Cheryl Hayashi: The magnificence of spider silk

158,268 views ・ 2011-12-07

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I'm here to spread the word about the
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magnificence of spiders
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and how much we can learn from them.
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Spiders are truly global citizens.
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You can find spiders in nearly
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every terrestrial habitat.
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This red dot marks
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the Great Basin of North America,
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and I'm involved with an alpine biodiversity
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project there with some collaborators.
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Here's one of our field sites,
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and just to give you a sense of perspective,
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this little blue smudge here,
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that's one of my collaborators.
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This is a rugged and barren landscape,
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yet there are quite a few spiders here.
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Turning rocks over revealed this crab spider
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grappling with a beetle.
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Spiders are not just everywhere,
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but they're extremely diverse.
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There are over 40,000 described species
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of spiders.
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To put that number into perspective,
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here's a graph comparing the 40,000
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species of spiders
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to the 400 species of primates.
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There are two orders of magnitude more
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spiders than primates.
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Spiders are also extremely old.
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On the bottom here,
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this is the geologic timescale,
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and the numbers on it indicate millions
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of years from the present, so the zero here,
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that would be today.
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So what this figure shows is that spiders
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date back to almost 380 million years.
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To put that into perspective, this red
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vertical bar here marks the divergence time
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of humans from chimpanzees,
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a mere seven million years ago.
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All spiders make silk
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at some point in their life.
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Most spiders use copious amounts of silk,
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and silk is essential to their survival
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and reproduction.
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Even fossil spiders can make silk,
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as we can see from this impression of
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a spinneret on this fossil spider.
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So this means that both spiders
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and spider silk have been around
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for 380 million years.
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It doesn't take long from working with spiders
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to start noticing how essential silk is
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to just about every aspect of their life.
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Spiders use silk for many purposes, including
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the trailing safety dragline,
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wrapping eggs for reproduction,
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protective retreats
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and catching prey.
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There are many kinds of spider silk.
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For example, this garden spider can make
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seven different kinds of silks.
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When you look at this orb web, you're actually
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seeing many types of silk fibers.
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The frame and radii of this web
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is made up of one type of silk,
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while the capture spiral is a composite
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of two different silks:
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the filament and the sticky droplet.
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How does an individual spider
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make so many kinds of silk?
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To answer that, you have to look a lot closer
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at the spinneret region of a spider.
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So silk comes out of the spinnerets, and for
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those of us spider silk biologists, this is what
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we call the "business end" of the spider. (Laughter)
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We spend long days ...
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Hey! Don't laugh. That's my life.
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(Laughter)
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We spend long days and nights
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staring at this part of the spider.
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And this is what we see.
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You can see multiple fibers
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coming out of the spinnerets, because
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each spinneret has many spigots on it.
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Each of these silk fibers exits from the spigot,
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and if you were to trace the fiber back
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into the spider, what you would find is that
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each spigot connects to its own individual
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silk gland. A silk gland kind of looks like a sac
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with a lot of silk proteins stuck inside.
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So if you ever have the opportunity to dissect
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an orb-web-weaving spider,
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and I hope you do,
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what you would find is a bounty
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of beautiful, translucent silk glands.
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Inside each spider, there are hundreds
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of silk glands, sometimes thousands.
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These can be grouped into seven categories.
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They differ by size, shape,
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and sometimes even color.
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In an orb-web-weaving spider,
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you can find seven types of silk glands,
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and what I have depicted here in this picture,
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let's start at the one o'clock position,
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there's tubuliform silk glands, which are used
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to make the outer silk of an egg sac.
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There's the aggregate and flagelliform silk
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glands which combine to make the sticky
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capture spiral of an orb web.
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Pyriform silk glands make the attachment
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cement -- that's the silk that's used to adhere
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silk lines to a substrate.
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There's also aciniform silk,
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which is used to wrap prey.
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Minor ampullate silk is used in web construction.
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And the most studied silk line
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of them all: major ampullate silk.
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This is the silk that's used to make the frame
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and radii of an orb web, and also
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the safety trailing dragline.
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But what, exactly, is spider silk?
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Spider silk is almost entirely protein.
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Nearly all of these proteins can be explained
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by a single gene family,
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so this means that the diversity of silk types
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we see today is encoded by one gene family,
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so presumably the original spider ancestor
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made one kind of silk,
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and over the last 380 million years,
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that one silk gene has duplicated
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and then diverged, specialized,
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over and over and over again, to get
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the large variety of flavors of spider silks
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that we have today.
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There are several features that all these silks
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have in common. They all have a common
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design, such as they're all very long --
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they're sort of outlandishly long
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compared to other proteins.
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They're very repetitive, and they're very rich
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in the amino acids glycine and alanine.
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To give you an idea of what
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a spider silk protein looks like,
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this is a dragline silk protein,
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it's just a portion of it,
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from the black widow spider.
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This is the kind of sequence that I love
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looking at day and night. (Laughter)
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So what you're seeing here is the one letter
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abbreviation for amino acids, and I've colored
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in the glycines with green,
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and the alanines in red, and so
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you can see it's just a lot of G's and A's.
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You can also see that there's a lot of short
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sequence motifs that repeat over and over
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and over again, so for example there's a lot of
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what we call polyalanines, or iterated A's,
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AAAAA. There's GGQ. There's GGY.
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You can think of these short motifs
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that repeat over and over again as words,
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and these words occur in sentences.
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So for example this would be one sentence,
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and you would get this sort of green region
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and the red polyalanine, that repeats
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over and over and over again,
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and you can have that hundreds and
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hundreds and hundreds of times within
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an individual silk molecule.
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Silks made by the same spider can have
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dramatically different repeat sequences.
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At the top of the screen, you're seeing
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the repeat unit from the dragline silk
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of a garden argiope spider.
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It's short. And on the bottom,
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this is the repeat sequence for the
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egg case, or tubuliform silk protein,
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for the exact same spider. And you can see
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how dramatically different
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these silk proteins are -- so this is
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sort of the beauty of the diversification
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of the spider silk gene family.
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You can see that the repeat units differ
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in length. They also differ in sequence.
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So I've colored in the glycines again
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in green, alanine in red, and the serines,
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the letter S, in purple. And you can see
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that the top repeat unit can be explained
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almost entirely by green and red,
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and the bottom repeat unit has
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a substantial amount of purple.
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What silk biologists do is we try to relate
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these sequences, these amino acid
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sequences, to the mechanical properties
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of the silk fibers.
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Now, it's really convenient that spiders use their silk
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completely outside their body.
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This makes testing spider silk really, really
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easy to do in the laboratory, because
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we're actually, you know, testing it in air
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that's exactly the environment that
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spiders are using their silk proteins.
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So this makes quantifying silk properties by
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methods such as tensile testing, which is
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basically, you know, tugging on one end
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of the fiber, very amenable.
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Here are stress-strain curves
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generated by tensile testing
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five fibers made by the same spider.
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So what you can see here is that
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the five fibers have different behaviors.
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Specifically, if you look on the vertical axis,
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that's stress. If you look at the maximum
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stress value for each of these fibers,
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you can see that there's a lot of variation,
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and in fact dragline, or major ampullate silk,
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is the strongest of these fibers.
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We think that's because the dragline silk,
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which is used to make the frame and radii
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for a web, needs to be very strong.
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On the other hand, if you were to look at
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strain -- this is how much a fiber can be
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extended -- if you look at the maximum value
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here, again, there's a lot of variation
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and the clear winner is flagelliform,
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or the capture spiral filament.
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In fact, this flagelliform fiber can
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actually stretch over twice its original length.
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So silk fibers vary in their strength
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and also their extensibility.
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In the case of the capture spiral,
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it needs to be so stretchy to absorb
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the impact of flying prey.
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If it wasn't able to stretch so much, then
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basically when an insect hit the web,
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it would just trampoline right off of it.
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So if the web was made entirely out of
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dragline silk, an insect is very likely to just
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bounce right off. But by having really, really
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stretchy capture spiral silk, the web is actually
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able to absorb the impact
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of that intercepted prey.
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There's quite a bit of variation within
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the fibers that an individual spider can make.
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We call that the tool kit of a spider.
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That's what the spider has
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to interact with their environment.
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But how about variation among spider
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species, so looking at one type of silk
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and looking at different species of spiders?
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This is an area that's largely unexplored
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but here's a little bit of data I can show you.
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This is the comparison of the toughness
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of the dragline spilk spun
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by 21 species of spiders.
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Some of them are orb-weaving spiders and
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some of them are non-orb-weaving spiders.
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It's been hypothesized that
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orb-weaving spiders, like this argiope here,
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should have the toughest dragline silks
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because they must intercept flying prey.
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What you see here on this toughness graph
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is the higher the black dot is on the graph,
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the higher the toughness.
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The 21 species are indicated here by this
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phylogeny, this evolutionary tree, that shows
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their genetic relationships, and I've colored
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in yellow the orb-web-weaving spiders.
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If you look right here at the two red arrows,
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they point to the toughness values
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for the draglines of nephila clavipes and
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araneus diadematus.
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These are the two species of spiders
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for which the vast majority of time and money
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on synthetic spider silk research has been
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to replicate their dragline silk proteins.
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Yet, their draglines are not the toughest.
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In fact, the toughest dragline in this survey
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is this one right here in this white region,
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a non orb-web-weaving spider.
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This is the dragline spun by scytodes,
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the spitting spider.
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Scytodes doesn't use a web at all
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to catch prey. Instead, scytodes
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sort of lurks around and waits for prey
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to get close to it, and then immobilizes prey
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by spraying a silk-like venom onto that insect.
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Think of hunting with silly string.
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That's how scytodes forages.
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We don't really know why scytodes
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needs such a tough dragline,
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but it's unexpected results like this that make
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bio-prospecting so exciting and worthwhile.
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It frees us from the constraints
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of our imagination.
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Now I'm going to mark on
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the toughness values for nylon fiber,
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bombyx -- or domesticated silkworm silk --
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wool, Kevlar, and carbon fibers.
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And what you can see is that nearly
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all the spider draglines surpass them.
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It's the combination of strength, extensibility
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and toughness that makes spider silk so
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special, and that has attracted the attention
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of biomimeticists, so people that turn
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to nature to try to find new solutions.
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And the strength, extensibility and toughness
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of spider silks combined with the fact that
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silks do not elicit an immune response,
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have attracted a lot of interest in the use
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of spider silks in biomedical applications,
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for example, as a component of
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artificial tendons, for serving as
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guides to regrow nerves, and for
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scaffolds for tissue growth.
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Spider silks also have a lot of potential
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for their anti-ballistic capabilities.
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Silks could be incorporated into body
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and equipment armor that would be more
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lightweight and flexible
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than any armor available today.
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In addition to these biomimetic
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applications of spider silks,
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personally, I find studying spider silks
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just fascinating in and of itself.
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I love when I'm in the laboratory,
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a new spider silk sequence comes in.
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That's just the best. (Laughter)
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It's like the spiders are sharing
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an ancient secret with me, and that's why
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I'm going to spend the rest of my life
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studying spider silk.
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The next time you see a spider web,
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please, pause and look a little closer.
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You'll be seeing one of the most
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high-performance materials known to man.
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To borrow from the writings
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of a spider named Charlotte,
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silk is terrific.
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Thank you. (Applause)
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(Applause)
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