Steven Pinker and Rebecca Newberger Goldstein: The long reach of reason

153,793 views ・ 2014-03-17

TED


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00:13
["Rebecca Newberger Goldstein"]
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["Steven Pinker"]
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["The Long Reach of Reason"]
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Cabbie: Twenty-two dollars. Steven Pinker: Okay.
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Rebecca Newberger Goldstein: Reason appears to have fallen on hard times:
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Popular culture plumbs new depths of dumbth
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and political discourse has become a race
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to the bottom.
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We're living in an era of scientific creationism,
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9/11 conspiracy theories, psychic hotlines,
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and a resurgence of religious fundamentalism.
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People who think too well
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are often accused of elitism,
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and even in the academy,
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there are attacks on logocentrism,
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the crime of letting logic dominate our thinking.
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SP: But is this necessarily a bad thing?
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Perhaps reason is overrated.
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Many pundits have argued that a good heart
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and steadfast moral clarity
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are superior to triangulations of overeducated policy wonks,
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like the best and brightest and that dragged us
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into the quagmire of Vietnam.
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And wasn't it reason that gave us the means
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to despoil the planet
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and threaten our species with weapons of mass destruction?
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In this way of thinking, it's character and conscience,
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not cold-hearted calculation, that will save us.
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Besides, a human being is not a brain on a stick.
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My fellow psychologists have shown that we're led
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by our bodies and our emotions
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and use our puny powers of reason
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merely to rationalize our gut feelings after the fact.
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RNG: How could a reasoned argument logically entail
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the ineffectiveness of reasoned arguments?
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Look, you're trying to persuade us of reason's impotence.
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You're not threatening us or bribing us,
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suggesting that we resolve the issue
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with a show of hands or a beauty contest.
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By the very act of trying to reason us into your position,
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you're conceding reason's potency.
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Reason isn't up for grabs here. It can't be.
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You show up for that debate
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and you've already lost it.
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SP: But can reason lead us in directions
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that are good or decent or moral?
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After all, you pointed out that reason
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is just a means to an end,
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and the end depends on the reasoner's passions.
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Reason can lay out a road map to peace and harmony
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if the reasoner wants peace and harmony,
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but it can also lay out a road map to conflict and strife
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if the reasoner delights in conflict and strife.
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Can reason force the reasoner to want
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less cruelty and waste?
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RNG: All on its own, the answer is no,
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but it doesn't take much to switch it to yes.
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You need two conditions:
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The first is that reasoners all care
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about their own well-being.
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That's one of the passions that has to be present
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in order for reason to go to work,
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and it's obviously present in all of us.
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We all care passionately
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about our own well-being.
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The second condition is that reasoners
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are members of a community of reasoners
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who can affect one another's well-being,
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can exchange messages,
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and comprehend each other's reasoning.
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And that's certainly true of our gregarious
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and loquatious species,
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well endowed with the instinct for language.
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SP: Well, that sounds good in theory,
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but has it worked that way in practice?
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In particular, can it explain
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a momentous historical development
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that I spoke about five years ago here at TED?
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Namely, we seem to be getting more humane.
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Centuries ago, our ancestors would burn cats alive
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as a form of popular entertainment.
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Knights waged constant war on each other
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by trying to kill as many of each other's peasants as possible.
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Governments executed people for frivolous reasons,
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like stealing a cabbage
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or criticizing the royal garden.
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The executions were designed to be as prolonged
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and as painful as possible, like crucifixion,
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disembowelment, breaking on the wheel.
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Respectable people kept slaves.
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For all our flaws, we have abandoned
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these barbaric practices.
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RNG: So, do you think it's human nature that's changed?
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SP: Not exactly. I think we still harbor instincts
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that can erupt in violence,
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like greed, tribalism, revenge, dominance, sadism.
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But we also have instincts that can steer us away,
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like self-control, empathy, a sense of fairness,
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what Abraham Lincoln called
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the better angels of our nature.
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RNG: So if human nature didn't change,
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what invigorated those better angels?
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SP: Well, among other things,
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our circle of empathy expanded.
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Years ago, our ancestors would feel the pain
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only of their family and people in their village.
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But with the expansion of literacy and travel,
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people started to sympathize
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with wider and wider circles,
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the clan, the tribe, the nation, the race,
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and perhaps eventually, all of humanity.
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RNG: Can hard-headed scientists
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really give so much credit to soft-hearted empathy?
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SP: They can and do.
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Neurophysiologists have found neurons in the brain
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that respond to other people's actions
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the same way they respond to our own.
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Empathy emerges early in life,
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perhaps before the age of one.
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Books on empathy have become bestsellers,
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like "The Empathic Civilization"
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and "The Age of Empathy."
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RNG: I'm all for empathy. I mean, who isn't?
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But all on its own, it's a feeble instrument
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for making moral progress.
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For one thing, it's innately biased
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toward blood relations, babies
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and warm, fuzzy animals.
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As far as empathy is concerned,
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ugly outsiders can go to hell.
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And even our best attempts to work up sympathy
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for those who are unconnected with us
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fall miserably short, a sad truth about human nature
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that was pointed out by Adam Smith.
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Adam Smith: Let us suppose that the great empire
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of China was suddenly swallowed up by an earthquake,
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and let us consider how a man of humanity in Europe
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would react on receiving intelligence
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of this dreadful calamity.
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He would, I imagine, first of all express very strongly
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his sorrow for the misfortune of that unhappy people.
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He would make many melancholy reflections
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upon the precariousness of human life,
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and when all these humane sentiments
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had been once fairly expressed,
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he would pursue his business or his pleasure
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with the same ease and tranquility
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as if no such accident had happened.
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If he was to lose his little finger tomorrow,
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he would not sleep tonight,
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but provided he never saw them,
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he would snore with the most profound security
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over the ruin of a hundred million of his brethren.
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SP: But if empathy wasn't enough to make us more humane,
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what else was there?
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RNG: Well, you didn't mention what might be
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one of our most effective better angels: reason.
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Reason has muscle.
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It's reason that provides the push to widen
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that circle of empathy.
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Every one of the humanitarian developments
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that you mentioned originated with thinkers
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who gave reasons for why some practice
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was indefensible.
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They demonstrated that the way people treated
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some particular group of others
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was logically inconsistent
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with the way they insisted on being treated themselves.
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SP: Are you saying that reason
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can actually change people's minds?
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Don't people just stick with whatever conviction
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serves their interests
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or conforms to the culture that they grew up in?
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RNG: Here's a fascinating fact about us:
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Contradictions bother us,
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at least when we're forced to confront them,
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which is just another way of saying
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that we are susceptible to reason.
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And if you look at the history of moral progress,
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you can trace a direct pathway from reasoned arguments
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to changes in the way that we actually feel.
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Time and again, a thinker would lay out an argument
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as to why some practice was indefensible,
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irrational, inconsistent with values already held.
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Their essay would go viral,
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get translated into many languages,
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get debated at pubs and coffee houses and salons,
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and at dinner parties,
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and influence leaders, legislators,
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popular opinion.
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Eventually their conclusions get absorbed
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into the common sense of decency,
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erasing the tracks of the original argument
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that had gotten us there.
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Few of us today feel any need to put forth
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a rigorous philosophical argument
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as to why slavery is wrong
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or public hangings or beating children.
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By now, these things just feel wrong.
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But just those arguments had to be made,
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and they were, in centuries past.
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SP: Are you saying that people needed
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a step-by-step argument to grasp
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why something might be a wee bit wrong
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with burning heretics at the stake?
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RNG: Oh, they did. Here's the French theologian
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Sebastian Castellio making the case.
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Sebastian Castellio: Calvin says that he's certain,
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and other sects say that they are.
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Who shall be judge?
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If the matter is certain, to whom is it so? To Calvin?
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But then, why does he write so many books about manifest truth?
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In view of the uncertainty, we must define heretics
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simply as one with whom we disagree.
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And if then we are going to kill heretics,
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the logical outcome will be a war of extermination,
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since each is sure of himself.
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SP: Or with hideous punishments
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like breaking on the wheel?
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RNG: The prohibition in our constitution
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of cruel and unusual punishments
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was a response to a pamphlet circulated in 1764
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by the Italian jurist Cesare Beccaria.
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Cesare Beccaria: As punishments become more cruel,
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the minds of men, which like fluids
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always adjust to the level of the objects
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that surround them, become hardened,
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and after a hundred years of cruel punishments,
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breaking on the wheel causes no more fear
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than imprisonment previously did.
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For a punishment to achieve its objective,
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it is only necessary that the harm that it inflicts
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outweighs the benefit that derives from the crime,
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and into this calculation ought to be factored
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the certainty of punishment
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and the loss of the good
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that the commission of the crime will produce.
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Everything beyond this is superfluous,
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and therefore tyrannical.
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SP: But surely antiwar movements depended
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on mass demonstrations
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and catchy tunes by folk singers
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and wrenching photographs of the human costs of war.
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RNG: No doubt, but modern anti-war movements
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reach back to a long chain of thinkers
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who had argued as to why we ought to mobilize
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our emotions against war,
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such as the father of modernity, Erasmus.
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Erasmus: The advantages derived from peace
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diffuse themselves far and wide,
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and reach great numbers,
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while in war, if anything turns out happily,
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the advantage redounds only to a few,
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and those unworthy of reaping it.
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One man's safety is owing to the destruction of another.
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One man's prize is derived from the plunder of another.
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The cause of rejoicings made by one side
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is to the other a cause of mourning.
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Whatever is unfortunate in war,
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is severely so indeed,
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and whatever, on the contrary,
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is called good fortune,
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is a savage and a cruel good fortune,
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an ungenerous happiness deriving its existence from another's woe.
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SP: But everyone knows that the movement
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to abolish slavery depended on faith and emotion.
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It was a movement spearheaded by the Quakers,
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and it only became popular when Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel
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"Uncle Tom's Cabin" became a bestseller.
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RNG: But the ball got rolling a century before.
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John Locke bucked the tide of millennia
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that had regarded the practice as perfectly natural.
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He argued that it was inconsistent
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with the principles of rational government.
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John Locke: Freedom of men under government
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is to have a standing rule to live by
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common to everyone of that society
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and made by the legislative power erected in it,
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a liberty to follow my own will in all things
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where that rule prescribes not,
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not to be subject to the inconstant,
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uncertain, unknown, arbitrary will of another man,
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as freedom of nature is to be under no other restraint
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but the law of nature.
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SP: Those words sound familiar.
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Where have I read them before? Ah, yes.
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Mary Astell: If absolute sovereignty be not necessary
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in a state, how comes it to be so in a family?
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Or if in a family, why not in a state?
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Since no reason can be alleged for the one
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that will not hold more strongly for the other,
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if all men are born free,
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how is it that all women are born slaves,
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as they must be if being subjected
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to the inconstant, uncertain,
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unknown, arbitrary will of men
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be the perfect condition of slavery?
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RNG: That sort of co-option
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is all in the job description of reason.
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One movement for the expansion of rights
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inspires another because the logic is the same,
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and once that's hammered home,
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it becomes increasingly uncomfortable
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to ignore the inconsistency.
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In the 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement
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inspired the movements for women's rights,
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children's rights, gay rights and even animal rights.
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But fully two centuries before,
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the Enlightenment thinker Jeremy Bentham
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had exposed the indefensibility
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of customary practices such as
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the cruelty to animals.
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Jeremy Bentham: The question is not, can they reason,
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nor can they talk, but can they suffer?
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RNG: And the persecution of homosexuals.
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JB: As to any primary mischief,
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it's evident that it produces no pain in anyone.
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On the contrary, it produces pleasure.
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The partners are both willing.
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If either of them be unwilling,
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the act is an offense,
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totally different in its nature of effects.
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It's a personal injury. It's a kind of rape.
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As to the any danger exclusive of pain,
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the danger, if any, much consist
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in the tendency of the example.
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But what is the tendency of this example?
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To dispose others to engage in the same practices.
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But this practice produces not pain of any kind
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to anyone.
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SP: Still, in every case, it took at least a century
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for the arguments of these great thinkers
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to trickle down and infiltrate the population as a whole.
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It kind of makes you wonder about our own time.
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Are there practices that we engage in
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where the arguments against them are there for all to see
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but nonetheless we persist in them?
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RNG: When our great grandchildren look back at us,
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will they be as appalled by some of our practices
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as we are by our slave-owning, heretic-burning,
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wife-beating, gay-bashing ancestors?
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SP: I'm sure everyone here could think of an example.
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RNG: I opt for the mistreatment of animals
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in factory farms.
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SP: The imprisonment of nonviolent drug offenders
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and the toleration of rape in our nation's prisons.
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RNG: Scrimping on donations to life-saving charities
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in the developing world.
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SP: The possession of nuclear weapons.
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RNG: The appeal to religion to justify
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the otherwise unjustifiable,
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such as the ban on contraception.
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SP: What about religious faith in general?
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RNG: Eh, I'm not holding my breath.
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SP: Still, I have become convinced
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that reason is a better angel
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that deserves the greatest credit
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for the moral progress our species has enjoyed
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and that holds out the greatest hope
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for continuing moral progress in the future.
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RNG: And if, our friends,
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you detect a flaw in this argument,
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just remember you'll be depending on reason
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to point it out.
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Thank you. SP: Thank you.
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(Applause)
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