we're looking at the last thousand years
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ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื” ื”ื•ื ื›ื–ื”: ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื›ืืŸ ืืช ืืœืฃ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช
13:13
of temperature on the planet.
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ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
13:15
And there's five or six different compilations there,
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ื›ืืŸ ื™ืฉ 5 ืื• 6 ืžืงื‘ืฆื™ื ืฉืœ ื ืชื•ื ื™ื,
13:17
But each one of those compilations reflects input
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืžืงื‘ืฆื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืงืœื˜
13:20
from hundreds of these kinds of records from corals.
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ืžืžืื•ืช ืจืฉื•ืžื•ืช ืžื”ืกื•ื’ ื”ื–ื” ืžืชื•ืš ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื.
13:23
We do similar things with ice cores.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื“ื•ืžื™ื ืขื ืœื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงืจื—.
13:26
We work with tree rings.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืขื ื˜ื‘ืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ืขืฆื™ื.
13:28
And that's how we discover
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ื•ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ื–ื• ืื ื• ืžื’ืœื™ื
13:30
what is truly natural
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ืžื”ื• ื‘ืืžืช ื”ืžืฆื‘ ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™
13:32
and how different is the last century, right?
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ื•ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ื”ืžืื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื”.
13:35
And I chose this one
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ื•ืื ื™ ื‘ื—ืจืชื™ ื‘ืชืจืฉื™ื ื”ื–ื”
13:37
because it's complicated and messy looking, right.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ื•ื ืจืื” ืžื‘ื•ืœื’ืŸ.
13:40
This is as messy as it gets.
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ื–ื” ื”ื›ื™ ืžื‘ื•ืœื’ืŸ ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช.
13:42
You can see there's some signals there.
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ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืฉื ื›ืžื” ืื•ืชื•ืช,
13:45
Some of the records
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ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืจืฉื•ืžื•ืช
13:47
show lower temperatures than others.
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ืžืจืื•ืช ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื•ืช ื ืžื•ื›ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ืื—ืจื•ืช.
13:49
Some of them show greater variability.
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ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืŸ ืžืจืื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื™ื•ืชืจ.
13:52
But they all tell us
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ื•ืœืŸ ืื•ืžืจื•ืช ืœื ื•
13:54
what the natural variability is.
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ืžื”ื™ ื”ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช.
13:56
Some of them are from the northern hemisphere;
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ื—ืœืงืŸ ืžื—ืฆื™ ื”ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™,
13:58
some are from the entire globe.
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ื—ืœืงืŸ ืžื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ื•ืก.
14:00
But here's what we can say:
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื ื” ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ื“:
14:02
what's natural in the last thousand years is that the planet was cooling down.
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ื”ืžืฆื‘ ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ื‘ืืœืฃ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื” ืฉื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืžืชืงืจืจ.
14:05
It was cooling down
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ื”ื•ื ื”ืชืงืจืจ
14:07
until about 1900 or so.
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ืขื“ ืœืฉื ืช 1900 ืคื—ื•ืช ืื• ื™ื•ืชืจ.
14:09
And there is natural variability
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ื•ื™ืฉื ื” ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช
14:11
caused by the Sun, caused by El Ninos.
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ืฉื ื’ืจืžืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฉืžืฉ, ืฉื ื’ืจืžืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืงืจื™ 'ืืœ ื ื™ื ื™ื•'.
14:14
A century-scale, decadal-scale variability,
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ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืกื“ืจ ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ืžืื” ืฉื ื” ืื• ืขืฉื•ืจ,
14:16
and we know the magnitude;
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืืช ื”ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœื” -
14:18
it's about two-tenths to four-tenths of a degree Centigrade.
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ื–ื” ืžืฉื”ื• ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืชื™ ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื•ืช ืœืืจื‘ืข ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืขืœืช ืฆืœื–ื™ื•ืก.
14:21
But then at the very end is where
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ืื‘ืœ ืื– ืžืžืฉ ื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืฉื
14:23
we have the instrumental record in black.
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ื‘ืฉื—ื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืจื™ืฉื•ื ืžืžื›ืฉื™ืจื™ ืžื“ื™ื“ื”.
14:25
And there's the temperature up there in 2009.
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ื•ืฉื ืœืžืขืœื” ื–ื• ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ื‘-2009.
14:28
You know, we've warmed the globe
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ื‘ืžืื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืื ื—ื ื•
14:30
about a degree Centigrade in the last century,
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ื—ื™ืžืžื ื• ืืช ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ื•ืก ื‘ืขืจืš ื‘ืžืขืœืช ืฆืœื–ื™ื•ืก,
14:33
and there's nothing
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ื•ืื™ืŸ ืฉื•ื ื“ื‘ืจ
14:35
in the natural part of that record
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ื‘ื—ืœืง ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืชื™ืขื•ื“ ื”ื–ื”
14:37
that resembles what we've seen in the last century.
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ืฉื“ื•ืžื” ืœืžื” ืฉืจืื™ื ื• ื‘ืžืื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื”.
14:39
You know, that's the strength of our argument,
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉื—ื–ืง ื‘ื˜ืขื ื” ืฉืœื ื•,
14:41
that we are doing something that's truly different.
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ื”ืงื‘ื™ืขื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ืืžืช ืฉื•ื ื”.
14:45
So I'll close with a short discussion
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ืื– ืืกื™ื™ื ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ืงืฆืจ
14:48
of ocean acidification.
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ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื‘ื—ื•ืžืฆื™ื•ืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก.
14:51
I like it as a component of global change to talk about,
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ืื ื™ ืื•ื”ื‘ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ื–ื” ื‘ืชื•ืจ ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ ืฉืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ ืฉืื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœื™ื•,
14:54
because, even if you are a hard-bitten global warming skeptic,
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ื›ื™ ืืคื™ืœื• ืื ืืชื” ืžืชื ื’ื“ ืขื™ืงืฉ ืœืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื™ืช ื”ื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืช,
14:58
and I talk to that community fairly often,
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ื•ื–ื• ืงื”ื™ืœื” ืฉืื ื™ ืคื•ื ื” ืืœื™ื” ืœืขืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ื™ื—ืกื™ืช,
15:00
you cannot deny
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ืืชื” ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืชื›ื—ืฉ
15:02
the simple physics
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ืœืคื™ื–ื™ืงื” ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ื”
15:04
of CO2 dissolving in the ocean.
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ืฉืœ ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืฉืžืชืžื•ืกืก ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก.
15:07
You know, we're pumping out lots of CO2 into the atmosphere,
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื–ืจื™ืžื™ื ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื” -
15:10
from fossil fuels, from cement production.
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ืžื“ืœืงื™ื ืžืื•ื‘ื ื™ื, ืžื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ.
15:13
Right now, about a third of that carbon dioxide
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ื›ืจื’ืข, ื‘ืขืจืš ืฉืœื™ืฉ ืžื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื”ื–ื”
15:15
is dissolving straight into the sea, right?
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ืžืชืžื•ืกืก ื™ืฉืจ ืœืชื•ืš ื”ื™ื.
15:17
And as it does so,
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ื•ื‘ืขื•ื“ื• ืขื•ืฉื” ื›ืš,
15:19
it makes the ocean more acidic.
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืคืš ืืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ืœื—ื•ืžืฆื™ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
15:22
So, you cannot argue with that.
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ืื– ืขื ื–ื” ืืชื ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชื•ื•ื›ื—.
15:24
That is what's happening right now,
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ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื” ื›ืจื’ืข,
15:26
and it's a very different issue
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ื•ื–ื• ืกื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉื”ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื” ืžืื•ื“
15:28
than the global warming issue.
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ืžื”ืกื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืช.
15:30
It has many consequences.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืื•ื“ ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช.
15:32
There's consequences for carbonate organisms.
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ื™ืฉื ืŸ ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ืœืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืคื—ืžืชื™ื™ื.
15:35
There are many organisms
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ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื
15:37
that build their shells out of calcium carbonate --
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ืฉื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืงื•ื ื›ื™ื™ื” ืฉืœื”ื ืžืกื™ื“ืŸ ืคื—ืžืชื™ -
15:39
plants and animals both.
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ืฆืžื—ื™ื ื•ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ื›ืื—ื“.
15:42
The main framework material of coral reefs
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ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืžืกื’ืจืช ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ ื‘ืฉื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื
15:44
is calcium carbonate.
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ื”ื•ื ืกื™ื“ืŸ ืคื—ืžืชื™.
15:46
That material is more soluble
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ื–ื”ื• ื—ื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืกื™ืก ื™ื•ืชืจ
15:48
in acidic fluid.
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ื‘ื ื•ื–ืœ ื—ื•ืžืฆื™.
15:51
So one of the things we're seeing
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ืื– ืื—ื“ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื
15:53
is organisms are having
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ื”ื•ื ืฉืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื ืืœืฆื™ื
15:55
to spend more metabolic energy
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ืœื”ืฉืงื™ืข ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืžื˜ื‘ื•ืœื™ืช
15:57
to build and maintain their shells.
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ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื•ืœืชื—ื–ืง ืืช ื”ืงื•ื ื›ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
15:59
At some point, as this transience,
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ื‘ืื™ื–ืฉื”ื• ืฉืœื‘, ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ืžืื•ืจืข ื”ื ืงื•ื“ืชื™ ื”ื–ื”,
16:01
as this CO2 uptake in the ocean continues,
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ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ืกืคื™ื’ื” ื”ื–ื• ืฉืœ ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ืชื™ืžืฉืš,
16:04
that material's actually going to start to dissolve.
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ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ื™ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื”ืชืžื•ืกืก.
16:06
And on coral reefs,
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ื•ื‘ืฉื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืืœืžื•ื’ื™ื,
16:08
where some of the main framework organisms disappear,
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ื‘ื”ืŸ ื ืขืœืžื™ื ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื, ืฉืžื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืžืกื’ืจืช,
16:11
we will see a major loss
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื ืจืื” ืคื’ื™ืขื” ืจืฆื™ื ื™ืช
16:13
of marine biodiversity.
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ื‘ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื”ื™ืžื™.
16:15
But it's not just the carbonate producers that are affected.
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื ืจืง ื™ืฆืจื ื™ ื”ืกื™ื“ืŸ ื”ืคื—ืžืชื™ ืžื•ืฉืคืขื™ื ืžื›ืš.
16:18
There's many physiological processes
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ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื ืคื™ื–ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื
16:21
that are influenced by the acidity of the ocean.
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ืฉืžื•ืฉืคืขื™ื ืžื”ื—ื•ืžืฆื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก.
16:24
So many reactions involving enzymes and proteins
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ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื”ืจื‘ื” ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื”ืŸ ืžืขื•ืจื‘ื™ื ืื ื–ื™ืžื™ื ื•ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื
16:27
are sensitive to the acid content of the ocean.
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ื”ืŸ ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืœื”ืจื›ื‘ ื”ื—ื•ืžืฆื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก.
16:30
So, all of these things --
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ืื– ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืœืœื• -
16:32
greater metabolic demands,
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ื“ืจื™ืฉื•ืช ืžื˜ื‘ื•ืœื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ,
16:34
reduced reproductive success,
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ืคื—ื•ืช ื”ืฆืœื—ื” ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืจื‘ื™ื™ื”,
16:36
changes in respiration and metabolism.
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ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ื ืฉื™ืžื” ื•ื‘ืžื˜ื‘ื•ืœื™ื–ื -
16:39
You know, these are things that we have good physiological reasons
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ืืœื• ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืคื™ื–ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช
16:42
to expect to see stressed
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ืœืฆืคื•ืช ืฉื”ื ื™ื—ื•ื• ืœื—ืฅ
16:44
caused by this transience.
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ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื”ืžืื•ืจืข ื”ื ืงื•ื“ืชื™ ื”ื–ื”.
16:46
So we figured out some pretty interesting ways
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื”ืฆืœื—ื ื• ืœืžืฆื•ื ื›ืžื” ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ื•ืช ืœืžื“ื™
16:48
to track CO2 levels in the atmosphere,
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ืœืขืงื•ื‘ ืื—ืจื™ ืจืžื•ืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”,
16:51
going back millions of years.
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ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉื ื™ื ืื—ื•ืจื”.
16:53
We used to do it just with ice cores,
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ื‘ืขื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ืจืง ืขื ืœื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงืจื—,
16:55
but in this case, we're going back 20 million years.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื”, ืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื 20 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื” ืื—ื•ืจื”.
16:58
And we take samples of the sediment,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื™ื•ืช ืžื”ืžืฉืงืข,
17:00
and it tells us the CO2 level of the ocean,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืื•ืžืจ ืœื ื• ืžื”ื™ ืจืžืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื•-ื”ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก,
17:03
and therefore the CO2 level of the atmosphere.
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ื•ืœืคื™ื›ืš ืžื”ื™ ืจืžืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”.
17:05
And here's the thing:
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ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื›ื–ื”:
17:07
you have to go back about 15 million years
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืœื›ืช ืื—ื•ืจื” ื‘ืขืจืš 15 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื”
17:09
to find a time when CO2 levels
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื‘ื• ืจืžื•ืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™
17:12
were about what they are today.
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ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืขืจืš ืžื” ืฉื”ืŸ ื”ื™ื•ื.
17:14
You have to go back about 30 million years
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ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืœื›ืช ืื—ื•ืจื” ื‘ืขืจืš 30 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื”
17:16
to find a time when CO2 levels
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื‘ื• ืจืžื•ืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™
17:18
were double what they are today.
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ื”ื™ื• ื›ืคื•ืœื•ืช ืžืžื” ืฉื”ืŸ ื”ื™ื•ื.
17:20
Now, what that means is
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ื–ื” ื”ื™ื
17:22
that all of the organisms that live in the sea
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ืฉื›ืœ ื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืฉื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ื
17:24
have evolved in this chemostatted ocean,
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ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ื›ื™ืžื•ืกื˜ื˜ื™ ื”ื–ื”,
17:27
with CO2 levels lower than they are today.
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ืขื ืจืžื•ืช ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื ืžื•ื›ื•ืช ืžืžื” ืฉื”ืŸ ื”ื™ื•ื.
17:30
That's the reason that they're not able to respond or adapt
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ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืฉื”ื ืื™ื ื ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ื‘ ืื• ืœื”ืกืชื’ืœ
17:33
to this rapid acidification
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ืœืขืœื™ื™ื” ื”ืžื”ื™ืจื” ื”ื–ื• ื‘ื—ื•ืžืฆื™ื•ืช
17:36
that's going on right now.
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ืฉืžืชืจื—ืฉืช ืขื›ืฉื™ื•.
17:38
So, Charlie Veron
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ืฆ'ืจืœื™ ื•ื™ืจื•ืŸ
17:40
came up with this statement last year:
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ื™ืฆื ื‘ื”ืฆื”ืจื” ื”ื–ื• ื‘ืฉื ื” ืฉืขื‘ืจื”:
17:42
"The prospect of ocean acidification
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"ื”ืชื—ื–ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื‘ื—ื•ืžืฆื™ื•ืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก
17:44
may well be the most serious
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ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜ ืขืฉื•ื™ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ื—ืžื•ืจื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
17:46
of all of the predicted outcomes
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ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ืœ ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื”ื—ื–ื•ื™ื•ืช
17:48
of anthropogenic CO2 release."
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ืฉืœ ืฉื—ืจื•ืจ ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืื“ื."
17:51
And I think that may very well be true,
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ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื” ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜ ืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื ื›ื•ืŸ,
17:54
so I'll close with this.
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ืื– ื‘ื–ื” ืื ื™ ืืกื™ื™ื.
17:56
You know, we do need the protected areas, absolutely,
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืŸ ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืืช ื”ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ื”ืžื•ื’ื ื™ื, ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜.
17:59
but for the sake of the oceans,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืขืŸ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื,
18:01
we have to cap or limit CO2 emissions
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ื’ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ืคืœื™ื˜ื•ืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™
18:03
as soon as possible.
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ืžื”ืจ ื›ื›ืœ ื”ืืคืฉืจ.
18:05
Thank you very much.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืœื›ื.
18:07
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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