Penelope Boston: Life on Mars? Let's look in the caves

55,485 views ใƒป 2008-12-19

TED


ูŠุฑุฌู‰ ุงู„ู†ู‚ุฑ ู†ู‚ุฑู‹ุง ู…ุฒุฏูˆุฌู‹ุง ููˆู‚ ุงู„ุชุฑุฌู…ุฉ ุงู„ุฅู†ุฌู„ูŠุฒูŠุฉ ุฃุฏู†ุงู‡ ู„ุชุดุบูŠู„ ุงู„ููŠุฏูŠูˆ.

ุงู„ู…ุชุฑุฌู…: Tofig Ahmed ุงู„ู…ุฏู‚ู‘ู‚: Faisal Jeber
00:18
The career that I started early on in my life
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ุงู„ู…ู‡ู†ุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุฅู…ุชู‡ู†ุชู‡ุง ู…ู†ุฐ ูุชุฑุฉู ุทูˆูŠู„ุฉู ู…ู† ุญูŠุงุชูŠ
00:21
was looking for exotic life forms in exotic places,
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ูƒุงู†ุช ุงู„ุจุญุซ ุนู† ุฃุดูƒุงู„ ุบุฑูŠุจุฉ ู…ู† ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ููŠ ุฃู…ุงูƒู† ุบุฑูŠุจุฉ ุŒ
00:25
and at that time I was working in the Antarctic and the Arctic,
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ูˆููŠ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ูˆู‚ุช ูƒู†ุช ุฃุนู…ู„ ููŠ ุงู„ู‚ุทุจูŠู† ุงู„ุฌู†ูˆุจูŠ ูˆุงู„ุดู…ุงู„ูŠ ุŒ
00:28
and high deserts and low deserts.
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ูˆููŠ ุงู„ุตุญุงุฑูŠ ุงู„ู…ุฑุชูุนุฉ ูˆุงู„ู…ู†ุฎูุถุฉ.
00:30
Until about a dozen years ago, when I was really captured by caves,
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ุญู†ู‰ ู‚ุจู„ 12 ุณู†ุฉู ุชู‚ุฑูŠุจุง ุŒ ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ุฃุตุจุญุชู ุญู‚ุง ู…ูุชูˆู†ุฉู‹ ุจุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู.
00:33
and I really re-focused most of my research in that direction.
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ูˆุจุงู„ูุนู„ ุฃุตุจุญุช ุฃุฑูƒุฒ ุฃุบู„ุจ ุจุญูˆุซูŠ ููŠ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฅุชุฌุงู‡.
00:37
So I have a really cool day job-- I get to do some really amazing stuff.
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ู„ุฐุง ุฃุตุจุญ ุนู†ุฏูŠ ูˆุธูŠูุฉ ุนู…ู„ู ูŠูˆู…ูŠ ุฑุงุฆุน -- ููƒุงู† ุจุฅู…ูƒุงู†ูŠ ุนู…ู„ ุฃุดูŠุงุก ู…ุฏู‡ุดุฉ.
00:40
I work in some of the most extreme cave environments on the planet.
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ุฅู†ู†ูŠ ุฃุนู…ู„ ููŠ ู…ุฌุงู„ ุจุนุถ ุจูŠุฆุงุช ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู ุงู„ุฃูƒุซุฑ ุชุทุฑู‘ูุงู‹ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ูƒูˆูƒุจ.
00:44
Many of them are trying to kill us from the minute we go into them,
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ูˆุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุจูŠุฆุงุช ุงู„ู…ุชุทุฑูุฉ ุชุญุงูˆู„ ู‚ุชู„ู†ุง ู…ู†ุฐ ุงู„ู„ุญุธุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ุฏุฎู„ ุฅู„ูŠู‡ุง ุŒ
00:46
but nevertheless, they're absolutely gripping,
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ูˆู„ูƒู† ู…ุงุนุฏุง ุฐู„ูƒ ูู‡ูŠ ุฌุฐุงุจุฉ ุฌุฏุงู‹.
00:49
and contain unbelievable biological wonders
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ูˆุชุญุชูˆูŠ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุนุฏูŠุฏ ู…ู† ุงู„ุนุฌุงุฆุจ ุงู„ุบุฑูŠุจุฉ ููŠ ุนู„ู… ุงู„ุฃุญูŠุงุก.
00:51
that are very, very different from those that we have on the planet.
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ูˆู‡ูŠ ู…ุฎุชู„ูุฉูŒ ุฌุฐุฑูŠุงู‹ ุนู† ุงู„ุฃุญูŠุงุก ุงู„ุชูŠ ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ูƒูˆูƒุจ.
00:54
Apart from the intrinsic value
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ูˆุจุนูŠุฏุงู‹ ุนู† ู‚ูŠู…ุชู‡ุง ุงู„ุฌูˆู‡ุฑูŠุฉ
00:56
of the biology and mineralogy and geo-microbiology that we do there,
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ู„ุนู„ู… ุงู„ุฃุญูŠุงุก ูˆุนู„ู… ุงู„ู…ุนุงุฏู† ูˆุนู„ู… ุฌุบุฑุงููŠุง ุงู„ุฃุญูŠุงุก ุงู„ุฏู‚ูŠู‚ุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ุฏุฑุณู‡ุง ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุŒ
00:59
we're also using these as templates
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ูู†ุญู† ู†ุณุชุฎุฏู…ู‡ุง ูƒู†ู…ุงุฐุฌ
01:01
for figuring out how to go look
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ู„ู…ุนุฑูุฉ ูƒูŠููŠุฉ ุงู„ุจุญุซ
01:03
for life on other planets.
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ุนู† ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ููŠ ูƒูˆุงูƒุจ ุฃุฎุฑู‰.
01:05
Particularly Mars, but also Europa,
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ูˆุฎุงุตุฉู‹ ูƒูˆูƒุจ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ุŒ ูˆุจุงู„ุทุจุน ุฃูŠุถุงู‹ ููŠ ูŠูˆุฑูˆุจุง ุŒ
01:07
the small, icy moon around Jupiter.
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ุงู„ู‚ู…ุฑ ุงู„ุตุบูŠุฑ ุงู„ู…ุชุฌู…ู‘ุฏ ุญูˆู„ ูƒูˆูƒุจ ุงู„ู…ุดุชุฑูŠ.
01:10
And perhaps, someday, far beyond our solar system itself.
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ูˆุฑุจู…ุง ุŒ ููŠ ูŠูˆู…ู ู…ู† ุงู„ุฃูŠุงู… ุŒ ุฎุงุฑุฌ ู†ุธุงู…ู†ุง ุงู„ุดู…ุณูŠ.
01:13
I'm very passionately interested in the human future,
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ุฅู†ู†ูŠ ู…ู‡ุชู…ุฉูŒ ุจุดุบู ููŠ ู…ุณุชู‚ุจู„ ุงู„ุจุดุฑ ุŒ
01:16
on the Moon and Mars particularly,
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ูˆููŠ ุงู„ู‚ู…ุฑ ุŒ ูˆููŠ ูƒูˆูƒุจ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ุฎุงุตุฉู‹ ุŒ
01:18
and elsewhere in the solar system.
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ูˆุฃู…ุงูƒู† ุฃุฎุฑู‰ ุฃูŠุถุงู‹ ููŠ ุงู„ู†ุธุงู… ุงู„ุดู…ุณูŠ.
01:20
I think it's time that we transitioned
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ูˆุฃุนุชู‚ุฏ ุฃู†ู‡ ุญุงู† ุงู„ูˆู‚ุช ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู†ู†ุชู‚ู„ ููŠู‡
01:22
to a solar system-going civilization and species.
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ุฅู„ู‰ ุฃู† ู†ูƒูˆู† ุญุถุงุฑุฉู‹ ูˆูƒุงุฆู†ุงุชู ุชู…ุชุฏ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ู†ุธุงู… ุงู„ุดู…ุณูŠ.
01:25
And, as an outgrowth of all of this then,
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ูˆุฅุฐุง ุญุฏุซ ุฐู„ูƒ
01:28
I wonder about whether we can, and whether we even should,
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ูุณุฃุชุณุงุกู„ ุนู…ู‘ุง ุฅุฐุง ูƒู†ุง ุณู†ุณุชุทูŠุน ุฃูˆ ุฃู†ู‡ ูŠุฌุจ ุนู„ูŠู†ุง
01:31
think about transporting Earth-type life to other planets.
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ุฃู† ู†ู†ู‚ู„ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ู…ู† ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ ุฅู„ู‰ ูƒูˆุงูƒุจ ุฃุฎุฑู‰.
01:35
Notably Mars, as a first example.
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ูˆุฎุงุตุฉู‹ ูƒูˆูƒุจ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ูƒุฃูˆู„ ุชุฌุฑุจุฉ.
01:37
Something I never talk about in scientific meetings
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ูˆู‡ุฐุง ุดูŠุกูŒ ู„ุง ุฃุชุญุฏุซ ุนู†ู‡ ููŠ ุงู„ู„ู‚ุงุกุงุช ุงู„ุนู„ู…ูŠุฉ
01:39
is how I actually got to this state
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ูˆู‡ุฐุง ู…ุง ุฏูุนู†ูŠ ุฅู„ู‰ ู…ุง ุฃู†ุง ุนู„ูŠู‡ ุงู„ุขู†
01:41
and why I do the work that I do.
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ูˆุงู„ุฏุงูุน ุงู„ุฑุฆูŠุณูŠ ู„ุนู…ู„ูŠ.
01:43
Why don't I have a normal job, a sensible job?
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ูู„ู…ุงุฐุง ู„ูŠุณ ู„ุฏูŠ ูˆุธูŠูุฉู‹ ุนุงุฏูŠุฉ ุŒ ูˆุธูŠูุฉู‹ ู…ู‚ุจูˆู„ุฉ ุŸ
01:46
And then of course, I blame the Soviet Union.
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ุจุงู„ุทุจุน ุŒ ุณุฃุถุน ุงู„ู„ูˆู… ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฅุชุญุงุฏ ุงู„ุณูˆููŠุชูŠ.
01:49
Because in the mid-1950s,
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ู„ุฃู†ู‡ ููŠ ู…ู†ุชุตู ุงู„ุฎู…ุณูŠู†ูŠุงุช ุŒ
01:51
when I was a tiny child,
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ูˆุนู†ุฏู…ุง ูƒู†ุช ุทูู„ุฉู‹ ุตุบูŠุฑุฉ ุŒ
01:53
they had the audacity to launch
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ูƒุงู† ู„ู‡ู… ุงู„ุณุจู‚ ููŠ ุฅุทู„ุงู‚
01:55
a very primitive little satellite called Sputnik,
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ู‚ู…ุฑู ุตู†ุงุนูŠ ุจุฏุงุฆูŠ ูŠุฏุนู‰ "ุณุจูˆุชู†ูŠูƒ" ุŒ
01:58
which sent the Western world into a hysterical tailspin.
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ูˆุงู„ุฐูŠ ุฌุนู„ ุงู„ุบุฑุจ ูŠุชุฎุจู‘ุท ููŠ ุฏูˆู‘ุงู…ุฉู ู…ู† ุงู„ุฌู†ูˆู†.
02:02
And a tremendous amount of money
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ูˆุชุฏูู‚ุช ุฃู…ูˆุงู„ ู‡ุงุฆู„ุฉ
02:04
went into the funding of science
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ููŠ ู…ุฌุงู„ ุงู„ุฅู†ูุงู‚ ุงู„ุนู„ู…ูŠ
02:06
and mathematics skills for kids.
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ูˆุชู†ู…ูŠุฉ ุงู„ุฑูŠุงุถูŠุงุช ู„ุฏู‰ ุงู„ุฃุทูุงู„.
02:08
And I'm a product of that generation,
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ูˆูƒู†ุช ู†ุชุงุฌ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฌูŠู„ ุŒ
02:10
like so many other of my peers.
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ูƒูƒุซูŠุฑู ู…ู† ุฑูู‚ุงุฆูŠ.
02:12
It really caught hold of us, and caught fire,
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ุจุงู„ูุนู„ ุฐู„ูƒ ุฃุซุงุฑู†ุง ุŒ ูˆุฃุดุนู„ ุงู„ูุชูŠู„ ููŠ ู‚ู„ูˆุจู†ุง ุŒ
02:14
and it would be lovely if we could reproduce that again now.
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ูˆุณูŠูƒูˆู† ุฐู„ูƒ ุฌูŠุฏุงู‹ ู„ูˆ ู†ุชู…ูƒู† ู…ู† ุนู…ู„ ุฐู„ูƒ ู…ุฑุฉู‹ ุฃุฎุฑู‰ ุงู„ุขู†.
02:17
Of course, refusing to grow up --
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ูˆุจุงู„ุทุจุน ุŒ ู„ุง ุฃุฒุงู„ ุฃุชุตุฑู ูƒุทูู„ุฉ --
02:19
-- even though I impersonate a grown-up in daily life,
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-- ุจุงู„ุฑุบู… ู…ู† ุฃู†ู†ูŠ ุฃุญุงูˆู„ ุงู„ุชุตุฑู ูƒุงู„ุจุงู„ุบูŠู† ููŠ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ุงู„ูŠูˆู…ูŠุฉ ุŒ
02:22
but I do a fairly good job of that --
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ุฅู„ู‘ุง ุฃู†ู†ูŠ ุฃูุฌูŠุฏ ุนู…ู„ ุฐู„ูƒ ุฌูŠุฏุงู‹ --
02:24
but really retaining that childlike quality
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ูˆู„ูƒู† ุงู„ุญูุงุธ ุนู„ู‰ ุดุฎุตูŠุฉ ุงู„ุทูู„ุฉ ุชู„ูƒ
02:26
of not caring what other people think
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ุงู„ุชูŠ ู„ุง ุชู‡ุชู… ุจู…ุง ูŠู‚ูˆู„ู‡ ุงู„ู†ุงุณ
02:28
about what you're interested in, is really critical.
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ุนู† ุงู„ุฃุนู…ุงู„ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุฃู‚ูˆู… ุจู‡ุง ููŠ ุนู…ู„ูŠ ุŒ ุจุงู„ูุนู„ ุดูŠุก ุถุฑูˆุฑูŠ.
02:31
The next element is the fact that
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ูˆุงู„ุนู†ุตุฑ ุงู„ุขุฎุฑ ู‡ูˆ ุญู‚ูŠู‚ุฉ
02:33
I have applied a value judgment
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ุฃู†ู†ูŠ ุฃุญูƒู… ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก ุจู‚ูŠู…ุชู‡ุง
02:35
and my value judgment is that the presence of life
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ูˆู‚ูŠู…ุฉ ุนู…ู„ูŠ ู‡ูŠ ุญู‚ูŠู‚ุฉ ุฃู† ูˆุฌูˆุฏ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ
02:37
is better than no life.
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ุฃูุถู„ ู…ู† ุนุฏู… ูˆุฌูˆุฏู‡ุง.
02:39
And so, life is more valuable than no life.
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ูุฅู† ูˆุฌูˆุฏ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ู„ู‡ ู‚ูŠู…ุฉูŒ ุฃูƒุจุฑ ู…ู† ุนุฏู…ู‡.
02:41
And so I think that that holds together
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ูˆู‡ุฐุง ู…ุง ุฃุนุชู‚ุฏ ุฃู†ู‡ ุงู„ุฃุณุงุณ ู„ุนู…ู„ูŠ
02:44
a great deal of the work
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ูˆุฃุณุงุณ ู‚ุฏุฑ ูƒุจูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุนู…ู„
02:46
that people in this audience approach.
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ุงู„ุฐูŠ ูŠู‚ูˆู… ุจู‡ ู‚ุฏุฑ ูƒุจูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุจูŠู† ุงู„ู…ุชูˆุงุฌุฏูŠู† ู‡ู†ุง.
02:50
I'm very interested in Mars, of course,
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ุฅู†ู†ูŠ ู…ู‡ุชู…ุฉูŒ ุฌุฏุงู‹ ุจูƒูˆูƒุจ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ุŒ ุจุงู„ุทุจุน ุŒ
02:53
and that was a product of my being a young undergraduate
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ูˆูƒุงู† ุฐู„ูƒ ู†ุชุงุฌ ูƒูˆู†ูŠ ุดุงุจุฉ ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุฑุญู„ุฉ ุงู„ุฌุงู…ุนูŠุฉ
02:57
when the Viking Landers landed on Mars.
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ูˆุนู†ุฏู…ุง ู‡ุจุทุช ู…ุฑูƒุจุฉ ุงู„ู€ " ูุงูŠูƒูŠู†ุบ ู„ุงู†ุฏุฑุฒ" ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ
03:00
And that took what had been
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ููŠ ุฃุซู†ุงุก ุฐู„ูƒ ุชุญูˆู‘ู„ ุฐู„ูƒ
03:02
a tiny little astronomical object in the sky,
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ุงู„ุฌุฑู… ุงู„ูู„ูƒูŠ ุงู„ุตุบูŠุฑ ููŠ ุงู„ุณู…ุงุก ุŒ
03:05
that you would see as a dot,
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ูˆุงู„ุฐูŠ ูƒุงู† ุจุฅู…ูƒุงู†ู†ุง ุฑุคูŠุชู‡ ูƒู†ู‚ุทุฉู ููŠ ุงู„ุณู…ุงุก ุŒ
03:07
and turned it completely into a landscape,
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ุฅู„ู‰ ู…ุดู‡ุฏู ุทุจูŠุนูŠ ู…ุชูƒุงู…ู„ ุŒ
03:11
as that very first primitive picture
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ุจู…ุฌุฑุฏ ูˆุตูˆู„ ุงู„ุตูˆุฑ ุงู„ู†ู‚ุทูŠุฉ
03:13
came rastering across the screen.
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ุงู„ุฃูˆู„ูŠุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุดุงุดุฉ.
03:15
And when it became a landscape,
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ูˆุนู†ุฏู…ุง ุธู‡ุฑ ุงู„ู…ุดู‡ุฏ ุŒ
03:17
it also became a destination,
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ุฃุตุจุญ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ูƒูˆูƒุจ ูˆุฌู‡ุฉู‹ ุฌุฏูŠุฏุฉ ุŒ
03:19
and altered, really, the course of my life.
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ูˆุบูŠู‘ุฑ ุŒ ุจุงู„ูุนู„ ุŒ ู…ุณุงุฑ ุญูŠุงุชูŠ.
03:23
In my graduate years I worked with
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ูˆููŠ ุงู„ุณู†ูˆุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชู„ุช ุชุฎุฑุฌูŠ ุนู…ู„ุช
03:25
my colleague and mentor and friend, Steve Schneider,
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ู…ุน ุฒู…ูŠู„ูŠ ูˆู…ุนู„ู…ูŠ ูˆุตุฏูŠู‚ูŠ ุŒ ุณุชูŠู ุดู†ุงูŠุฏุฑ ุŒ
03:27
at the National Center for Atmospheric Research,
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ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุฑูƒุฒ ุงู„ูˆุทู†ูŠ ู„ุฃุจุญุงุซ ุงู„ูู„ูƒ ุŒ
03:29
working on global change issues.
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ูˆุนู…ู„ู†ุง ููŠ ุฃุจุญุงุซ ู…ุดุงูƒู„ ุงู„ุชุบูŠุฑ ุงู„ู…ู†ุงุฎูŠ.
03:32
We've written a number of things on
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ูˆูƒุชุจู†ุง ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ุนู†
03:34
the role of Gaia hypothesis --
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ูุฑุถูŠุงุช "ุบุงูŠุง" --
03:35
whether or not you could consider Earth as a single entity
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ุชูุชุฑุถ ุฃู†ู‡ ูŠุฌุจ ุงู„ู†ุธุฑ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ ูˆ ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ูƒูˆุญุฏุฉู ู…ุชูƒุงู…ู„ุฉ ู…ุน ุจุนุถู‡ุง
03:38
in any meaningful scientific sense,
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ู„ุฅูŠุฌุงุฏ ุชูุณูŠุฑู ู…ู†ุทู‚ูŠ ูˆ ุนู„ู…ูŠ ู„ู‡ุง ุŒ
03:40
and then, as an outgrowth of that,
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ูˆู…ู† ุซู… ุŒ ูˆูƒุชูƒู…ู„ุฉ ู„ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฏุฑุงุณุงุช ุŒ
03:42
I worked on the environmental consequences of nuclear war.
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ุนู…ู„ุช ููŠ ุฃุจุญุงุซ ุงู„ุฃุถุฑุงุฑ ุงู„ุจูŠุฆูŠุฉ ุงู„ู†ุงุชุฌุฉ ุนู† ุญุฑูˆุจ ู†ูˆูˆูŠุฉ.
03:46
So, wonderful things and grim things.
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ุฅุฐุงู‹ ุŒ ุฃุจุญุงุซ ุฑุงุฆุนุฉ ุŒ ูˆุฃุจุญุงุซ ู…ุฑุนุจุฉ.
03:48
But what it taught me was to look at Earth as a planet
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ูˆู„ูƒู†ู‡ุง ุนู„ู…ุชู†ูŠ ุงู„ู†ุธุฑ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ ูƒูƒูˆูƒุจ
03:51
with external eyes, not just as our home.
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ุจุนูŠู†ู ุฎุงุฑุฌูŠุฉ ุŒ ู„ูŠุณ ูƒุงู„ุฃุฑุถ ุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ุนูŠุด ุจู‡ุง.
03:54
And that is a wonderful stepping away in perspective,
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ูˆุฐู„ูƒ ู…ู†ุธูˆุฑูŒ ู…ุฎุชู„ููŒ ูˆ ุฑุงุฆุน
03:58
to try to then think about the way
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ู„ู„ู†ุธุฑ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุทุฑูŠู‚ุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ
04:00
our planet behaves, as a planet,
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ุชุชุบูŠุฑ ููŠู‡ุง ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ ุŒ ูƒูƒูˆูƒุจ ุŒ
04:03
and with the life that's on it.
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ูˆุจูƒู„ ุฃุดูƒุงู„ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุนู„ูŠู‡ุง.
04:05
And all of this seems to me to be
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ูˆูƒู„ ู‡ุฐุง ูŠุจุฏูˆุง ู„ูŠ
04:08
a salient point in history.
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ูƒู†ู‚ุทุฉ ุชุญูˆู„ู ููŠ ุงู„ุชุงุฑูŠุฎ.
04:10
We're getting ready to begin to go
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ุฅู†ู†ุง ู†ุตุจุญ ู…ุณุชุนุฏูŠู† ุฃูƒุซุฑ
04:12
through the process of leaving our planet of origin
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ู„ุจุฏุงูŠุฉ ู…ุดูˆุงุฑู†ุง ููŠ ู…ุบุงุฏุฑุฉ ูƒูˆูƒุจู†ุง ุงู„ุฃุตู„ูŠ
04:15
and out into the wider solar system and beyond.
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ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฌู…ูˆุนุฉ ุงู„ุดู…ุณูŠุฉ ุงู„ุฃูˆุณุน ูˆู…ุง ุจุนุฏู‡ุง.
04:19
So, back to Mars.
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ุฅุฐุง ุŒ ู„ู†ุนูˆุฏ ุฅู„ู‰ ูƒูˆูƒุจ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ.
04:21
How hard is it going to be to find life on Mars?
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ูƒู… ู…ู† ุงู„ุตุนุจ ุณูŠูƒูˆู† ุฅูƒุชุดุงู ุญูŠุงุฉู ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ุŸ
04:23
Well, sometimes it's really very hard for us to find each other,
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ุญุณู†ุงู‹ ุŒ ุฃุญูŠุงู†ุงู‹ ูŠูƒูˆู† ู…ู† ุงู„ุตุนุจ ุนู„ูŠู†ุง ุฅูŠุฌุงุฏ ุจุนุถู†ุง ุŒ
04:25
even on this planet.
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ุญุชู‰ ููŠ ูƒูˆูƒุจู†ุง ู‡ุฐุง.
04:27
So, finding life on another planet
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ุฅูŠุฌุงุฏ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ูƒูˆูƒุจู ุขุฎุฑ
04:29
is a non-trivial occupation
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ู„ูŠุณุช ู…ู‡ู…ุฉู‹ ุณู‡ู„ุฉ
04:31
and we spend a lot of time trying to think about that.
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ูˆู†ู…ุถูŠ ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ูˆู‚ุช ููŠ ุงู„ุชููƒูŠุฑ ููŠ ุฐู„ูƒ.
04:34
Whether or not you think it's likely to be successful
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ูˆุฅุนุชู‚ุงุฏู†ุง ุจู†ุฌุงุญ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ู…ู‡ู…ุฉ ู…ู† ุนุฏู…ู‡ุง
04:36
sort of depends on what you think about
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ูŠุนุชู…ุฏ ู†ูˆุนุงู‹ ู…ุง ุนู„ู‰ ู…ุฏู‰ ุฅูŠู…ุงู†ู†ุง
04:38
the chances of life in the universe.
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ุจูˆุฌูˆุฏ ูุฑุต ู„ู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ุจุดูƒู„ ุนุงู… ููŠ ุงู„ูƒูˆู†.
04:40
I think, myself,
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ูˆุฃู†ุง ุดุฎุตูŠุงู‹ ุŒ ุฃุนุชู‚ุฏ ุŒ
04:42
that life is a natural outgrowth
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ุฃู† ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ู†ุชุงุฌ ู†ู…ูˆู ุทุจูŠุนูŠ
04:45
of the increasing complexification of matter over time.
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ู…ู† ุงู„ุชุนู‚ูŠุฏ ุงู„ู…ุชุฒุงูŠุฏ ู„ุชูุงุนู„ ุงู„ู…ุงุฏุฉ ุจู…ุฑูˆุฑ ุงู„ุฒู…ู†.
04:48
So, you start with the Big Bang and you get hydrogen,
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ุจุฏุฃู†ุง ุจุงู„ุฅู†ูุฌุงุฑ ุงู„ุนุธูŠู… ูˆุญุตู„ู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู† ุŒ
04:50
and then you get helium, and then you get more complicated stuff,
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ุซู… ุญุตู„ู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู‡ูŠู„ูŠูˆู… ุŒ ูˆ ู…ู† ุซู… ุนู„ู‰ ุฃุดูŠุงุก ู…ุนู‚ุฏุฉ ุฃูƒุซุฑ ุŒ
04:52
and you get planets forming --
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ูˆู…ู† ุซู… ุชุดูƒู„ุช ุงู„ูƒูˆุงูƒุจ --
04:54
and life is a common, planetary-based phenomenon, in my view.
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ูˆุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ุดูŠุก ู…ุดุชุฑูƒ ุŒ ุธุงู‡ุฑุฉ ู…ุดุชุฑูƒุฉูŒ ุจูŠู† ุงู„ูƒูˆุงูƒุจ ุŒ ููŠ ุฑุฃูŠูŠ ุงู„ุดุฎุตูŠ.
04:58
Certainly, in the last 15 years,
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ุจุงู„ุชุฃูƒูŠุฏ ุŒ ููŠ ุขุฎุฑ 15 ุณู†ุฉ ุŒ
05:00
we've seen increasing numbers of planets
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ุดุงู‡ุฏู†ุง ุฃุนุฏุงุฏุงู‹ ู…ุชุฒุงูŠุฏุฉ ู…ู† ุงู„ูƒูˆุงูƒุจ
05:03
outside of our solar system being confirmed,
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ุฎุงุฑุฌ ู†ุธุงู…ู†ุง ุงู„ุดู…ุณูŠ ุŒ
05:06
and just last month, a couple of weeks ago,
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ูˆููŠ ุขุฎุฑ ุดู‡ุฑ ุŒ ู‚ุจู„ ุจุถุนุฉ ุฃุณุงุจูŠุน ุŒ
05:09
a planet in the size-class of Earth
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ุชู… ุงูƒุชุดุงู ูƒูˆูƒุจ
05:11
has actually been found.
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ููŠ ุญุฌู… ูƒูˆูƒุจ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ.
05:13
And so this is very exciting news.
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ูˆู‡ุฐุง ุดูŠุกูŒ ู…ุซูŠุฑูŒ ู„ู„ุฅู‡ุชู…ุงู… ุฌุฏุงู‹.
05:15
So, my first bold prediction is that,
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ุฃูˆู„ ุชู†ุจุค ุณุฃู‚ูˆู… ุจู‡ ุŒ
05:17
is that in the universe, life is going to be everywhere.
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ู‡ูˆ ุฃู† ููŠ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูƒูˆู† ุŒ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ู…ูˆุฌูˆุฏุฉูŒ ููŠู‡ ููŠ ูƒู„ ู…ูƒุงู†.
05:20
It's going to be everywhere we look --
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ูˆุณุชูƒูˆู† ููŠ ูƒู„ ุฒุงูˆูŠุฉู ู†ู†ุธุฑ ุฅู„ูŠู‡ุง --
05:22
where there are planetary systems that can possibly support it.
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ุญูŠุซ ุชูƒูˆู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ูƒูˆุงูƒุจ ู‚ุฏ ุชูˆูุฑ ุงู„ุธุฑูˆู ุงู„ู…ู„ุงุฆู…ุฉ.
05:25
And those planetary systems are going to be very common.
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ูˆุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ูƒูˆุงูƒุจ ุงู„ู…ู„ุงุฆู…ุฉ ุณุชูƒูˆู† ู…ู†ุชุดุฑุฉู‹ ููŠ ูƒู„ ู…ูƒุงู†.
05:28
So, what about life on Mars?
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ู…ุงุฐุง ุนู† ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ุŸ
05:30
Well, if somebody had asked me about a dozen years ago
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ุญุณู†ุงู‹ ุŒ ู„ูˆ ุฃู† ุฃุญุฏุงู‹ ู…ุง ุณุฃู„ู†ูŠ ู‚ุจู„ ุนุดุฑ ุณู†ูŠู†
05:32
what I thought the chances of life on Mars would be,
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ุนู† ู…ุฏู‰ ูุฑุต ูˆุฌูˆุฏ ุญูŠุงุฉู ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ุŒ
05:35
I would've probably said, a couple of percent.
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ู„ุฑุจู…ุง ุฃุฌุจุช ุŒ ุจู†ุณุจุฉู 2 ุจุงู„ู…ุงุฆุฉ.
05:38
And even that was considered outrageous at the time.
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ูˆุญุชู‰ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ู†ุณุจุฉ ุงู„ุจุณูŠุทุฉ ูƒุงู†ุช ุชุนุชุจุฑ ุบูŠุฑ ู…ู‚ุจูˆู„ุฉ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฃูŠุงู….
05:41
I was once sneeringly introduced
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ุฐุงุช ู…ุฑุฉ ุนุฑู‘ูู†ูŠ ุฃุญุฏ ู…ูˆุธููŠ ู†ุงุณุง
05:43
by a former NASA official,
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ุจุดูŠุฆ ู…ู† ุงู„ุชู‚ู„ูŠู„ ุจู‚ูˆู„ู‡ ุŒ
05:45
as the only person on the planet
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ุฃู†ู†ูŠ ุงู„ุดุฎุต ุงู„ูˆุญูŠุฏ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ
05:47
who still thought there was life on Mars.
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ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู„ุงูŠุฒุงู„ ูŠุนุชู‚ุฏ ุจูˆุฌูˆุฏ ุญูŠุงุฉู ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ.
05:49
Of course, that official is now dead, and I'm not,
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ูˆุจุงู„ุทุจุน ุŒ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ู…ูˆุธู ู‚ุฏ ู…ุงุช ุงู„ุงู† ุŒ ู„ูƒู†ู†ูŠ ู„ุง ุฃุฒุงู„ ุญูŠุฉู‹ ุŒ
05:51
so there's a certain amount of glory
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ู„ุฐุง ุจุงู„ุชุฃูƒูŠุฏ ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ู†ูˆุน ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุฌุฏ
05:54
in outliving your adversaries.
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ููŠ ุงุณุชู…ุฑุงุฑูƒ ู…ุน ุบูŠุงุจ ุฎุตูˆู…ูƒ.
05:56
But things have changed greatly
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ูˆู„ูƒู† ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก ุชุบูŠุฑุช ูƒุซูŠุฑุงู‹
05:58
over the last dozen years.
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ููŠ ุงู„ุณู†ูˆุงุช ุงู„ุนุดุฑ ุงู„ุฃุฎูŠุฑุฉ.
06:01
And the reason that they have changed
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ูˆุงู„ุณุจุจ ููŠ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ุชุบูŠูŠุฑ
06:03
is because we now have new information.
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ู‡ูˆ ุฃู†ู†ุง ุงู„ูŠูˆู… ู†ู…ู„ูƒ ู…ุนู„ูˆู…ุงุชู ุฌุฏูŠุฏุฉ.
06:05
The amazing Pathfinder mission that went in '97,
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ูู…ู‡ู…ุฉ ุงู„ู…ุณุชูƒุดู ุงู„ู…ุฏู‡ุด "ุจุงุซูุงูŠู†ุฏุฑ" ููŠ ุนุงู… 1997
06:08
and the MER Rover missions
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ูˆู…ู‡ู…ุฉ "ู…ูŠุฑ ุฑูˆูุฑ"
06:10
that are on Mars as we speak now
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ู‡ูŠ ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ููŠ ุงู„ูˆู‚ุช ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู†ุชุญุฏุซ ููŠู‡ ุงู„ุงู†
06:12
and the European Space Agency's Mars Express,
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ูˆ ู…ู‡ู…ุฉ ูˆูƒุงู„ุฉ ุงู„ูุถุงุก ุงู„ุฃูˆุฑูˆุจูŠุฉ
06:15
has taught us a number of amazing things.
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ุนู„ู…ุชู†ุง ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก ุงู„ู…ุฏู‡ุดุฉ.
06:17
There is sub-surface ice on that planet.
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ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุทุจู‚ุฉ ุชุญุช ุงู„ุณุทุญ ู…ูƒูˆู†ุฉ ู…ู† ุงู„ุฌู„ูŠุฏ ููŠ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ูƒูˆูƒุจ.
06:20
And so where there is water,
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ู„ุฐุง ูุฅู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ู…ูŠุงู‡ ุŒ
06:22
there is a very high chance of our kind of life.
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ูˆุจุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠ ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุงุญุชู…ุงู„ ูƒุจูŠุฑ ุจูˆุฌูˆุฏ ูุฑุต ู„ู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ูƒุงู„ุชูŠ ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง.
06:24
There's clearly sedimentary rocks all over the place โ€“
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ูˆู…ู† ุงู„ูˆุงุถุญ ุฃู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุตุฎูˆุฑ ุฑุณูˆุจูŠุฉ ููŠ ูƒู„ ู…ูƒุงู† --
06:26
one of the landers is sitting in the middle of an ancient seabed,
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ูˆุฃุญุฏ ุงู„ู…ุฑูƒุจุงุช ู‡ุจุทุช ููŠ ู…ู†ุชุตู ู‚ุงุน ุจุญุฑู ู‚ุฏูŠู… ุŒ
06:29
and there are these amazing structures called blueberries,
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ูˆู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุชุดูƒู„ุงุช ุงู„ู…ุฏู‡ุดุฉ ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุฏุนู‰ ุจู€ "ุงู„ุชูˆุช" ุŒ
06:33
which are these little, rocky concretions
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ู‡ูŠ ุนุจุงุฑุฉ ุนู† ุชุฑุงูƒู…ุงุช ุตุฎุฑูŠุฉ
06:35
that we are busy making biologically
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ุญุงูˆู„ ุจูƒู„ ุฌู‡ุฏ ุชู‚ู„ูŠุฏู‡ุง ุจูŠูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠุงู‹
06:37
in my lab right now.
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ููŠ ู…ุฎุชุจุฑูŠ ุงู„ุขู†.
06:39
So, with all of these things put together,
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ู…ุน ุชุฌู…ูŠุน ูƒู„ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ู…ุนู„ูˆู…ุงุช ู…ุนุงู‹ ุŒ
06:41
I think that the chances of life
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ุฃุนุชู‚ุฏ ุฃู† ูุฑุต ูˆุฌูˆุฏ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ
06:43
are much greater than I would've ever thought.
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ุฃูƒุจุฑ ุจูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู…ุง ูƒู†ุช ุฃุนุชู‚ุฏ.
06:45
I think that the chance of life having arisen on Mars, sometime in its past,
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ุฃุนุชู‚ุฏ ุฃู† ูุฑุต ู†ุดุฃุช ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ุŒ ููŠ ูˆู‚ุชู ู…ุง ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุงุถูŠ ุŒ
06:49
is maybe one in four to maybe even half and half.
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ู‡ูŠ ุฑุจู…ุง ูˆุงุญุฏ ู…ู† ุจูŠู† ุฃุฑุจุนุฉ ุฃูˆ ุฑุจู…ุง ุชุตู„ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ู†ุตู.
06:52
So this is a very bold statement.
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ู„ุฐุง ูู‡ุฐู‡ ูุฑุถูŠุฉูŒ ู‚ูˆูŠุฉูŒ ุฌุฏุงู‹.
06:54
I think it's there, and I think we need
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ุฃุคู…ู† ุจูˆุฌูˆุฏู‡ุง ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุŒ ูˆู„ูƒู†ู†ุง ุจุญุงุฌุฉ
06:56
to go look for it, and I think it's underground.
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ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุจุญุซ ุนู†ู‡ุง ุŒ ูˆุฃุนุชู‚ุฏ ุฃู†ู‡ุง ู…ูˆุฌูˆุฏุฉูŒ ุชุญุช ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ.
06:58
So the game's afoot, and this is the game that we play in astro-biology.
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ุฅู† ุงู„ู…ุจุงุฑุงุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ู‚ุฏู…ู ูˆุณุงู‚ ุŒ ูˆุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ู„ุนุจุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ู„ุนุจู‡ุง ููŠ ุนู„ู… ุงู„ุฃุญูŠุงุก ุงู„ูู„ูƒูŠ.
07:02
How do you try to get a handle on extraterrestrial life?
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ูƒูŠู ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ู…ูƒู† ุฃู† ู†ุถุน ุฃูŠุฏูŠู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ุฎุงุฑุฌ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ ุŸ
07:05
How do you plan to look for it?
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ูƒูŠู ูŠุฌุจ ุนู„ูŠู†ุง ุงู„ุจุญุซ ุŸ
07:07
How do you know it when you find it?
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ูˆูƒูŠู ู†ุนู„ู… ุจูˆุฌูˆุฏู‡ุง ุŸ
07:09
Because if it's big and obvious, we would've already found it --
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ู„ุฃู†ู‡ุง ู„ูˆูƒุงู†ุช ุถุฎู…ุฉู‹ ูˆูˆุงุถุญุฉ ุŒ ู„ูƒู†ุง ูˆุฌุฏู†ุงู‡ุง --
07:11
it would've already bitten us on the foot, and it hasn't.
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ุฃูˆ ูƒู†ุง ุชุนุฑุถู†ุง ู„ู„ุณุน ู…ู†ู‡ุง ููŠ ุฃู‚ุฏุงู…ู†ุง ุŒ ูˆู„ูƒู†ู†ุง ู„ู… ู†ุชุนุฑุถ ู„ุฐู„ูƒ.
07:14
So, we know that it's probably quite cryptic.
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ูู†ุญู† ู†ุนู„ู… ู…ุณุจู‚ุงู‹ ุจุฃู†ู‡ุง ู…ุฎููŠุฉ.
07:16
Very critically, how do we protect it,
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ูˆู‡ุฐุง ู…ูˆุถูˆุน ุฎุทูŠุฑ ุŒ ุฅุฐ ูƒูŠู ุณู†ุญู…ูŠู‡ุง ุŒ
07:18
if we find it, and not contaminate it?
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ุฅุฐุง ูˆุฌุฏู†ุงู‡ุง ุŒ ุจุฏูˆู† ุฃู† ู†ู„ูˆุซู‡ุง ุŸ
07:21
And also, even perhaps more critically, because
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ูˆุงู„ุฃู‡ู… ู…ู† ุฐู„ูƒ ุฃูŠุถุงู‹ ุŒ ู„ุฃู† ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ
07:24
this is the only home planet we have,
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ู‡ูŠ ุงู„ู…ูˆุทู† ุงู„ูˆุญูŠุฏ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู†ุนุฑูู‡ ุŒ
07:26
how do we protect us from it, while we study it?
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ูƒูŠู ุณู†ุญู…ูŠ ุฃู†ูุณู†ุง ู…ู†ู‡ุง ุŒ ุฃุซู†ุงุก ุฏุฑุงุณุชู†ุง ู„ู‡ุง ุŸ
07:30
So why might it be hard to find?
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ูˆู„ูƒู† ู„ู…ุงุฐุง ู…ู† ุงู„ุตุนุจ ุฅูƒุชุดุงูู‡ุง ุŸ
07:32
Well, it's probably microscopic, and it's never easy
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ุญุณู†ุงู‹ ุŒ ุฑุจู…ุง ู„ุฃู†ู‡ุง ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุฏู‚ูŠู‚ุฉ ุฌุฏุงู‹ ุŒ ูˆู„ูŠุณ ู…ู† ุงู„ุณู‡ู„ ุฃุจุฏุงู‹
07:34
to study microscopic things,
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ุฏุฑุงุณุฉ ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก ุงู„ุฏู‚ูŠู‚ุฉ ุฌุฏุงู‹ ุŒ
07:36
although the amazing tools that we now have to do that
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ุจุงู„ุฑุบู… ู…ู† ุงู„ุฃุฏูˆุงุช ุงู„ู…ุฏู‡ุดุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ู…ุชู„ูƒู‡ุง ุงู„ูŠูˆู…
07:39
allow us to study things in much greater depth,
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ุชุณู…ุญ ู„ู†ุง ุจุฏุฑุงุณุฉ ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก ุจุนู…ู‚ู ุฃูƒุจุฑ ุŒ
07:41
at much smaller scales than ever before.
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ููŠ ู…ู‚ุงูŠูŠุณ ุฏู‚ูŠู‚ุฉู ุฌุฏุงู‹ ู„ู… ุชูƒู† ู…ุชูˆูุฑุฉู‹ ู…ุณุจู‚ุงู‹.
07:44
But it's probably hiding, because if you are out
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ุฅู„ุง ุฃู† ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฃุญูŠุงุก ุงู„ุฏู‚ูŠู‚ุฉ ุฑุจู…ุง ุชุฎุชุจุฃ ุŒ ู„ุฃู†ู†ุง ุนู†ุฏู…ุง
07:47
sequestering resources from your environment, that makes you yummy,
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ู†ุจุญุซ ููŠ ุจูŠุฆุชู‡ุง ุŒ ุชุนุชู‚ุฏ ุจุฃู†ู‡ุง ู‡ุฏููŒ ุณู‡ู„ ูˆู„ุฐูŠุฐ ุŒ
07:50
and other things might want to eat you, or consume you.
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ูˆุฑุจู…ุง ุฃู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ู…ุฎู„ูˆู‚ุงุช ุชุฑูŠุฏ ุงู„ุชุบุฐูŠ ุนู„ูŠู‡ุง ุŒ ูˆุงุณุชู‡ู„ุงูƒู‡ุง.
07:52
And so, there's a game of predator-prey
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ูˆู„ุฐุง ุŒ ูุฅู† ู‡ุฐู‡ ู„ุนุจุฉ ุงู„ุตูŠุงุฏ ูˆุงู„ูุฑูŠุณุฉ
07:55
that's going to be, essentially, universal, really,
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ุณุชูƒูˆู† ุงู„ู„ุนุจุฉ ุงู„ุฃุณุงุณูŠุฉ ุŒ ููŠ ุงู„ูƒูˆู† ุŒ ุญู‚ุงู‹ ุŒ
08:00
in any kind of biological system.
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ูˆููŠ ุฃูŠ ู†ูˆุนู ู…ู† ุฃู†ูˆุงุน ุงู„ุฃู†ุธู…ุฉ ุงู„ุจูŠูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠุฉ.
08:02
It also may be very, very different in its fundamental properties โ€“
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ูˆู‡ูŠ ุฃูŠุถุงู‹ ู‚ุฏ ุชูƒูˆู† ู…ุฎุชู„ูุฉู‹ ุฌุฏุงู‹ ุฌุฏุงู‹ ููŠ ุตูุงุชู‡ุง ุงู„ุฃุณุงุณูŠุฉ --
08:05
its chemistry, or its size.
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ููŠ ุชุนู‚ูŠุฏู‡ุง ุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุฆูŠ ุฃูˆ ููŠ ุญุฌู…ู‡ุง.
08:07
We say small, but what does that mean?
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ู‚ุฏ ู†ู‚ูˆู„ ุญุฌู…ูŒ ุตุบูŠุฑ ุŒ ูˆู„ูƒู† ู…ุงุฐุง ูŠุนู†ูŠ ู‡ุฐุง ุŸ
08:09
Is it virus-sized? Is it smaller than that?
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ู‡ู„ ู‡ูŠ ุจุญุฌู… ุงู„ููŠุฑูˆุณุงุช ุŸ ุฃู… ุฃุตุบุฑ ู…ู† ุฐู„ูƒ ุŸ
08:11
Is it bigger than the biggest bacterium? We don't know.
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ู‡ู„ ู‡ูŠ ุฃูƒุจุฑ ู…ู† ุญุฌู… ุฃูƒุจุฑ ุจูƒุชูŠุฑูŠุง ู†ุนุฑูู‡ุง ุŸ ู„ุง ู†ุนู„ู… ุฐู„ูƒ.
08:13
And speed of activity, which is something that we face
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ูˆู…ุงู‡ูˆ ุญุฌู… ู†ุดุงุทู‡ุง ุŒ ูˆุฐู„ูƒ ุดูŠุก ู†ุชุนุงู…ู„ ู…ุนู‡
08:16
in our work with sub-surface organisms,
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ููŠ ุนู…ู„ู†ุง ู…ุน ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุนูŠุด ุชุญุช ุงู„ุณุทุญ ุŒ
08:18
because they grow very, very slowly.
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ู„ุฃู†ู‡ุง ุชู†ู…ูˆุง ุจุจุทุกู ุดุฏูŠุฏู ุฌุฏุงู‹.
08:20
If I were to take a swab off your teeth
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ูู„ูˆุฃุฎุฐู†ุง ู…ุณุญุฉู‹ ู…ู† ุฃุณู†ุงู†ูƒู…
08:23
and plate it on a Petri plate,
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ูˆุฒุฑุนู†ุงู‡ุง ููŠ ู„ูˆุญ ู…ุฎุชุจุฑูŠ ุŒ
08:25
within about four or five hours, I would have to see growth.
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ุณู†ุดุงู‡ุฏ ู†ู…ูˆุงู‹ ุฎู„ุงู„ ุฃุฑุจุน ุฃูˆ ุฎู…ุณ ุณุงุนุงุช.
08:28
But the organisms that we work with,
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ูˆู„ูƒู† ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ุชุนุงู…ู„ ู…ุนู‡ุง ุŒ
08:30
from the sub-surface of Earth,
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ู…ู† ุชุญุช ุณุทุญ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ ุŒ
08:31
very often it's months -- and in many cases, years --
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ุบุงู„ุจุงู‹ ู…ุง ุชุณุชุบุฑู‚ ุฃุดู‡ุฑุงู‹ -- ูˆููŠ ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุญุงู„ุงุช ุŒ ุนุฏุฉ ุณู†ูˆุงุช --
08:34
before we see any growth whatsoever.
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ู‚ุจู„ ุฃู† ู†ุดุงู‡ุฏ ุฃูŠ ู†ู…ูˆ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฅุทู„ุงู‚.
08:36
So they are, intrinsically, a slower life-form.
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ู„ุฐู„ูƒ ูู‡ูŠ ุŒ ู‚ุทุนูŠุงู‹ ุŒ ุดูƒู„ูŒ ุจุทูŠุกูŒ ู…ู† ุฃุดูƒุงู„ ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ.
08:39
But the real issue is that we are guided by
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ูˆู„ูƒู† ุงู„ู…ุดูƒู„ุฉ ุชูƒู…ู† ููŠ ุฃู†ู†ุง ู…ุญุตูˆุฑูŠู†
08:42
our limited experience,
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ููŠ ุฎุจุฑุงุชู†ุง ุงู„ู…ุญุฏูˆุฏุฉ ุŒ
08:44
and until we can think out of the box of our cranium and what we know,
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ูˆุทุงู„ู…ุง ุฃู†ู†ุง ู„ู… ู†ููƒุฑ ุจุดูƒู„ู ู…ุฎุชู„ู ูˆู†ุฎุฑุฌ ู…ู† ู†ุทุงู‚ ุงู„ุชููƒูŠุฑ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู†ุนุฑูู‡ ุŒ
08:48
then we can't recognize what to look for,
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ูู„ู† ู†ูƒูˆู† ู‚ุงุฏุฑูŠู† ุนู„ู‰ ู…ุนุฑูุฉ ู…ุง ู†ุจุญุซ ุนู†ู‡ ุŒ
08:50
or how to plan for it.
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ุฃูˆ ูƒูŠู ู†ุฎุทุท ู„ู„ุจุญุซ ุนู†ู‡.
08:53
So, perspective is everything
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ุงู„ู…ู†ุธูˆุฑ ู‡ูˆ ูƒู„ ุดูŠุก
08:55
and, because of the history that I've just briefly talked to you about,
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ูˆ ุจุณุจุจ ุงู„ุชุงุฑูŠุฎ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ุฐูƒุฑุชู‡ ู„ูƒู… ุจุฅูŠุฌุงุฒ ุŒ
08:58
I have learned to think about Earth
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ุชุนู„ู…ุช ุฃู† ุฃู†ุธุฑ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ
09:00
as an extraterrestrial planet.
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ุนู„ู‰ ุฃู†ู‡ ูƒูˆูƒุจูŒ ุฎุงุฑุฌูŠ.
09:02
And this has been invaluable in our approach to try to study these things.
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ูˆุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ู†ุธุฑุฉ ูƒุงู†ุช ู‚ูŠู…ุฉ ุฌุฏุงู‹ ููŠ ุฃุณู„ูˆุจ ุฏุฑุงุณุชู†ุง ู„ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก.
09:06
This is my favorite game on airplanes:
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ูˆู‡ุฐู‡ ู„ุนุจุชูŠ ุงู„ู…ูุถู„ุฉ ููŠ ุงู„ุทุงุฆุฑุงุช:
09:08
where you're in an airplane and you look out the window,
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ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ุชูƒูˆู†ูˆู† ููŠ ุทุงุฆุฑุฉ ูˆุชู†ุธุฑูˆู† ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฎุงุฑุฌ ุนุจุฑ ุงู„ู†ุงูุฐุฉ ุŒ
09:10
you see the horizon.
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ุชุฑูˆู† ุงู„ุฃูู‚.
09:11
I always turn my head on the side,
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ุฏุงุฆู…ุงู‹ ุฃุฑูƒุฒ ู†ุธุฑูŠ ุฌุงู†ุจุงู‹ ุŒ
09:13
and that simple change makes me go from
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ูˆู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ุชุบูŠูŠุฑ ุงู„ุจุณูŠุท ูŠุฌุนู„ู†ูŠ
09:16
seeing this planet as home,
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ุฃุบูŠุฑ ู†ุธุฑุชูŠ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ ู…ู† ูƒูˆู†ู‡ุง ุงู„ู…ูˆุทู† ุงู„ุฃุตู„ูŠ ุŒ
09:18
to seeing it as a planet.
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ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ู†ุธุฑ ุฅู„ูŠู‡ุง ูƒูƒูˆูƒุจ.
09:20
It's a very simple trick, and I never fail to do it
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ุฅู†ู‡ุง ููƒุฑุฉูŒ ุจุณูŠุทุฉูŒ ุฌุฏุงู‹ ุŒ ูˆุฃู†ุฌุญ ุฏุงุฆู…ุงู‹ ููŠ ุนู…ู„ู‡ุง
09:22
when I'm sitting in a window seat.
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ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ุฃูƒูˆู† ููŠ ู…ู‚ุนุฏู ุฐูˆ ู†ุงูุฐุฉ.
09:24
Well, this is what we apply to our work.
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ุญุณู†ุงู‹ ุŒ ู‡ุฐุง ู…ุงู†ุทุจู‚ู‡ ููŠ ุนู…ู„ู†ุง.
09:26
This shows one of the most extreme caves that we work in.
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ู‡ู†ุง ูŠุธู‡ุฑ ุฃุญุฏ ุฃูƒุซุฑ ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู ุชุทุฑูุงู‹ ุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ุนู…ู„ ููŠู‡ุง.
09:29
This is Cueva de Villa Luz in Tabasco, in Mexico,
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ู‡ุฐุง ู‡ูˆ "ูƒูˆูŠูุง ุฏูŠ ููŠู„ุง ู„ูˆุฒ" ููŠ ู…ุฏูŠู†ุฉ ุชุจุงุณูƒูˆ ุŒ ููŠ ุงู„ู…ูƒุณูŠูƒ ุŒ
09:33
and this cave is saturated with sulfuric acid.
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ูˆู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูƒู‡ู ู…ุดุจุนูŒ ุจุญุงู…ุถ ุงู„ูƒุจุฑูŠุชูŠูƒ.
09:36
There is tremendous amounts of hydrogen sulfide
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ูˆู‡ู†ุงูƒ ูƒู…ูŠุฉูŒ ู‡ุงุฆู„ุฉูŒ ู…ู† ูƒุจุฑูŠุชูŠุฏ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู†
09:38
coming into this cave from volcanic sources
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ุชุฃุชูŠ ุฅู„ู‰ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูƒู‡ู ู…ู† ู…ุตุงุฏุฑ ุจุฑูƒุงู†ูŠุฉ
09:41
and from the breakdown of evaporite --
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ูˆู…ู† ุชูƒุณู‘ุฑ ุงู„ู…ุนุงุฏู† ุงู„ู…ุชุจุฎุฑุฉ --
09:43
minerals below the carbonates in which this cave is formed --
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ุฃุณูู„ ุงู„ูƒุฑุจูˆู†ุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุดูƒู„ ุนู„ูŠู‡ุง ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูƒู‡ู --
09:47
and it is a completely hostile environment for us.
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ูˆุชู„ูƒ ุจูŠุฆุฉูŒ ุนุฏุงุฆูŠุฉูŒ ุฌุฏุงู‹ ู„ู†ุง.
09:49
We have to go in with protective suits and breathing gear,
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ูˆุนู„ูŠู†ุง ุฏุฎูˆู„ู‡ุง ุจุจุฏู„ุงุช ุญู…ุงูŠุฉ ู…ุน ู…ุนุฏุงุช ุชู†ูุณ ุŒ
09:53
and 30 parts per million of H2S will kill you.
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ูู€ 30 ุฌุฒุกุงู‹ ููŠ ุงู„ู…ู„ูŠูˆู† ู…ู† ุบุงุฒ ูƒุจุฑูŠุชุงุช ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู† ุณูŠู‚ุชู„ูƒู….
09:58
This is regularly several hundred parts per million.
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ูˆุงู„ู…ุนุฏู„ ู‡ู†ุง ู…ุฆุงุช ุงู„ุฃุฌุฒุงุก ููŠ ุงู„ู…ู„ูŠูˆู†.
10:00
So, it's a very hazardous environment,
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ู„ุฐุง ูู‡ุฐู‡ ุจูŠุฆุฉูŒ ุฎุทูŠุฑุฉูŒ ุฌุฏุงู‹ ุŒ
10:02
with CO as well, and many other gases.
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ูˆุฃูŠุถุงู‹ ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุบุงุฒ ุฃูˆู„ ุฃูƒุณูŠุฏ ุงู„ูƒุฑุจูˆู† ุŒ ูˆุบุงุฒุงุช ุฃุฎุฑู‰ ูƒุซูŠุฑุฉ.
10:04
These extreme physical and chemical parameters
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ูˆู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุทุจูŠุนุฉ ุงู„ููŠุฒูŠุงุฆูŠุฉ ูˆุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุฆูŠุฉ ุงู„ู…ุชุทุฑูุฉ
10:07
make the biology that grows in these places very special.
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ุชุฌุนู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุนูŠุด ููŠู‡ุง ู…ู…ูŠุฒุฉู‹ ุฌุฏุงู‹.
10:11
Because contrary to what you might think, this is not devoid of life.
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ู„ุฃู†ู‡ ูˆุนูƒุณุงู‹ ู„ู…ุง ู‚ุฏ ุชุชูˆู‚ุนูˆู†ู‡ ุŒ ูู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุจูŠุฆุฉ ู„ูŠุณุช ู…ุฌุฑุฏุฉู ู…ู† ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ.
10:14
This is one of the richest caves
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ูู‡ุฐุง ุฃุญุฏ ุฃุบู†ู‰ ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู ุจุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ
10:16
that we have found on the planet, anywhere.
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ุงู„ุชูŠ ูˆุฌุฏู†ุงู‡ุง ุนู„ู‰ ูˆุฌู‡ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ ุŒ ุฅุทู„ุงู‚ุงู‹.
10:18
It's bursting with life.
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ุฅู†ู‡ุง ุชุนุฌ ุจุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ.
10:20
The extremes on Earth are interesting in their own right,
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ูุงู„ุจูŠุฆุงุช ุงู„ู…ุชุทุฑูุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ ู…ุซูŠุฑุฉูŒ ุจุดูƒู„ ุฎุงุต ุŒ
10:22
but one of the reasons that we're interested in them
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ูˆุฃุญุฏ ุฃุณุจุงุจ ุฅู‡ุชู…ุงู…ู†ุง ุจู‡ุง
10:24
is because they represent, really,
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ู„ุฃู†ู‡ุง ุชู…ุซู„ ุŒ ุจุงู„ูุนู„ ุŒ
10:26
the average conditions that we may expect on other planets.
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ุงู„ุธุฑูˆู ุงู„ุทุจูŠุนูŠุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ุชูˆู‚ุน ู…ุดุงู‡ุฏุชู‡ุง ููŠ ูƒูˆุงูƒุจ ุฃุฎุฑู‰.
10:29
So, this is part of the ability that we have,
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ูู‡ุฐุง ุฌุฒุกูŒ ู…ู† ุงู„ู‚ุฏุฑุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ู…ู„ูƒู‡ุง ุŒ
10:31
to try to stretch our imagination,
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ุฃู† ู†ุทู„ู‚ ุงู„ุนู†ุงู† ู„ู…ุฎูŠู„ุงุชู†ุง ุŒ
10:33
in terms of what we may find in the future.
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ู„ู„ุชู†ุจุค ุจู…ุงู‚ุฏ ู†ูƒุชุดูู‡ ู…ุณุจู‚ุงู‹.
10:36
There's so much life in this cave,
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ูˆู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุนูŠุด ููŠ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูƒู‡ู ุŒ
10:38
and I can't even begin
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ู„ุฏุฑุฌุฉ ุฃู†ู‡ ู„ุง ูŠุณุนู†ูŠ ุญุชู‰
10:40
to scratch the surface of it with you.
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ูˆุตู ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุนูŠุด ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุณุทุญ.
10:42
But one of the most famous objects out of this
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ูˆู„ูƒู† ุฃุญุฏ ุฃุดู‡ุฑ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก
10:44
are what we call Snottites, for obvious reasons.
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ู‡ูŠ ู…ุงู†ุฏุนูˆู‡ุง ู†ุญู† "ุณู†ูˆุชูŠุชูˆุณ" ุŒ ูˆู„ุฃุณุจุงุจ ูˆุงุถุญุฉ.
10:47
This stuff looks like what comes out of your two-year-old's nose when he has a cold.
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ูู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก ุชุดุจู‡ ู…ุง ูŠุฎุฑุฌ ู…ู† ุฃู†ู ุงู„ุทูู„ ุฐูˆ ุนุงู…ูŠู† ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ูŠุตุงุจ ุจุงู„ุจุฑุฏ.
10:51
And this is produced by bacteria who are actually
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ูˆู‡ูŠ ุชู†ุชุฌ ุนู† ุงู„ุจูƒุชูŠุฑูŠุง ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ
10:54
making more sulfuric acid,
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ุชุชุณุจุจ ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุฒูŠุฏ ู…ู† ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ูƒุจุฑูŠุชูŠูƒ ุŒ
10:56
and living at pHs right around zero.
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ูˆุชุนูŠุด ููŠ ู…ุนุฏู„ ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู†ูŠ ูŠู‚ุงุฑุจ ุงู„ุตูุฑ.
10:59
And so, this stuff is like battery acid.
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ูˆู„ุฐุง ุŒ ูุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก ุฃุดุจู‡ ุจุญู…ุถ ุงู„ุจุทุงุฑูŠุงุช.
11:01
And yet, everything in this cave has adapted to it.
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ูˆุจุงู„ุฑุบู… ู…ู† ุฐู„ูƒ ุŒ ูุฅู† ูƒู„ ุดูŠุก ููŠ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ูƒู‡ู ู‚ุฏ ุชูƒูŠู‘ู ู…ุนู‡ุง.
11:04
In fact, there's so much energy available
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ูˆููŠ ุงู„ูˆู‚ุน ุŒ ูุฅู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุทุงู‚ุฉ
11:06
for biology in this cave,
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ู„ู„ุจูŠูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠุง ููŠ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ูƒู‡ู ุŒ
11:08
that there's actually a huge number of cavefish.
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ูˆู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุจุงู„ูุนู„ ุนุฏุฏ ู‡ุงุฆู„ ู…ู† ุฃุณู…ุงูƒ ุงู„ูƒู‡ู.
11:10
And the local Zoque Indians
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ูˆุงู„ู‡ู†ูˆุฏ ุงู„ุญู…ุฑ ุงู„ู…ุญู„ูŠูŠู†
11:12
harvest this twice a year,
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ูŠุญุตุฏูˆู†ู‡ุง ู…ุฑุชูŠู† ููŠ ุงู„ุณู†ุฉ ุŒ
11:14
as part of their Easter week celebration and Holy Week celebration.
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ูƒุฌุฒุก ู…ู† ุงุญุชูุงู„ุงุช ุนูŠุฏ ุงู„ูุตุญ ูˆุงู„ุฃุณุจูˆุน ุงู„ู…ู‚ุฏุณ ู„ุฏูŠู‡ู….
11:16
This is very unusual for caves.
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ู‡ุฐุง ุดูŠุก ุบูŠุฑ ุฅุนุชูŠุงุฏูŠ ููŠ ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู.
11:18
In some of the other amazing caves that we work in --
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ูููŠ ุฃุญุฏ ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู ุงู„ู…ุฏู‡ุดุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุนู…ู„ู†ุง ุนู„ูŠู‡ุง --
11:21
this is in Lechuguilla cave in New Mexico near Carlsbad,
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ู‡ุฐุง ููŠ ูƒู‡ู "ู„ูŠุชุดูˆู‚ูˆูŠู„ุง" ููŠ ู…ุฏูŠู†ุฉ ู†ูŠูˆู…ูƒุณูŠูƒูˆ ุจุงู„ู‚ุฑุจ ู…ู† "ูƒุงุฑู„ุฒุจุงุฏ" ุŒ
11:25
and this is one of the most famous caves in the world.
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ูˆู‡ุฐุง ุฃุญุฏ ุฃุดู‡ุฑ ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ
11:28
It's 115 miles of mapped passage,
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ุฅู†ู‡ ุนู„ู‰ ุดูƒู„ ู…ู…ุฑ ู‚ู†ุงุฉ ุจุทูˆู„ 115 ู…ูŠู„ุงู‹ ุŒ
11:30
it's pristine, it has no natural opening
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ุฅู†ู‡ ู…ู…ุฑ ุทุจูŠุนูŠ ุŒ ูˆู„ูŠุณ ู„ู‡ ู…ุฏุฎู„
11:33
and it's a gigantic biological,
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ูˆู‡ูˆ ูŠู…ุซู„ ู…ุฎุชุจุฑุงู‹ ุนู…ู„ุงู‚ุงู‹
11:35
geo-microbiological laboratory.
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ู„ู„ุจูŠูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠุง ูˆุงู„ุฃุญูŠุงุก ุงู„ุฏู‚ูŠู‚ุฉ.
11:38
In this cave, great areas are covered by
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ููŠ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูƒู‡ู ุŒ ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุณุงุญุงุช ู…ุบุทุงุฉูŒ
11:41
this reddish material that you see here,
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ุจุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ู…ุงุฏุฉ ุงู„ุญู…ุฑุงุก ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุฑูˆู†ู‡ุง ุŒ
11:43
and also these enormous crystals
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ูˆุฃูŠุถุงู‹ ุจุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุจู„ูˆุฑุงุช
11:45
of selenite that you can see dangling down.
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ู…ู† ุงู„ุฒูŠู„ูˆู†ูŠุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุชุฏู„ู‰ ู…ู† ุงู„ุฃุนู„ู‰.
11:47
This stuff is produced biologically.
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ูˆู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก ุจูู†ูŠุช ุจูŠูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠุงู‹.
11:50
This is the breakdown product of the bedrock,
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ูู‡ูŠ ู†ุชุงุฌ ุชูุชุช ุงู„ุทุจู‚ุฉ ุงู„ุฃุณุงุณูŠุฉ ุŒ
11:53
that organisms are busy munching their way through.
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ุจุณุจุจ ูƒู„ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุญุงูˆู„ ุดู‚ ุทุฑูŠู‚ู‡ุง.
11:56
They take iron and manganese minerals
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ูู‡ูŠ ุชุฃุฎุฐ ู…ุนุฏู† ุงู„ุญุฏูŠุฏ ูˆุงู„ู…ู†ุฌู†ูŠุฒ
11:59
within the bedrock and they oxidize them.
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ุงู„ุชูŠ ููŠ ุงู„ุทุจู‚ุฉ ุงู„ุฃุณุงุณูŠุฉ ูˆุชุคูƒุณุฏู‡ุง.
12:01
And every time they do that, they get a tiny little packet of energy.
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ูˆููŠ ูƒู„ ู…ุฑุฉู ุชู‚ูˆู… ููŠู‡ุง ุจุฐู„ูƒ ุŒ ุชูƒุณุจ ู‚ุฏุฑุงู‹ ุถุฆูŠู„ุงู‹ ู…ู† ุงู„ุทุงู‚ุฉ.
12:05
And that tiny little packet of energy is what they use, then,
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ูˆุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ู‚ุฏุฑ ุงู„ุถุฆูŠู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ุทุงู‚ุฉ ู‡ูˆ ู…ุงุชุณุชุฎุฏู…ู‡ ุŒ ุจุนุฏ ุฐู„ูƒ ุŒ
12:08
to run their life processes.
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ู„ู„ุฅุณุชู…ุฑุงุฑ ููŠ ุฏูˆุฑุฉ ุญูŠุงุชู‡ุง.
12:10
Interestingly enough, they also do this
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ูˆุจุดูƒู„ ู…ุซูŠุฑ ู„ู„ุฅู‡ุชู…ุงู… ุŒ ูู‡ูŠ ุชู‚ูˆู… ุจุนู…ู„ ุฐู„ูƒ
12:12
with uranium and chromium, and various other toxic metals.
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ุจุงู„ูŠูˆุฑุงู†ูŠูˆู… ูˆุงู„ูƒุฑูˆู…ูŠูˆู… ุŒ ูˆุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ูˆุงุฏ ุงู„ุฃุฎุฑู‰ ุงู„ุณุงู…ุฉ ุฃูŠุถุงู‹.
12:15
And so, the obvious avenue
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ูˆู„ุฐุง ุŒ ุงู„ูุงุฆุฏุฉ ุงู„ูˆุงุถุญุฉ ู…ู† ู‡ุฐุง
12:18
for bio-remediation
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ู‡ูŠ ุงู„ู…ุนุงู„ุฌุฉ ุงู„ุจูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠุฉ
12:20
comes from organisms like this.
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ุชู†ุชุฌ ู…ู† ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ู…ุซู„ ู‡ุฐู‡.
12:22
These organisms we now bring into the lab,
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ููŠ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุฃูŠุงู… ู†ุญู† ู†ุญุถุฑ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฎุชุจุฑ ุŒ
12:24
and you can see some of them growing on Petri plates,
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ูˆุชุณุชุทูŠุนูˆู† ุฑุคูŠุฉ ุจุนุถุงู‹ ู…ู†ู‡ุง ูŠู†ู…ูˆุง ููŠ ู‚ูˆุงู„ุจ ุŒ
12:26
and get them to reproduce the precise biominerals
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ูˆู†ุณุชุทูŠุน ู…ู† ุฌุนู„ู‡ุง ุชุนูŠุฏ ุฅู†ุชุงุฌ ุงู„ู…ุนุงุฏู† ุงู„ุจูŠูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠุฉ
12:29
that we find on the walls of these caves.
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ุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ุฌุฏู‡ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุฌุฏุฑุงู† ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู.
12:31
So, these are signals that they leave in the rock record.
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ูุชู„ูƒ ู‡ูŠ ุงู„ุนู„ุงู…ุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุชุฑูƒู‡ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุณุฌู„ ุงู„ุตุฎูˆุฑ.
12:34
Well, even in basalt surfaces in lava-tube caves,
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ุญุณู†ุงู‹ ุŒ ุญุชู‰ ููŠ ุงู„ุทุจู‚ุงุช ุงู„ุจุงุฒู„ุชูŠุฉ ููŠ ูƒู‡ูˆู ู‚ู†ูˆุงุช ุงู„ุญู…ู… ุงู„ุจุฑูƒุงู†ูŠุฉ ุŒ
12:37
which are a by-product of volcanic activity,
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ุชู†ุชุฌ ุจุณุจุจ ุงู„ุฃู†ุดุทุฉ ุงู„ุจุฑูƒุงู†ูŠุฉ ุŒ
12:39
we find these walls totally covered,
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ู†ุฌุฏ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุฌุฏุฑุงู† ู…ุบุทุงุฉู‹ ุจุงู„ูƒุงู…ู„ ุŒ
12:41
in many cases,
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ููŠ ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุญุงู„ุงุช ุŒ
12:43
by these beautiful, glistening silver walls,
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ุจุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฌุฏุฑุงู† ุงู„ูุถูŠุฉ ุงู„ุฌู…ูŠู„ุฉ ูˆ ุงู„ู„ุงู…ุนุฉ
12:45
or shiny pink or shiny red or shiny gold.
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ุฃูˆ ุจุฃู„ูˆุงู† ูˆุฑุฏูŠุฉู ุฃูˆ ุญู…ุฑุงุก ุฃูˆ ุฐู‡ุจูŠุฉู ุจุฑู‘ุงู‚ุฉ.
12:48
And these are mineral deposits
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ูˆู‡ูŠ ุนุจุงุฑุฉ ุนู† ู…ุฎุฒูˆู† ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุนุงุฏู†
12:50
that are also made by bacteria.
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ุงู„ุชูŠ ุตูู†ุนุช ุจูˆุงุณุทุฉ ุงู„ุจูƒุชูŠุฑูŠุง.
12:52
And you can see in these central images here,
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ูˆุชุณุชุทูŠุนูˆู† ุฃู† ุชุฑูˆุง ู‡ู†ุง ููŠ ุงู„ุตูˆุฑ ุงู„ุชูŠ ููŠ ุงู„ู…ู†ุชุตู ุŒ
12:54
scanning electron micrographs of some of these guys --
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ุตูˆุฑ ู…ุฃุฎูˆุฐุฉ ุจูˆุงุณุทุฉ ู…ูŠูƒุฑูˆุณูƒูˆุจ ุฅู„ูƒุชุฑูˆู†ูŠ ู„ุจุนุถุงู‹ ู…ู†ู‡ุง --
12:57
these are gardens of these bacteria.
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ู‡ุฐู‡ ุนุจุงุฑุฉ ุนู† ู…ุฒุงุฑุน ู…ู„ูŠุฆุฉ ุจุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุจูƒุชูŠุฑูŠุง.
12:59
One of the interesting things about these particular guys
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ูˆุฃุญุฏ ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก ุงู„ู…ุซูŠุฑุฉ ู„ู„ุฅู†ุชุจุงู‡ ุนู† ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุจูƒุชูŠุฑูŠุง
13:02
is that they're in the actinomycete
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ุฃู†ู‡ุง ุชุตู†ู ู…ู† ูุตูŠู„ุฉ "ุฃูƒุชูŠู†ูˆู…ุงูŠุณูŠุช"
13:04
and streptomycete groups of the bacteria,
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ูˆ ูุตูŠู„ุฉ "ุฅุณุชุฑุจุชูˆู…ุงูŠุณูŠุช" ู…ู† ูุตุงุฆู„ ุงู„ุจูƒุชูŠุฑูŠุง ุŒ
13:06
which is where we get most of our antibiotics.
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ุญุตู„ ู…ู†ู‡ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุฃุบู„ุจ ุงู„ู…ุถุงุฏุงุช ุงู„ุญูŠูˆูŠุฉ.
13:09
The sub-surface of Earth
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ุงู„ุณุทุญ ุงู„ุณูู„ูŠ ู„ู„ุฃุฑุถ
13:11
contains a vast biodiversity.
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ูŠุญูˆูŠ ุชู†ูˆุนุงู‹ ุถุฎู…ุงู‹ ู…ู† ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช
13:13
And these organisms,
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ูˆู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุŒ
13:15
because they're very separate from the surface,
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ูˆู„ุฃู†ู‡ุง ู…ุนุฒูˆู„ุฉูŒ ุชู…ุงู…ุงู‹ ู…ู† ุงู„ุณุทุญ ุŒ
13:17
make a vast array of novel compounds.
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ุชุดูƒู„ ุณู„ุณู„ุฉู‹ ู…ุชู†ูˆุนุฉู‹ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุฑูƒุจุงุช ุงู„ุบูŠุฑ ู…ุฃู„ูˆูุฉ.
13:21
And so, the potential for exploiting this
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ูุฅู† ูุฑุต ุฅุณุชุซู…ุงุฑ ุฐู„ูƒ
13:23
for pharmaceutical and industrial chemical uses
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ู„ู„ุฅุณุชุฎุฏุงู…ุงุช ุงู„ุฏูˆุงุฆูŠุฉ ูˆุงุณุชุฎุฏุงู… ุงู„ุตู†ุงุนุงุช ุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุฆูŠุฉ
13:26
is completely untapped,
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ู„ุง ุชุฒุงู„ ุบูŠุฑ ู…ุณุชุบู„ุฉ ุชู…ุงู…ุงู‹ ุŒ
13:28
but probably exceeds most of the rest
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ุจุงู„ุฑุบู… ู…ู† ุฃู†ู‡ุง ู‚ุฏ ุชุชููˆู‚ ููŠ ุงู„ุชู†ูˆุน ุนู„ู‰ ุจุงู‚ูŠ
13:30
of the biodiversity of the planet.
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ุฌู…ูŠุน ุฃุดูƒุงู„ ุงู„ุชู†ูˆุน ุงู„ู…ูˆุฌูˆุฏุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ.
13:32
So, lava-tube caves--
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ุฅุฐุง ุŒ ูƒู‡ูˆู ู‚ู†ูˆุงุช ุงู„ุญู…ู… ุงู„ุจุฑูƒุงู†ูŠุฉ --
13:34
I've just told you about organisms that live here on this planet.
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ู„ู‚ุฏ ุญุฏุซุชูƒู… ู„ู„ุชูˆ ุนู† ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุนูŠุด ู‡ู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ.
13:37
We know that on Mars and the Moon
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ูˆู†ุญู† ู†ุนู„ู… ุฃู† ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ูˆููŠ ุงู„ู‚ู…ุฑ
13:39
there are tons of these structures.
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ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุฃุทู†ุงู† ู…ู† ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุชุดูƒู„ุงุช.
13:41
We can see them.
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ุจุฅู…ูƒุงู†ู†ุง ุฑุคูŠุชู‡ุง.
13:42
On the left you can see a lava tube forming
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ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ูŠุณุงุฑ ุชุฑูˆู† ุชุดูƒู„ ู‚ู†ูˆุงุช ุญู…ู… ุจุฑูƒุงู†ูŠุฉ
13:44
at a recent eruption -- Mount Etna in Sicily --
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ูˆููŠ ุขุฎุฑ ุซูˆุฑุงู† -- ู‚ู…ุฉ ุฅูŠุชู†ุง ููŠ ุตู‚ู„ูŠุฉ --
13:47
and this is the way these tubes form.
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ูˆู‡ุฐู‡ ู‡ูŠ ุทุฑูŠู‚ุฉ ุชุดูƒู„ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ู‚ู†ูˆุงุช.
13:49
And when they hollow out,
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ูˆุนู†ุฏู…ุง ุชุชุฌูˆู‘ู ุŒ
13:50
then they become habitats for organisms.
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ุนู†ุฏู‡ุง ุชุตุจุญ ู…ุณูƒู†ุงู‹ ู„ู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช.
13:53
These are all over the planet Mars,
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ูˆู‡ุฐู‡ ู…ู†ุชุดุฑุฉูŒ ููŠ ุฌู…ูŠุน ุฃุฑุฌุงุก ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ุŒ
13:55
and we're busy cataloguing them now.
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ูˆู†ุญู† ู…ุดุบูˆู„ูˆู† ููŠ ุชุตู†ูŠูู‡ุง ุงู„ุขู†.
13:57
And so, there's very interesting cave real estate
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ูุฅู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุนู‚ุงุฑุงุช ู…ุซูŠุฑุฉ ู…ู† ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู
13:59
on Mars, at least of that type.
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ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ุŒ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃู‚ู„ ู…ุซู„ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูƒู‡ู.
14:02
In order to access
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ูˆู…ู† ุฃุฌู„ ุงู„ูˆุตูˆู„
14:04
these sub-surface environments that we're interested in,
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ุฅู„ู‰ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุจูŠุฆุงุช ุงู„ุชุญุช ุณุทุญูŠุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ุนู…ู„ ุนู„ูŠู‡ุง ุŒ
14:07
we're very interested in developing the tools to do this.
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ูู†ุญู† ู…ู‡ุชู…ูˆู† ุฌุฏุงู‹ ููŠ ุชุทูˆูŠุฑ ุงู„ุฃุฏูˆุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ุณุชุณุงุนุฏู†ุง ููŠ ุฐู„ูƒ.
14:10
You know, it's not easy to get into these caves.
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ูƒู…ุง ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู† ุŒ ูู„ูŠุณ ู…ู† ุงู„ุณู‡ู„ ุงู„ูˆุตูˆู„ ุฅู„ู‰ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู.
14:12
It requires crawling, climbing,
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ูุฐู„ูƒ ูŠุชุทู„ุจ ู…ู†ุง ุงู„ุฒุญู ุŒ ูˆุงู„ุชุณู„ู‚ ุŒ
14:14
rope-work, technical rope-work
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ูˆุฃุนู…ุงู„ ุญุจุงู„ ุŒ ุฃุนู…ุงู„ ุญุจุงู„ ุชู‚ู†ูŠุฉ
14:17
and many other complex human motions
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ูˆุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุฃุนู…ุงู„ ุงู„ุฃุฎุฑู‰ ุงู„ูŠุฏูˆูŠุฉ ุงู„ู…ุนู‚ุฏุฉ
14:21
in order to access these.
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ู„ู„ูˆุตูˆู„ ุฅู„ูŠู‡ุง.
14:23
We face the problem of, how can we do this robotically?
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ูู†ุญู† ู†ูˆุงุฌู‡ ู…ุดูƒู„ุฉ ุŒ ูƒูŠู ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ู…ูƒู† ุฃู† ู†ูุนู„ ูƒู„ ุฐู„ูƒ ุขู„ูŠุงู‹ ุŸ
14:26
Why would we want to do it robotically?
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ูˆู„ู…ุงุฐุง ู†ุฑูŠุฏ ุนู…ู„ ุฐู„ูƒ ุขู„ูŠุงู‹ ุŸ
14:28
Well, we're going to be sending
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ุญุณู†ุงู‹ ุŒ ู„ุฃู†ู†ุง ุณู†ุฑุณู„ ู‚ุฑูŠุจุงู‹
14:30
robotic missions to Mars
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ู…ู‡ู…ุงุชู ุขู„ูŠุฉ ุจุงู„ูƒุงู…ู„ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ
14:32
long in advance of human missions.
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ู…ุชุทูˆุฑุฉู ุฃูƒุซุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ู‡ู…ุงุช ุงู„ุจุดุฑูŠุฉ.
14:34
And then, secondly, getting back to that earlier point that I made
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ูˆุซู… ุŒ ุซุงู†ูŠุงู‹ ุŒ ูˆุจุงู„ุนูˆุฏุฉ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ู†ู‚ุทุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุฐูƒุฑุชู‡ุง ุณู„ูุงู‹
14:37
about the preciousness of any life that we may find
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ุนู† ู…ุฏู‰ ู‚ูŠู…ุฉ ุฃูŠ ู†ูˆุน ู…ู† ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ู‚ุฏ ู†ูƒุชุดูู‡
14:41
on Mars, we don't want to contaminate it.
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ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ุŒ ูู†ุญู† ู„ุง ู†ุฑูŠุฏ ุฃู† ู†ู„ูˆุซู‡ุง.
14:43
And one of the best ways to study something without contaminating it
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ูˆุฃุญุฏ ุฃูุถู„ ุงู„ุทุฑู‚ ููŠ ุฏุฑุงุณุฉ ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก ุจุฏูˆู† ุชู„ูˆูŠุซู‡ุง
14:46
is to have an intermediary.
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ู‡ูŠ ุงุณุชุฎุฏุงู… ูˆุณูŠุท.
14:48
And in this case, we're imagining
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ูˆููŠ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุญุงู„ุฉ ุŒ ูู†ุญู† ู†ุชุฎูŠู„
14:50
intermediary robotic devices
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ุฃุฌู‡ุฒุฉ ุฑูˆุจูˆุชุงุช ูˆุณูŠุทุฉ
14:52
that can actually do some of that
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ุชู‚ูˆู… ุจุฌุฒุกู ู…ู† ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ุนู…ู„
14:54
front-end work for us,
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ุงู„ู…ูŠุฏุงู†ูŠ ู…ู† ุฃุฌู„ู†ุง ุŒ
14:56
to protect any potential life that we find.
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ูˆุฐู„ูƒ ู…ู† ุฃุฌู„ ุญู…ุงูŠุฉ ุฃูŠ ูุฑุต ู„ู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ู‚ุฏ ู†ุฌุฏู‡ุง.
14:58
I'm not going to go through all of these projects now,
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ูˆู„ู† ุฃุฎูˆุถ ููŠ ูƒู„ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ู…ุดุงุฑูŠุน ุงู„ุขู† ุŒ
15:01
but we're involved in about half-a-dozen robotic development projects,
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ูˆู„ูƒู†ู†ุง ู†ุนู…ู„ ุชู‚ุฑูŠุจุงู‹ ููŠ ู†ุตู ุฏุฑุฒู†ู ู…ู† ู…ุดุงุฑูŠุน ุชุทูˆูŠุฑ ุงู„ุฑูˆุจูˆุชุงุช ุŒ
15:04
in collaboration with a number of different groups.
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ูˆุจุงู„ุชุนุงูˆู† ู…ุน ุนุฏุฏู ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุฌู…ูˆุนุงุช.
15:07
I want to talk specifically about the
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ูˆุฃุฑูŠุฏ ุงู„ุชุญุฏุซ ุจุงู„ุชุญุฏูŠุฏ ุนู†
15:09
array that you see on the top.
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ุงู„ู…ุตููˆูุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุฑูˆู†ู‡ุง ููŠ ุงู„ุฃุนู„ู‰.
15:11
These are hopping microbot swarms.
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ู‡ุฐู‡ ุนุจุงุฑุฉ ุนู† ุฃุณุฑุงุจ ู…ู† ุฑูˆุจูˆุชุงุช ู‚ุงูุฒุฉ ุฏู‚ูŠู‚ุฉ.
15:14
I'm working on this with the Field and Space Robotics Laboratory
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ุฅู†ู†ูŠ ุฃุนู…ู„ ููŠ ู‡ุฐุง ู…ุน ู…ุฎุชุจุฑ ุงู„ุฑูˆุจูˆุชุงุช ุงู„ู…ูŠุฏุงู†ูŠุฉ ูˆุฑูˆุจูˆุชุงุช ุงู„ูุถุงุก
15:16
and my friend Steve Dubowsky at MIT,
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ูˆุตุฏูŠู‚ูŠ ุณุชูŠู ุฏูˆุจูˆุณูƒูŠ ููŠ ู…ุนู‡ุฏ MIT ุŒ
15:19
and we have come up with the idea
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ูˆุฎุทุฑุช ุจุจุงู„ู†ุง ููƒุฑุฉ
15:21
of having little, jumping bean-like
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ุงุณุชุฎุฏุงู… ุฑูˆุจูˆุชุงุช ุตุบูŠุฑุฉ ุŒ ุชู‚ูุฒ
15:24
robots
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ุชุดุจู‡ ุญุจุงุช ุงู„ูุงุตูˆู„ูŠุง
15:26
that are propelled by artificial muscle,
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ุชู‚ูุฒ ุจูˆุงุณุทุฉ ุนุถู„ุงุช ุฐูƒูŠุฉ ุŒ
15:29
which is one of the Dubowsky Lab's specialties --
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ู‡ูŠ ุฃุญุฏ ุฅุฎุชุตุงุตุงุช ู…ุฎุชุจุฑ ุฏูˆุจูˆุณูƒูŠ --
15:32
are the EPAMs, or artificial muscles.
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ุฃูŠ ุงู„ู€ EPAM ุŒ ุฃูˆ ุงู„ุนุถู„ุงุช ุงู„ุฐูƒูŠุฉ.
15:34
And these allow them to hop.
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ูˆุฐู„ูƒ ู…ุง ูŠู…ูƒู†ู‡ุง ู…ู† ุงู„ู‚ูุฒ.
15:36
They behave with
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ูˆู‡ูŠ ุชุชุตุฑู
15:38
a swarm behavior,
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ูƒุณุฑุจ
15:40
where they relate to each other,
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุฑุชุจุท ุจุจุนุถู‡ุง ุงู„ุจุนุถ ุŒ
15:42
modeled after insect swarm behavior,
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ูˆู‚ุฏ ุตู…ู…ุช ุนู„ู‰ ุดูƒู„ ุณุฑุจ ู…ู† ุงู„ุญุดุฑุงุช ุŒ
15:44
and they could be made very numerous.
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ูˆู…ู† ุงู„ู…ู…ูƒู† ุชุฌู…ูŠุนู‡ุง ุจุฃุนุฏุงุฏ ุถุฎู…ุฉ ุฌุฏุงู‹.
15:47
And so, one can send a thousand of them,
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ูˆู„ุฐุง ุŒ ูู…ู† ุงู„ู…ู…ูƒู† ุฅุฑุณุงู„ ุงู„ุงู„ุงู ู…ู†ู‡ุง ุŒ
15:49
as you can see in this upper left-hand picture,
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ูƒู…ุง ุชุฑูˆู† ููŠ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุตูˆุฑุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ูŠุณุงุฑ ููŠ ุงู„ุฃุนู„ู‰ ุŒ
15:52
a thousand of them could fit into the payload bay
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ุงู„ุงู„ุงู ู…ู†ู‡ุง ู‚ุฏ ุชูุญู…ู„ ููŠ ู…ุฎุฒู† ุงู„ุชุญู…ูŠู„
15:55
that was used for one of the current MER Rovers.
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ุงู„ุฐูŠ ุงุณุชุฎุฏู… ููŠ ุฅุญุฏู‰ ู…ู‡ู…ุงุช ู…ูŠุฑ ุฑูˆูุฑ.
15:58
And these little guys -- you could lose many of them.
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ูˆุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฃุดูŠุงุก ุงู„ุตุบูŠุฑุฉ -- ุจุงู„ุฅู…ูƒุงู† ูู‚ุฏุงู† ุนุฏุฏู ู…ู†ู‡ุง.
16:01
If you send a thousand of them,
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ุฅุฐุง ุฃุฑุณู„ู†ุง ุงู„ุงู„ุงู ู…ู†ู‡ุง ุŒ
16:03
you could probably get rid of 90 percent of them and still have a mission.
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ูุจุงู„ุฅู…ูƒุงู† ูู‚ุฏุงู† ู…ุงูŠู‚ุฑุจ ุงู„ู€ 90% ู…ู†ู‡ุง ุŒ ู…ู† ุฏูˆู† ุฃู† ุชูุดู„ ุงู„ู…ู‡ู…ุฉ.
16:05
And so, that allows you the flexibility
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ูˆู„ุฐุง ุŒ ู‡ุฐุง ูŠุนุทูŠู†ุง ุงู„ูุฑุตุฉ
16:08
to go into very challenging terrain
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ููŠ ุงู„ูˆุตูˆู„ ุฅู„ู‰ ู…ู†ุงุทู‚ ุตุนุจุฉู ุฌุฏุงู‹
16:11
and actually make your way where you want to go.
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ูˆุงู„ูˆุตูˆู„ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ู‡ุฏู ุงู„ู…ุญุฏุฏ.
16:13
Now, to wrap this up, I want to talk for two seconds
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ูˆุงู„ุงู† ุŒ ู„ู†ุฎุชุตุฑ ูƒู„ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ุญุฏูŠุซ ุŒ ุณุฃุชุญุฏุซ ู„ุซุงู†ูŠุชูŠู†
16:16
about caves and the human expansion beyond Earth
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ุนู† ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู ูˆุงู„ุชูˆุณุน ุงู„ุจุดุฑูŠ ู„ุฎุงุฑุฌ ู†ุทุงู‚ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ
16:19
as a natural outgrowth of the work that we do in caves.
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ูˆูƒู†ุชูŠุฌุฉู ุทุจูŠุนูŠุฉู ู„ู…ุง ู†ู‚ูˆู… ุจู‡ ู…ู† ุนู…ู„ ู…ุน ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู.
16:22
It occurred to us a number of years ago
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ุฃุตุจุญ ู…ู† ุงู„ูˆุงุถุญ ู„ู†ุง ู„ุนุฏุฉ ุณู†ูˆุงุช
16:24
that caves have many properties
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ุฃู† ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู ุชู…ุชู„ูƒ ุฎูˆุงุต ุนุฏูŠุฏุฉ
16:26
that people have used
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ุงุณุชุฎุฏู…ู‡ุง ุงู„ุจุดุฑ
16:28
and other organisms have used as habitat in the past.
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ูˆุงุณุชุฎุฏู…ุชู‡ุง ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุงู„ุฃุฎุฑู‰ ูƒู…ูˆุทู†ู ู„ู‡ุง ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุงุถูŠ.
16:30
And perhaps it's time we started to explore those,
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ูˆุฑุจู…ุง ุงู„ูˆู‚ุช ู…ู†ุงุณุจูŒ ุงู„ุงู† ุฃู†ู†ุง ุงูƒุชุดูู†ุง ูƒู„ ู‡ุฐุง ุŒ
16:34
in the context of future Mars and the Moon exploration.
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ู…ู† ุฃุฌู„ ุฏุฑุงุณุฉ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ูˆุงู„ู‚ู…ุฑ ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุณุชู‚ุจู„.
16:37
So, we have just finished a NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts Phase II study,
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ูุฅู†ู†ุง ู‚ุฏ ุงู†ุชู‡ูŠู†ุง ู„ู„ุชูˆ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุฑุญู„ุฉ 2 ู„ู…ุดุฑูˆุน ู†ุงุณุง ู„ุฏุฑุงุณุฉ ุงู„ู…ุจุงุฏูŠุก ุงู„ู…ุชุทูˆุฑุฉ ุŒ
16:42
looking at the irreducible set of technologies
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ูˆุจุงู„ู†ุธุฑ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุชู‚ู†ูŠุงุช ุงู„ู…ุฐู‡ู„ุฉ
16:44
that you would need in order to
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ู†ุญุชุงุฌู‡ุง ู…ู† ุฃุฌู„
16:46
actually allow people to inhabit lava tubes
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ุฌุนู„ ุงู„ุจุดุฑ ู‚ุงุฏุฑูŠู† ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุชุนุงู…ู„ ู…ุน ู‚ู†ูˆุงุช ุงู„ุญู…ู… ุงู„ุจุฑูƒุงู†ูŠุฉ
16:49
on the Moon or Mars.
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ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู‚ู…ุฑ ุฃูˆ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ.
16:51
It turns out to be a fairly simple and small list,
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ุงุชุถุญ ุฃู†ู‡ุง ู‚ุงุฆู…ุฉูŒ ุจุณูŠุทุฉูŒ ูˆุณู‡ู„ุฉ ุŒ
16:54
and we have gone
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ูˆู†ุญู† ุงุชุฌู‡ู†ุง
16:56
in the relatively primitive technology direction.
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ุฅู„ู‰ ุฅุชุฌุงู‡ ุจุณูŠุทู ู†ูˆุนุงู‹ ู…ุง.
16:58
So, we're talking about things like inflatable liners
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ู„ุฐุง ุŒ ูู†ุญู† ู†ุชุญุฏุซ ุนู† ุฃุดูŠุงุก ุนู„ู‰ ุดูƒู„ ุจุทุงู†ุฉ ู„ู„ูƒู‡ูˆู
17:01
that can conform to the complex topological shape
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ุจุฅู…ูƒุงู†ู‡ุง ุฃู† ุชุชุฃู‚ู„ู… ู…ุน ุฃุดูƒุงู„ ุจูŠุฆุงุช ู…ุนู‚ุฏุฉ
17:04
on the inside of a cave,
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ููŠ ุฏุงุฎู„ ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู ุŒ
17:06
foamed-in-place airlocks to deal with this complex topology,
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ูˆุฑุบูˆูŠุฉ ุชุญุฌุฒ ุงู„ู‡ูˆุงุก ู„ุชุชุดูƒู„ ุจุฃุดูƒุงู„ ู…ุนู‚ุฏุฉ ุŒ
17:10
various ways of getting breathing gases
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ูˆุทุฑู‚ ู…ุฎุชู„ูุฉ ู„ู„ุญุตูˆู„ ุนู„ู‰ ุบุงุฒุงุช ุชู†ูุณ
17:13
made from the intrinsic materials of these bodies.
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ุตูู†ุนุช ู…ู† ู…ูˆุงุฏ ุฃุณุงุณูŠุฉ ู…ู† ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช.
17:16
And the future is there for us
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ูˆู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ุงู„ู…ุณุชู‚ุจู„
17:18
to use these lava-tube caves on Mars.
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ู„ุฅุณุชุฎุฏุงู… ู‚ู†ูˆุงุช ุงู„ุญู…ู… ุงู„ุจุฑูƒุงู†ูŠุฉ ุชู„ูƒ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ.
17:21
And right now we're in caves, and we're doing science and recreation,
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ูˆู†ุญู† ุงู„ุงู† ุจุฏุงุฎู„ ุงู„ูƒู‡ูˆู ุŒ ู…ู† ุฃุฌู„ ุงู„ุนู„ู… ูˆุงู„ุฅุณุชุฌู…ุงู… ุŒ
17:25
but I think in the future we'll be using them
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ูˆู„ูƒู†ู†ูŠ ุฃุนุชู‚ุฏ ุฃู†ู†ุง ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุณุชู‚ุจู„ ุณู†ุณุชุฎุฏู…ู‡ุง
17:27
for habitat and science on these other bodies.
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ู„ู„ุณูƒู† ูˆุนู…ู„ ุงู„ุจุญูˆุซ ุนู„ู‰ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช.
17:29
Now, my view of what the current status
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ูˆุงู„ุงู† ุŒ ุฑุฃูŠูŠ ููŠ ุงู„ูˆุถุน ุงู„ุญุงู„ูŠ
17:32
of potential life on Mars is
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ู‡ูˆ ุฃู† ูุฑุต ูˆุฌูˆุฏ ุญูŠุงุฉู ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ
17:34
that it's probably been on the planet,
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ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ู…ู† ุงู„ุฃุฑุฌุญ ูˆุฌูˆุฏู‡ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ูƒูˆูƒุจ ุŒ
17:37
maybe one in two chances.
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ู‡ูŠ ูˆุงุญุฏ ู…ู† ุฅุซู†ูŠู†.
17:40
The question as to whether
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ูˆุงู„ุณุคุงู„ ุญูˆู„ ู…ุง ุฅุฐุง ูƒุงู†ุช
17:43
there is life on Mars that is related to life on Earth
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ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ู…ุฑุชุจุทุฉูŒ ุจุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ
17:47
has now been very muddied,
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ุฃุตุจุญ ุงู„ุงู† ุจุงู‡ุชุงู‹
17:49
because we now know,
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ู„ุฃู†ู†ุง ู†ุนุฑู ุงู„ุงู† ุŒ
17:50
from Mars meteorites that have made it to Earth,
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ู…ู† ุงู„ู†ูŠุงุฒูƒ ุงู„ู‚ุงุฏู…ุฉ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถุŒ
17:53
that there's material that can be exchanged between those two planets.
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ุฃู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ู…ูˆุงุฏ ุจุงู„ุฅู…ูƒุงู† ุชุจุงุฏู„ู‡ุง ุจูŠู† ุงู„ูƒูˆูƒุจูŠู†.
17:57
One of the burning questions, of course, is
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ูˆุฃุญุฏ ุงู„ุฃุณุฆู„ุฉ ุงู„ุดุงุฆุนุฉ ุŒ ุจุงู„ุทุจุน ุŒ ู‡ูˆ
17:59
if we go there and find life in the sub-surface,
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ุฅุฐุง ุฐู‡ุจู†ุง ุฅู„ู‰ ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ูˆูˆุฌุฏู†ุง ุญูŠุงุฉู‹ ุชุญุช ุงู„ุณุทุญ ุŒ
18:02
as I fully expect that we will,
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ูˆุฃู†ุง ู…ุชุฃูƒุฏุฉูŒ ู…ู† ุฐู„ูƒ ุŒ
18:04
is that a second genesis of life?
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ูู‡ู„ ุชู„ูƒ ุจุฏุงูŠุฉ ู†ุดุฃุฉ ุญูŠุงุฉู ุฌุฏูŠุฏุฉ ุŸ
18:06
Did life start here
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ู‡ู„ ุจุฏุฃุช ุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ู‡ู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถ
18:08
and was it transported there?
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ูˆู…ู† ุซู… ุงู†ุชู‚ู„ุช ุฅู„ู‰ ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุŸ
18:10
Did it start there and get transported here?
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ุฃู… ุจุฏุฃุช ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ูˆุงู†ุชู‚ู„ุช ุฅู„ู‰ ู‡ู†ุง ุŸ
18:13
This will be a fascinating puzzle as we go into the next half-century,
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ู‡ุฐุง ุณูŠูƒูˆู† ู„ุบุฒุงู‹ ู…ุญูŠุฑุงู‹ ููŠ ุงู„ู†ุตู ู‚ุฑู† ุงู„ู‚ุงุฏู… ุŒ
18:17
and where I expect that we will
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ุญูŠุซ ุฃุชูˆู‚ุน ุณูŠูƒูˆู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ
18:19
have more and more Mars missions to answer these questions.
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ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ูˆุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ู‡ู…ุงุช ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุฎ ู„ู„ุฅุฌุงุจุฉ ุนู† ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุฃุณุฆู„ุฉ.
18:22
Thank you.
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ุดูƒุฑุงู‹ ู„ูƒู….
ุญูˆู„ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ู…ูˆู‚ุน

ุณูŠู‚ุฏู… ู„ูƒ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ู…ูˆู‚ุน ู…ู‚ุงุทุน ููŠุฏูŠูˆ YouTube ุงู„ู…ููŠุฏุฉ ู„ุชุนู„ู… ุงู„ู„ุบุฉ ุงู„ุฅู†ุฌู„ูŠุฒูŠุฉ. ุณุชุฑู‰ ุฏุฑูˆุณ ุงู„ู„ุบุฉ ุงู„ุฅู†ุฌู„ูŠุฒูŠุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ูŠุชู… ุชุฏุฑูŠุณู‡ุง ู…ู† ู‚ุจู„ ู…ุฏุฑุณูŠู† ู…ู† ุงู„ุฏุฑุฌุฉ ุงู„ุฃูˆู„ู‰ ู…ู† ุฌู…ูŠุน ุฃู†ุญุงุก ุงู„ุนุงู„ู…. ุงู†ู‚ุฑ ู†ู‚ุฑู‹ุง ู…ุฒุฏูˆุฌู‹ุง ููˆู‚ ุงู„ุชุฑุฌู…ุฉ ุงู„ุฅู†ุฌู„ูŠุฒูŠุฉ ุงู„ู…ุนุฑูˆุถุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ูƒู„ ุตูุญุฉ ููŠุฏูŠูˆ ู„ุชุดุบูŠู„ ุงู„ููŠุฏูŠูˆ ู…ู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ. ูŠุชู… ุชู…ุฑูŠุฑ ุงู„ุชุฑุฌู…ุงุช ุจุงู„ุชุฒุงู…ู† ู…ุน ุชุดุบูŠู„ ุงู„ููŠุฏูŠูˆ. ุฅุฐุง ูƒุงู† ู„ุฏูŠูƒ ุฃูŠ ุชุนู„ูŠู‚ุงุช ุฃูˆ ุทู„ุจุงุช ุŒ ูŠุฑุฌู‰ ุงู„ุงุชุตุงู„ ุจู†ุง ุจุงุณุชุฎุฏุงู… ู†ู…ูˆุฐุฌ ุงู„ุงุชุตุงู„ ู‡ุฐุง.

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