Penelope Boston: Life on Mars? Let's look in the caves

55,411 views ใƒป 2008-12-19

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: amir Goldstein ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:18
The career that I started early on in my life
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ื”ืงืจื™ืจื” ื‘ื” ื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ื‘ืฉืœื‘ื™ื ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™
00:21
was looking for exotic life forms in exotic places,
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœืžืฆื•ื ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื ื™ื•ืฆืื•ืช ื“ื•ืคืŸ ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื™ื•ืฆืื™ ื“ื•ืคืŸ,
00:25
and at that time I was working in the Antarctic and the Arctic,
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ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ ืขื‘ื“ืชื™ ื‘ืงื•ื˜ื‘ ื”ื“ืจื•ืžื™ ื•ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™,
00:28
and high deserts and low deserts.
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ื•ื‘ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื•ืช ื•ื ืžื•ื›ื•ืช.
00:30
Until about a dozen years ago, when I was really captured by caves,
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ื–ื” ื ืžืฉืš ืขื“ ืœืคื ื™ 12 ืฉื ื” ื‘ืขืจืš , ืื– ื ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืขืจื•ืช,
00:33
and I really re-focused most of my research in that direction.
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ื•ืžืžืฉ ืžื™ืงื“ืชื™ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉืœื™ ื‘ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื”.
00:37
So I have a really cool day job-- I get to do some really amazing stuff.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื™ืฉ ืœื™ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืžืžืฉ ืžื’ื ื™ื‘ื”, ืื ื™ ื–ื•ื›ื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื™ื.
00:40
I work in some of the most extreme cave environments on the planet.
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ืื ื™ ืขื•ื‘ื“ืช ื‘ืžืขืจื•ืช ืขื ื”ืชื ืื™ื ื”ื›ื™ ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ื‘ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
00:44
Many of them are trying to kill us from the minute we go into them,
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ืจื‘ื•ืช ืžื”ืŸ ืžื ืกื•ืช ืœื”ืจื•ื’ ืื•ืชื ื• ืžื”ืจื’ืข ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื ื›ื ืกื™ื ืืœื™ื”ืŸ,
00:46
but nevertheless, they're absolutely gripping,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ื–ืืช, ื”ืŸ ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืžืจืชืงื•ืช
00:49
and contain unbelievable biological wonders
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ื•ืžื›ื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืคืœืื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื™ื
00:51
that are very, very different from those that we have on the planet.
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ืฉืฉื•ื ื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ืžืืœื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืขืœ ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืื“ืžื”.
00:54
Apart from the intrinsic value
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ื—ื•ืฅ ืžื”ืขืจืš ื”ืžื”ื•ืชื™
00:56
of the biology and mineralogy and geo-microbiology that we do there,
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ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืงืจ ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™, ื”ืžื™ื ืจืœื•ื’ื™ ื•ื”ื’ืื•-ืžื™ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ืฉืื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืฉื,
00:59
we're also using these as templates
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื’ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื•ืช ื›ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช
01:01
for figuring out how to go look
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ืฉืขื•ื–ืจื•ืช ืœื ื• ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื™ืš ืœื—ืคืฉ
01:03
for life on other planets.
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ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืœื›ืช ืื—ืจื™ื.
01:05
Particularly Mars, but also Europa,
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ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืžืื“ื™ื, ืื‘ืœ ื’ื ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”,
01:07
the small, icy moon around Jupiter.
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ื”ื™ืจื— ื”ืงืคื•ื ื”ืงื˜ืŸ ืฉืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช ืฆื“ืง.
01:10
And perhaps, someday, far beyond our solar system itself.
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ื•ืื•ืœื™, ื‘ื™ื•ื ืžืŸ ื”ื™ืžื™ื, ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืฉืœื ื•.
01:13
I'm very passionately interested in the human future,
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ืื ื™ ืžืชืขื ื™ื™ื ืช ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ืขืชื™ื“ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™,
01:16
on the Moon and Mars particularly,
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ื‘ื™ืจื— ื•ื‘ืžืื“ื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“,
01:18
and elsewhere in the solar system.
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ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ.
01:20
I think it's time that we transitioned
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉื”ื’ื™ืข ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื ืขื‘ื•ืจ
01:22
to a solar system-going civilization and species.
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ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืฉื•ื›ืŸ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ื›ื•ืœื”.
01:25
And, as an outgrowth of all of this then,
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ื•ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื–ื” ,
01:28
I wonder about whether we can, and whether we even should,
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ืื ื™ ืชื•ื”ื” ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื•ืื ื›ื“ืื™ ืœื ื•
01:31
think about transporting Earth-type life to other planets.
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ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื ืืจืฆื™ื•ืช ืœื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืœื›ืช ืื—ืจื™ื,
01:35
Notably Mars, as a first example.
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ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืœืžืื“ื™ื, ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืจืืฉื•ื ื”.
01:37
Something I never talk about in scientific meetings
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ืื ื™ืฉ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืื ื™ ืืฃ ืคืขื ืœื ืžื“ื‘ืจืช ืขืœื™ื• ื‘ืคื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืžื“ืขื™ื•ืช
01:39
is how I actually got to this state
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ื–ื” ืื™ืš ืœืžืขืฉื” ื”ื’ืขืชื™ ืœืžืฆื‘ ื”ื–ื”
01:41
and why I do the work that I do.
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ื•ืœืžื” ืื ื™ ืขื•ืกืงืช ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื–ืืช.
01:43
Why don't I have a normal job, a sensible job?
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ืœืžื” ืื™ืŸ ืœื™ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื ื•ืจืžืืœื™ืช, ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉื’ืจืชื™ืช?
01:46
And then of course, I blame the Soviet Union.
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ื•ืื– ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ืื ื™ ืžืืฉื™ืžื” ืืช ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขืฆื•ืช.
01:49
Because in the mid-1950s,
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื‘ืืžืฆืข ืฉื ื•ืช ื”- 50,
01:51
when I was a tiny child,
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ื›ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื™ืœื“ื” ืงื˜ื ื”,
01:53
they had the audacity to launch
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ื”ื ื”ืขื–ื• ืœืฉื’ืจ
01:55
a very primitive little satellite called Sputnik,
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ืœื•ื•ื™ืŸ ืงื˜ืŸ ื•ืคืจื™ืžื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ ืฉืฉืžื• ืกืคื•ื˜ื ื™ืง,
01:58
which sent the Western world into a hysterical tailspin.
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ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ ืœืกื—ืจื•ืจ ื”ื™ืกื˜ืจื™.
02:02
And a tremendous amount of money
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ื›ืžื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ื›ืกืฃ
02:04
went into the funding of science
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ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจื” ืœืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ื”ืงื ื™ื™ืช ืžื“ืข
02:06
and mathematics skills for kids.
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ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืžืชืžื˜ื™ื•ืช ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื.
02:08
And I'm a product of that generation,
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ื•ืื ื™ ืชื•ืฆืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื“ื•ืจ ื”ื–ื”,
02:10
like so many other of my peers.
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ื›ืžื• ืจื‘ื™ื ืžืขืžื™ืชื™.
02:12
It really caught hold of us, and caught fire,
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ื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ืชืคืก ืื•ืชื ื•, ื•ื”ืฆื™ืช ื‘ื ื• ืืฉ,
02:14
and it would be lovely if we could reproduce that again now.
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ื•ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื ืคืœื ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉื—ื–ืจ ืืช ื–ื” ืขื›ืฉื™ื•.
02:17
Of course, refusing to grow up --
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ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืœืกืจื‘ ืœื”ืชื‘ื’ืจ,
02:19
-- even though I impersonate a grown-up in daily life,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉืื ื™ ืžืชื—ื–ื” ืœืžื‘ื•ื’ืจืช ื‘ื—ื™ื™ ื”ื™ื•ื ื™ื•ื
02:22
but I do a fairly good job of that --
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ื•ืื ื™ ืขื•ืฉื” ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื”,
02:24
but really retaining that childlike quality
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืืžืช ืœืฉืžืจ ืืช ื”ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ืœื“ื•ืชื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•
02:26
of not caring what other people think
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ื›ืžื• ืœื ืœืชืช ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœืžื” ืฉืื—ืจื™ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื
02:28
about what you're interested in, is really critical.
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ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืœื™, ื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืงืจื™ื˜ื™.
02:31
The next element is the fact that
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ื”ืืœืžื ื˜ ื”ื‘ื ื”ื•ื ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื”
02:33
I have applied a value judgment
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ืฉื”ืชืžืขืชื™ ืืฆืœื™ ืขืจืš ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ
02:35
and my value judgment is that the presence of life
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ืฉืื•ืžืจ ืฉื ื•ื›ื—ื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื
02:37
is better than no life.
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ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ืขื“ืจื•ืชื.
02:39
And so, life is more valuable than no life.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ, ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืจื›ื™ื™ื ืžื—ื•ืกืจ ื—ื™ื™ื.
02:41
And so I think that that holds together
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ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื” ืžื” ืฉื’ื•ืจื
02:44
a great deal of the work
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ื—ืœืง ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”
02:46
that people in this audience approach.
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ืฉื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืžื”ืงื”ืœ ืขื•ืฉื™ื, ื ืขืฉื”.
02:50
I'm very interested in Mars, of course,
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ืื ื™ ืžืื•ื“ ืžืชืขื ื™ื™ื ืช ื‘ืžืื“ื™ื , ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ,
02:53
and that was a product of my being a young undergraduate
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ื•ื”ื”ืชืขื ื™ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ื–ืืช ื”ื™ื ืชื•ืฆืื” ืœื›ืš ืฉื›ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ืช ืœืชื•ืืจ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ,
02:57
when the Viking Landers landed on Mars.
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ื ื—ืชื” ื”ื’ืฉื•ืฉื™ืช (ื—ืœืœื™ืช ืงื˜ื ื” ื‘ืœืชื™ ืžืื•ื™ื™ืฉืช) ื•ื™ืงื™ื ื’ ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
03:00
And that took what had been
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ื”ื ื—ื™ืชื” ื”ื–ื• ื”ืคื›ื” ืืช ืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื”
03:02
a tiny little astronomical object in the sky,
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ืขืฆื ืืกื˜ืจื•ื ื•ืžื™ ื–ืขื™ืจ ื‘ืฉืžื™ื™ื
03:05
that you would see as a dot,
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ืฉื ืจืื” ืœื ื• ื›ืžื• ื ืงื•ื“ื”
03:07
and turned it completely into a landscape,
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ื•ื”ืคื›ื” ืื•ืชื• ืœื ื•ืฃ ืฉืœื,
03:11
as that very first primitive picture
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ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื•ื”ืคืจื™ืžื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื–ืืช
03:13
came rastering across the screen.
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ื”ื•ืคื™ืขื” ืขืœ ื”ืžืกืš.
03:15
And when it became a landscape,
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ื•ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื”ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ืคื›ื” ืœื ื•ืฃ,
03:17
it also became a destination,
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ื”ื™ื ื’ื ื”ืคื›ื” ืœื™ืขื“,
03:19
and altered, really, the course of my life.
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ื•ื‘ืืžืช ืฉื™ื ืชื” ืืช ืžืกืœื•ืœ ื—ื™ื™.
03:23
In my graduate years I worked with
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ื‘ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ื ืœืชื•ืืจ ืฉื ื™ ืขื‘ื“ืชื™ ืขื
03:25
my colleague and mentor and friend, Steve Schneider,
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ื”ืงื•ืœื’ื”, ื”ืžื ื˜ื•ืจ ื•ื”ื—ื‘ืจ ืœื™, ืกื˜ื™ื‘ ืฉื ื™ื™ื“ืจ,
03:27
at the National Center for Atmospheric Research,
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ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ ืœืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื™,
03:29
working on global change issues.
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ืขืœ ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื’ืœื•ื‘ืืœื™ื™ื.
03:32
We've written a number of things on
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ื›ืชื‘ื ื• ืžืกืคืจ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ
03:34
the role of Gaia hypothesis --
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ื”ืฉืขืจืช ื’ืื™ื”-
03:35
whether or not you could consider Earth as a single entity
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ื”ืื ืืคืฉืจ ืื• ืœื ืœื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ ืืช ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื›ื™ืฉื•ืช ืื—ืช
03:38
in any meaningful scientific sense,
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ื‘ืื™ื–ืฉื”ื• ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืžื“ืขื™ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™,
03:40
and then, as an outgrowth of that,
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ื•ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื–ื”,
03:42
I worked on the environmental consequences of nuclear war.
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ื—ืงืจืชื™ ืืช ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืœื—ืžื” ื”ื’ืจืขื™ื ื™ืช.
03:46
So, wonderful things and grim things.
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ืื–, ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื™ื ื•ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžื—ืจื™ื“ื™ื.
03:48
But what it taught me was to look at Earth as a planet
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืœื™ืžื“ ืื•ืชื™ ืœื”ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื›ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืœื›ืช
03:51
with external eyes, not just as our home.
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ืžื‘ื—ื•ืฅ, ืœื ืจืง ื›ืขืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
03:54
And that is a wonderful stepping away in perspective,
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ื•ื–ื” ืฆืขื“ ื ืคืœื ืœืื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืคืจืกืคืงื˜ื™ื‘ื”,
03:58
to try to then think about the way
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ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื”ื“ืจืš
04:00
our planet behaves, as a planet,
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ืฉื‘ื” ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช ืฉืœื ื• ืžืชื ื”ื’, ื›ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืœื›ืช,
04:03
and with the life that's on it.
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ืขื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืขืœื™ื•.
04:05
And all of this seems to me to be
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ื•ื›ืœ ื–ื” ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืชื™,
04:08
a salient point in history.
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ืœื ืงื•ื“ื” ื‘ื•ืœื˜ืช ื‘ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื”.
04:10
We're getting ready to begin to go
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชื›ื•ื ื ื™ื ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ
04:12
through the process of leaving our planet of origin
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ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืฉืœ ืขื–ื™ื‘ืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™ ืฉืœื ื•
04:15
and out into the wider solar system and beyond.
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ืืœ ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ื”ืจื—ื‘ื” ื•ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื›ืš.
04:19
So, back to Mars.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื‘ื—ื–ืจื” ืœืžืื“ื™ื.
04:21
How hard is it going to be to find life on Mars?
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ื›ืžื” ืงืฉื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœืžืฆื•ื ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื?
04:23
Well, sometimes it's really very hard for us to find each other,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืžืžืฉ ืงืฉื” ืœื ื• ืœืžืฆื•ื ืื—ื“ ืืช ื”ืฉื ื™,
04:25
even on this planet.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
04:27
So, finding life on another planet
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ืื–, ืœืžืฆื•ื ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ืœื›ืช ืื—ืจ
04:29
is a non-trivial occupation
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ื–ื” ืœื ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืžื” ื‘ื›ืš.
04:31
and we spend a lot of time trying to think about that.
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ื•ื”ืฉืงืขื ื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ื–ืžืŸ ื‘ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื–ื”.
04:34
Whether or not you think it's likely to be successful
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ื•ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื ืฆืœื™ื—
04:36
sort of depends on what you think about
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ืชืœื•ื™ ื‘ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ืฉืœื ื•
04:38
the chances of life in the universe.
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ืขืœ ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ืœืงื™ื•ื ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ืงื•ื
04:40
I think, myself,
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ืื ื™, ืื™ืฉื™ืช, ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช
04:42
that life is a natural outgrowth
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ืฉื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื ืชื•ืฆืื” ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช
04:45
of the increasing complexification of matter over time.
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ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื•ื‘ืช ื”ื’ื“ืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ืœืื•ืจืš ื–ืžืŸ.
04:48
So, you start with the Big Bang and you get hydrogen,
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ืื–, ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืขื ื”ืžืคืฅ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉื‘ื• ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืžื™ืžืŸ,
04:50
and then you get helium, and then you get more complicated stuff,
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ื•ืื– ื”ืชื•ื•ืกืฃ ื”ืœื™ื•ื, ื•ืื– ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ,
04:52
and you get planets forming --
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ื•ืื– ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืœื›ืช,
04:54
and life is a common, planetary-based phenomenon, in my view.
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ื•ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื ืชื•ืคืขื” ื ืคื•ืฆื” ืขืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ื”ืœื›ืช, ืœื“ืขืชื™.
04:58
Certainly, in the last 15 years,
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ื‘ื—ืžืฉ ืขืฉืจื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช,
05:00
we've seen increasing numbers of planets
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ืจืื™ื ื• ืžืกืคืจื™ื ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ื•ื’ื“ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืœื›ืช
05:03
outside of our solar system being confirmed,
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ืฉื”ืชื’ืœื• ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืฉืœื ื•,
05:06
and just last month, a couple of weeks ago,
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ื•ืจืง ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืฉืขื‘ืจ, ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืžื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช,
05:09
a planet in the size-class of Earth
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ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืœื›ืช ื‘ืกื“ืจ ื”ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ,
05:11
has actually been found.
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ืœืžืขืฉื” ื ืžืฆื.
05:13
And so this is very exciting news.
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ื•ืืœื• ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืžืจื’ืฉื•ืช ืžืื•ื“.
05:15
So, my first bold prediction is that,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื”ืชื—ื–ื™ืช ื”ื ื•ืขื–ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืœื™ ื”ื™ื,
05:17
is that in the universe, life is going to be everywhere.
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ืฉื‘ื™ืงื•ื, ื™ื”ื™ื• ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื.
05:20
It's going to be everywhere we look --
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ื”ื ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื ืฉื ืกืชื›ืœ,
05:22
where there are planetary systems that can possibly support it.
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ืื™ืคื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืคืœื ื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื.
05:25
And those planetary systems are going to be very common.
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ื•ื”ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื”ืคืœื ื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื”ื•ืœื›ื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ืฉื›ื™ื—ื•ืช.
05:28
So, what about life on Mars?
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ืื–, ืžื” ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื?
05:30
Well, if somebody had asked me about a dozen years ago
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื”ื™ื” ืฉื•ืืœ ืื•ืชื™ ืœืคื ื™ ืชืจื™ืกืจ ืฉื ื™ื
05:32
what I thought the chances of life on Mars would be,
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ืžื”ื ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ื™ื ืœื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ืœื“ืขืชื™,
05:35
I would've probably said, a couple of percent.
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืื•ืžืจืช, ื›ื ืจืื”, ื›ืžื” ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื.
05:38
And even that was considered outrageous at the time.
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ื•ื–ื” ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืœื”ื’ื–ืžื” ื‘ื–ืžื ื•.
05:41
I was once sneeringly introduced
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ื‘ืขื‘ืจ ื”ื•ืฆื’ืชื™ ื‘ืœืขื’
05:43
by a former NASA official,
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื ืฆื™ื’ ืจืฉืžื™ ืœืฉืขื‘ืจ ืฉืœ ื ืืก"ื,
05:45
as the only person on the planet
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ื›ื‘ืŸ ืื“ื ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ืขื•ืœื
05:47
who still thought there was life on Mars.
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ืฉืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื™ืฉ ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื.
05:49
Of course, that official is now dead, and I'm not,
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ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ื”ื ืฆื™ื’ ื”ื–ื” ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืžืช, ื•ืื ื™ ืœื,
05:51
so there's a certain amount of glory
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืชื”ื™ืœื”
05:54
in outliving your adversaries.
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ื‘ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ื™ืจื™ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœืš.
05:56
But things have changed greatly
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ืื‘ืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืฉืชื ื• ืžืื•ื“
05:58
over the last dozen years.
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืฉืชื™ื ืขืฉืจื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช.
06:01
And the reason that they have changed
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ื•ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™
06:03
is because we now have new information.
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ื”ื™ื ืฉืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืžื™ื“ืข ื—ื“ืฉ.
06:05
The amazing Pathfinder mission that went in '97,
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ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื” ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื” Pathfinder, ื‘-1997
06:08
and the MER Rover missions
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ื•ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืจื›ื‘ MER
06:10
that are on Mars as we speak now
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ืฉื ืžืฆื ื‘ืžืื“ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ืขื™ื ื”ืืœื• ืฉืื ื• ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื
06:12
and the European Space Agency's Mars Express,
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ื•ื’ืฉื•ืฉื™ืช ื”ื—ืœืœ ืฉืœ ื”ืกื•ื›ื ื•ืช ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคืื™ืช ืœื—ืœืœ Mars Express
06:15
has taught us a number of amazing things.
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ืœื™ืžื“ื• ืื•ืชื ื• ืžืกืคืจ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื™ื.
06:17
There is sub-surface ice on that planet.
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ื™ืฉื ื ืžืื’ืจื™ ืงืจื— ืชืช ืงืจืงืขื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช ื”ื–ื”.
06:20
And so where there is water,
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ื•ืื™ืคื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืžื™ื,
06:22
there is a very high chance of our kind of life.
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ื™ืฉ ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžืื•ื“ ืœื—ื™ื™ื ืžื”ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœื ื•.
06:24
There's clearly sedimentary rocks all over the place โ€“
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ื™ืฉ ื‘ื‘ื™ืจื•ืจ ืกืœืขื™ ืžืฉืงืข ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื—,
06:26
one of the landers is sitting in the middle of an ancient seabed,
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ืื—ื“ ืžื›ืœื™ ื”ื ื—ื™ืชื” ื ื—ืช ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ืงืจืงืขื™ืช ื™ื ืขืชื™ืง
06:29
and there are these amazing structures called blueberries,
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืžื‘ื ื™ื ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื™ื ืฉื ืงืจืื™ื ืื•ื›ืžื ื™ื•ืช
06:33
which are these little, rocky concretions
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ืฉื”ื ื‘ืขืฆื , ืฆื‘ื™ืจื™ื ืกืœืขื™ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื,
06:35
that we are busy making biologically
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ืขืœื™ื”ื ืื ืœื™ื–ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช
06:37
in my lab right now.
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ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ื” ืฉืœื™ ื‘ืจื’ืข ื–ื”.
06:39
So, with all of these things put together,
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ื›ืฉืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื• ื‘ื™ื—ื“,
06:41
I think that the chances of life
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ื™ื ืœื—ื™ื™ื
06:43
are much greater than I would've ever thought.
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ื”ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื” ืฉืื™ ืคืขื ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™.
06:45
I think that the chance of life having arisen on Mars, sometime in its past,
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ื™ื ืœื›ืš ืฉื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืชืขื•ืจืจื• ื‘ืžืื“ื™ื ืžืชื™ืฉื”ื• ื‘ืขื‘ืจ
06:49
is maybe one in four to maybe even half and half.
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ื”ื ืžืฉื”ื• ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช ืื—ื“ ืœืืจื‘ืข, ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืืคื™ืœื• ื—ืฆื™-ื—ืฆื™.
06:52
So this is a very bold statement.
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ื–ืืช ื”ืฆื”ืจื” ืžืื•ื“ ื ื•ืขื–ืช.
06:54
I think it's there, and I think we need
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื ืžืฆืื™ื ืฉื, ื•ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื
06:56
to go look for it, and I think it's underground.
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ืœืœื›ืช ืœื—ืคืฉ ืืช ืื•ืชื, ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉื”ื ืžืชื—ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืื“ืžื”.
06:58
So the game's afoot, and this is the game that we play in astro-biology.
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ืื–, ื”ืžืฉื—ืง ื›ื‘ืจ ืจืฅ, ื•ื–ื” ื”ืžืฉื—ืง ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฉื—ืงื™ื ื‘ืืกื˜ืจื•-ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”
07:02
How do you try to get a handle on extraterrestrial life?
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ืื™ืš ืืชื” ืžื ื™ื— ืืช ื™ื“ืš ืขืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ื—ื•ืฅ-ืืจืฆื™ื™ื?
07:05
How do you plan to look for it?
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ืื™ืš ืืชื” ืžืชื›ื ืŸ ืœื—ืคืฉ ืื—ืจื™ื”ื?
07:07
How do you know it when you find it?
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ืื™ืš ืชื“ืข ืฉืžืฆืืช ืื•ืชื?
07:09
Because if it's big and obvious, we would've already found it --
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื•ื‘ืจื•ืจื™ื ืžืืœื™ื”ื, ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืื•ืชื --
07:11
it would've already bitten us on the foot, and it hasn't.
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ื”ื ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื• ื ื•ืฉื›ื™ื ืœื ื• ื‘ืขืงื‘, ื•ื”ื ืœื.
07:14
So, we know that it's probably quite cryptic.
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ื ืกืชืจื™ื.
07:16
Very critically, how do we protect it,
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ื•ืžืื•ื“ ื—ืฉื•ื‘, ืื™ืš ื ื’ืŸ ืขืœื™ื”ื,
07:18
if we find it, and not contaminate it?
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ืื ื ืžืฆื ืื•ืชื, ื•ืœื ื ื–ื”ื ืื•ืชื?
07:21
And also, even perhaps more critically, because
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ื•ื’ื, ืื•ืœื™ ืืคื™ืœื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ืฉื•ื‘, ื‘ื’ืœืœ
07:24
this is the only home planet we have,
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ืฉื–ื”ื• ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื•
07:26
how do we protect us from it, while we study it?
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ืื™ืš ื ื’ืŸ ืขืœื™ื ื• ืžืคื ื™ื”ื, ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ืื•ืชื?
07:30
So why might it be hard to find?
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ืื–, ืœืžื” ืขืœื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืงืฉื” ืœืžืฆื•ื ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื ื–ืจื•ืช?
07:32
Well, it's probably microscopic, and it's never easy
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื”ื ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœื•ื“ืื™ ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื™ื, ื•ืืฃ ืคืขื ืœื ืงืœ
07:34
to study microscopic things,
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ืœืœืžื•ื“ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื™ื
07:36
although the amazing tools that we now have to do that
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ืžื›ืฉื™ืจื™ื ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืœื‘ืฆืข ืืช ื–ื”
07:39
allow us to study things in much greater depth,
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ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืœืœืžื•ื“ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืœืขื•ืžืง
07:41
at much smaller scales than ever before.
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ื‘ืงื ื™ ืžื™ื“ื” ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื™ ืคืขื.
07:44
But it's probably hiding, because if you are out
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ื”ื ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœื•ื“ืื™ ืžืชื—ื‘ืื™ื, ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืื ืืชื” ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ
07:47
sequestering resources from your environment, that makes you yummy,
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ืžื—ืคืฉ ืžืฉืื‘ื™ื ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœืš, ื–ื” ื”ื•ืคืš ืื•ืชืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื˜ืขื™ื
07:50
and other things might want to eat you, or consume you.
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ื•ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืขืœื•ืœื™ื ืœืื›ื•ืœ ืื•ืชืš, ืื• ืœืฆืจื•ืš ืื•ืชืš
07:52
And so, there's a game of predator-prey
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ, ื–ื”ื• ื”ืžืฉื—ืง ืฉืœ ื˜ื•ืจืฃ-ื ื˜ืจืฃ
07:55
that's going to be, essentially, universal, really,
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ืฉื”ื•ื ื›ื ืจืื” ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกืœื™ ื‘ืืžืช,
08:00
in any kind of biological system.
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืžืขืจื›ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช.
08:02
It also may be very, very different in its fundamental properties โ€“
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ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื
08:05
its chemistry, or its size.
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ื‘ื›ื™ืžื™ื” ืฉืœื”ื, ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœื”ื
08:07
We say small, but what does that mean?
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ืื ื™ ืื•ืžืจืช ืงื˜ืŸ, ืืš ืžื” ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ?
08:09
Is it virus-sized? Is it smaller than that?
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ื”ืื ื”ื ื™ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ื•ื™ืจื•ืก? ืื•ืœื™ ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ?
08:11
Is it bigger than the biggest bacterium? We don't know.
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ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื ื™ื”ื™ื• ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ? ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื.
08:13
And speed of activity, which is something that we face
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ื•ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืคืขื•ืœื” ืฉืœื”ื, ืฉื–ื” ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชืžื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืื™ืชื•
08:16
in our work with sub-surface organisms,
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ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื ื• ืขื ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืžืชื—ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืงืจืงืข
08:18
because they grow very, very slowly.
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ื›ื™ ื”ื ื’ื“ืœื™ื ืžืื•ื“, ืžืื•ื“ ืœืื˜
08:20
If I were to take a swab off your teeth
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ืื ืื ื™ ืืงื— ื“ื’ื™ืžื” ืžื”ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื›ื
08:23
and plate it on a Petri plate,
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ื•ืืฉื™ื ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืฆืœื—ืช ืคื˜ืจื™
08:25
within about four or five hours, I would have to see growth.
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ืชื•ืš ืืจื‘ืข ืขื“ ื—ืžืฉ ืฉืขื•ืช ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืจืื•ืช ื’ื“ื™ืœื” (ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื)
08:28
But the organisms that we work with,
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืื™ืชื
08:30
from the sub-surface of Earth,
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ืžืžืชื—ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
08:31
very often it's months -- and in many cases, years --
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ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ื™ืขื‘ืจื• ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื -- ื•ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืงืจื™ื, ืฉื ื™ื --
08:34
before we see any growth whatsoever.
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื ืจืื” ื’ื“ื™ืœื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ื ื‘ื›ืœืœ.
08:36
So they are, intrinsically, a slower life-form.
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ืื– ื”ื, ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื”ื•ืชื™, ืฆื•ืจืช ื—ื™ื™ื ืื™ื˜ื™ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ
08:39
But the real issue is that we are guided by
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื ื•ืฉื ื”ืืžื™ืชื™ ื”ื•ื - ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ื“ืจื›ื™ื ื‘ื™ื“ื™
08:42
our limited experience,
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ื”ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœ ืฉืœื ื•
08:44
and until we can think out of the box of our cranium and what we know,
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ื•ืขื“ ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืงื•ืคืกื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื— ืฉืœื ื• ื•ื”ื™ื“ืข ืฉืœื ื•
08:48
then we can't recognize what to look for,
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ืœื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื” ืœื—ืคืฉ
08:50
or how to plan for it.
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ืื• ืื™ืš ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ืžื” ืœื—ืคืฉ.
08:53
So, perspective is everything
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ืื–, ื ืงื•ื“ืช ืžื‘ื˜ ื”ื™ื ื”ื›ืœ
08:55
and, because of the history that I've just briefly talked to you about,
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ, ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืขื‘ืจื™, ืฉืขืœื™ื• ื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™ ื‘ืงืฆืจื”
08:58
I have learned to think about Earth
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ืœืžื“ืชื™ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
09:00
as an extraterrestrial planet.
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ื›ืขืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื—ื•ืฆื ื™
09:02
And this has been invaluable in our approach to try to study these things.
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ื•ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื™ืงืจ ืขืจืš ื‘ื’ื™ืฉืชื ื• ืœืœืžื•ื“ ื—ื™ื™ื ืžื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืื—ืจ
09:06
This is my favorite game on airplanes:
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ื–ื” ื”ืžืฉื—ืง ื”ื—ื‘ื™ื‘ ืขืœื™ ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื˜ื™ืกื”:
09:08
where you're in an airplane and you look out the window,
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ื›ืฉืืชื” ื‘ืžื˜ื•ืก, ื•ืืชื” ืžืกืชื›ืœ ืžื‘ืขื“ ืœื—ืœื•ืŸ
09:10
you see the horizon.
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ืืชื” ืจื•ืื” ืืช ื”ืื•ืคืง
09:11
I always turn my head on the side,
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ืื ื™ ืชืžื™ื“ ืžืกื•ื‘ื‘ืช ืืช ืจืืฉื™ ืœืฆื“,
09:13
and that simple change makes me go from
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ื•ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื”ื–ื” ื’ื•ืจื ืœื™ ืœืฉื ื•ืช ื ืงื•ื“ืช ืžื‘ื˜
09:16
seeing this planet as home,
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ืžืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื›"ื‘ื™ืช"
09:18
to seeing it as a planet.
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ืœืœืจืื•ืช ืื•ืชื• ื›"ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืœื›ืช".
09:20
It's a very simple trick, and I never fail to do it
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ื–ื” ืชืขืœื•ืœ ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืžืื•ื“, ื•ืื ื™ ืชืžื™ื“ ืžืฆืœื™ื—ื” ื‘ื•
09:22
when I'm sitting in a window seat.
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ื›ืฉืื ื™ ื™ื•ืฉื‘ืช ื‘ืžื•ืฉื‘ ืœื™ื“ ื”ื—ืœื•ืŸ
09:24
Well, this is what we apply to our work.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืืœื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื‘ื”ื ืื ื™ ืžืฉืชืžืฉืช ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื™.
09:26
This shows one of the most extreme caves that we work in.
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ื–ื• ืื—ืช ื”ืžืขืจื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืขื‘ื“ื ื• ื‘ื”
09:29
This is Cueva de Villa Luz in Tabasco, in Mexico,
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ื–ื• "ืงื•ื‘ืื” ื“ื” ื•ื™ืœื” ืœื•ืก" ื‘ื˜ื‘ืกืงื•, ืžืงืกื™ืงื•
09:33
and this cave is saturated with sulfuric acid.
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ื•ื”ืžืขืจื” ื”ื–ื• ืกืคื•ื’ื” ื‘ื—ื•ืžืฆื” ื’ื•ืคืจื™ืชื™ืช
09:36
There is tremendous amounts of hydrogen sulfide
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ื™ืฉ ื›ืžื•ืช ืขืฆื•ืžื” ืฉืœ ืžื™ืžืŸ ื’ื•ืคืจื™ืชื™
09:38
coming into this cave from volcanic sources
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ืฉืžื’ื™ืข ืœืžืขืจื” ื”ื–ื• ืžืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ื•ืœืงืื ื™ื™ื
09:41
and from the breakdown of evaporite --
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ื•ืžืฉื‘ื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ืกืœืขื™ ืื™ื“ื•ื™
09:43
minerals below the carbonates in which this cave is formed --
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ืžื™ื ืจืืœื™ื ืžืชื—ืช ืœืกืœืข ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ -- ืฉืžื”ื ื”ืžืขืจื” ื ื•ืฆืจื”
09:47
and it is a completely hostile environment for us.
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ื•ื–ื• ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืขื•ื™ื™ื ืช ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ ืขื‘ื•ืจื ื•.
09:49
We have to go in with protective suits and breathing gear,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื›ื ืก ืคื ื™ืžื” ืขื ื—ืœื™ืคื•ืช ืžื’ืŸ ื•ืฆื™ื•ื“ ื ืฉื™ืžื”,
09:53
and 30 parts per million of H2S will kill you.
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ื›ื™ 30 ื—ืœืงื™ื ื‘ืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ H2s (ื—ื•ืžืฆื” ื’ื•ืคืจื™ืชื™ืช) ื™ื”ืจื’ื• ืื•ืชืš,
09:58
This is regularly several hundred parts per million.
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ื•ื‘ืžืขืจื” ื”ื–ื• ื™ืฉ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืจื’ื™ืœ ื›ืžื” ืžืื•ืช ื—ืœืงื™ื ืœืžืœื™ื•ืŸ
10:00
So, it's a very hazardous environment,
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ืœื›ืŸ ื–ื• ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืกื•ื›ื ืช
10:02
with CO as well, and many other gases.
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ืขื ืคื—ืžืŸ ื—ื“ ื—ืžืฆื ื™, ื•ืขื•ื“ ื’ื–ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื.
10:04
These extreme physical and chemical parameters
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ื”ืชื ืื™ื ื”ืคื™ื–ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื ื”ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื
10:07
make the biology that grows in these places very special.
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ื’ื•ืจืžืช ืœื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉื’ื“ืœื” ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื›ืืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ืช
10:11
Because contrary to what you might think, this is not devoid of life.
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ื›ื™ ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืžื” ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘, ื”ืžืขืจื” ื”ื–ื• ืœื ื ื˜ื•ืœืช ื—ื™ื™ื
10:14
This is one of the richest caves
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ื–ื• ืื—ืช ืžื”ืžืขืจื•ืช ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
10:16
that we have found on the planet, anywhere.
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ืฉืžืฆืื ื• ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ, ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื.
10:18
It's bursting with life.
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ื”ื™ื ืžืœืื” ื—ื™ื™ื
10:20
The extremes on Earth are interesting in their own right,
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ื”ืชื ืื™ื ื”ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืคื ื™ ืขืฆืžื,
10:22
but one of the reasons that we're interested in them
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ืืš ืื—ืช ื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื’ืœืœื” ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืš ื›ืš ืžืชืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื”ื
10:24
is because they represent, really,
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ื”ื™ื ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ื™ื, ื‘ืืžืช,
10:26
the average conditions that we may expect on other planets.
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ืืช ื”ืชื ืื™ื ื”ืžืžื•ืฆืขื™ื ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืฆืคื•ืช ืœื”ื ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
10:29
So, this is part of the ability that we have,
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ืื–, ื–ื” ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื•,
10:31
to try to stretch our imagination,
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ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœืžืชื•ื— ืืช ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ,
10:33
in terms of what we may find in the future.
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ื‘ืžื•ื ื—ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืขืœื•ืœื™ื ืœืžืฆื•ื ื‘ืขืชื™ื“.
10:36
There's so much life in this cave,
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ื™ืฉ ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื”ืจื‘ื” ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื” ื”ื–ื•,
10:38
and I can't even begin
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ื•ืื ื™ ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ
10:40
to scratch the surface of it with you.
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ืœื’ืจื“ ืืช ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืฉืœื”ื ืืชื›ื.
10:42
But one of the most famous objects out of this
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ืื‘ืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ืขืฆืžื™ื ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกืžื™ื ืžืชื•ื›ื”
10:44
are what we call Snottites, for obvious reasons.
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ื”ื•ื ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืงื•ืจืื™ื "ื ื–ืœืช", ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืจื•ืจื•ืช
10:47
This stuff looks like what comes out of your two-year-old's nose when he has a cold.
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื–ื” ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืžื” ืฉื ื•ื–ืœ ืžื”ืืฃ ืฉืœ ื™ืœื“ ื‘ืŸ ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืฆื•ื ืŸ
10:51
And this is produced by bacteria who are actually
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื™ื•ืฆืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœืžืขืฉื”
10:54
making more sulfuric acid,
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ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื•ืช ืขื•ื“ ื—ื•ืžืฆื” ื’ื•ืคืจื™ืชื™ืช
10:56
and living at pHs right around zero.
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ื•ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ pH ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช ืืคืก (ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื—ื•ืžืฆื™ืช ืžืื•ื“)
10:59
And so, this stuff is like battery acid.
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื›ืžื• ื”ื—ื•ืžืฆื” ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ืกื•ืœืœื”.
11:01
And yet, everything in this cave has adapted to it.
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ื•ืขื“ื™ืŸ, ื›ืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื” ื”ื–ื• ื”ืกืชื’ืœื• ืœื›ืš
11:04
In fact, there's so much energy available
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื™ืฉ ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื”ืจื‘ื” ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื–ืžื™ื ื”
11:06
for biology in this cave,
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ืœื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื‘ืžืขืจื” ื”ื–ื•
11:08
that there's actually a huge number of cavefish.
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ื›ืš ืฉืœืžืขืฉื” ื”ื™ื ืžื›ื™ืœื” ืžืกืคืจ ืขืฆื•ื ืฉืœ ื“ื’ื™-ืžืขืจื”
11:10
And the local Zoque Indians
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ื•ื”ืื™ื ื“ื™ืื ื™ื ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ืžืฉื‘ื˜ "ื”ืกื•ืงื"
11:12
harvest this twice a year,
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ืงื•ืฆืจื™ื ืืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื–ื” ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ื‘ืฉื ื”,
11:14
as part of their Easter week celebration and Holy Week celebration.
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ื›ื—ืœืง ืžื—ื’ื™ื’ื•ืช ื”ืคืกื—ื ื•ื”ืฉื‘ื•ืข ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ (ื”ืฉื‘ื•ืข ืฉืงื•ื“ื ืœืคืกื—ื)
11:16
This is very unusual for caves.
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ื–ื• ืžืขืจื” ืžืื•ื“ ื™ื•ืฆืืช ื“ื•ืคืŸ
11:18
In some of the other amazing caves that we work in --
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ื‘ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืžืขืจื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ืช ืฉื‘ืขื‘ื“ืชื™ ื‘ื”ืŸ --
11:21
this is in Lechuguilla cave in New Mexico near Carlsbad,
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ื–ื• ืžืขืจืช "ืœืฆื’ื™ื”" ื‘ื ื™ื• ืžืงืกื™ืงื• ืœื™ื“ ืงืจืœืกื‘ื“
11:25
and this is one of the most famous caves in the world.
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ื•ื–ื• ืื—ืช ืžื”ืžืขืจื•ืช ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกืžื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื.
11:28
It's 115 miles of mapped passage,
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ื™ืฉ ื‘ื” 115 ืžื™ื™ืœ ืฉืœ ืžืขื‘ืจื™ื ืžืžื•ืคื™ื (ื› 185 ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจ)
11:30
it's pristine, it has no natural opening
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ื”ื™ื ืงื“ืžื•ื ื™ืช, ื˜ื”ื•ืจื”, ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื” ืคืชื— ื˜ื‘ืขื™,
11:33
and it's a gigantic biological,
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืžืขื‘ื“ื” ืขื ืงื™ืช ืœื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”
11:35
geo-microbiological laboratory.
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ื•ื’ื™ืื•-ืžื™ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”.
11:38
In this cave, great areas are covered by
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ื‘ืžืขืจื” ื”ื–ื•, ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืžื›ื•ืกื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™
11:41
this reddish material that you see here,
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ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืื“ืžื“ื ื”ื–ื” ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืคื”
11:43
and also these enormous crystals
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ื•ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื”ืงืจื™ืกื˜ืœื™ื ื”ืขืฆื•ืžื™ื ื”ืืœื•
11:45
of selenite that you can see dangling down.
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ืฉืœ ืกืœื ื™ื˜ (ืžื™ื ืจืœ) ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืชืœื•ื™ื™ื
11:47
This stuff is produced biologically.
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ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ื–ื” ืžื™ื•ืฆืจ ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช
11:50
This is the breakdown product of the bedrock,
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ื”ื•ื ืชื•ืฆืื” ืฉืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื›ืจืกื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืกืœืข
11:53
that organisms are busy munching their way through.
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ืฉื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืžื›ืจืกืžื™ื ืืช ื“ืจื›ื ื‘ื•
11:56
They take iron and manganese minerals
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ื”ื ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ื‘ืจื–ืœ ื•ืžื ื’ืŸ
11:59
within the bedrock and they oxidize them.
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ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืกืœืข, ื•ืžื—ืžืฆื ื™ื ืื•ืชื.
12:01
And every time they do that, they get a tiny little packet of energy.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉื”ื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืืช ื–ื”, ื”ื ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ื›ืžื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื” ืฉืœ ืื ืจื’ื™ื”
12:05
And that tiny little packet of energy is what they use, then,
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ื•ื‘ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื”ื–ืขื™ืจื” ื”ื–ื• ื”ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื
12:08
to run their life processes.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื
12:10
Interestingly enough, they also do this
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ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืื•ื“, ืฉื”ื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืืช ื–ื”
12:12
with uranium and chromium, and various other toxic metals.
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ื’ื ืขื ืื•ืจื ื™ื•ื ื•ื›ืจื•ืžื™ื•ื, ื•ืขื•ื“ ืžืกืคืจ ืžืชื›ื•ืช ืจืขื™ืœื•ืช
12:15
And so, the obvious avenue
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ, ื”ืฉื“ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื™ืช
12:18
for bio-remediation
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ืœืžื—ื–ื•ืจ ื•ืชื™ืงื•ืŸ ื ื–ืงื™ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช
12:20
comes from organisms like this.
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ืžืกืชื•ื‘ื‘ืช ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืกื•ื’ ื”ื–ื”
12:22
These organisms we now bring into the lab,
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ืืช ื”ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืžื‘ื™ืื™ื ืœืžืขื‘ื“ื”
12:24
and you can see some of them growing on Petri plates,
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ื•ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ื›ืžื” ืžื”ื ื’ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ืฆืœื—ื•ืช ืคื˜ืจื™
12:26
and get them to reproduce the precise biominerals
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืœื”ื ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืืช ืื•ืชื• ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™-ืžื™ื ืจืœื™
12:29
that we find on the walls of these caves.
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ืฉืื•ืชื• ืžืฆืื ื• ืขืœ ื”ืงื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžืขืจื•ืช ื”ืืœื•.
12:31
So, these are signals that they leave in the rock record.
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ื›ืš, ืืœื• ื”ื ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ืฉื”ื ืžืฉืื™ืจื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืกืœืข
12:34
Well, even in basalt surfaces in lava-tube caves,
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื’ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ืžืฉื˜ื—ื™ ื‘ื–ืœืช ื‘ืžืขืจื•ืช ืฉื ื•ืฆืจื• ื›ืฉืคื•ืจื•ืช-ืœื‘ื”
12:37
which are a by-product of volcanic activity,
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ืฉื”ื ืชื•ืฆืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื’ืขืฉื™ืช
12:39
we find these walls totally covered,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืืช ื”ืงื™ืจื•ืช ืžื›ื•ืกื™ื ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ
12:41
in many cases,
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ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื
12:43
by these beautiful, glistening silver walls,
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ื‘ืฆื™ืคื•ื™ ื”ื›ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžื ืฆื ืฅ ื”ื™ืคื” ื”ื–ื”
12:45
or shiny pink or shiny red or shiny gold.
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ืื• ื‘ื•ืจื•ื“ ื–ื•ื”ืจ, ืื• ื‘ืื“ื•ื , ืื• ื‘ื–ื”ื‘
12:48
And these are mineral deposits
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ื•ืืœื• ืžืจื‘ืฆื™ ืžื™ื ืจืืœื™ื
12:50
that are also made by bacteria.
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ืฉื ื•ืฆืจื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื”
12:52
And you can see in these central images here,
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ื•ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื‘ืžืจื›ื–
12:54
scanning electron micrographs of some of these guys --
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ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ืช ืฉื ื•ืฆืจื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืค ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ื ืกื•ืจืง ืฉืœ ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื” --
12:57
these are gardens of these bacteria.
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ืืœื• ื’ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•
12:59
One of the interesting things about these particular guys
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ืื—ื“ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœ"ื—ื‘ืจ'ื”" ื”ืืœื”
13:02
is that they're in the actinomycete
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื”ื ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื’ ืืงื˜ื™ื ื•ืžื™ืฆื™ื˜
13:04
and streptomycete groups of the bacteria,
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ื•ืกื˜ืจืคื˜ื•ืžืฆื™ื˜
13:06
which is where we get most of our antibiotics.
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ืฉืžื”ื ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื ืืช ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•
13:09
The sub-surface of Earth
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ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืžืชื—ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
13:11
contains a vast biodiversity.
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ืžื›ื™ืœื” ื’ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ืจื‘
13:13
And these organisms,
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ื•ื”ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื”ืœืœื•
13:15
because they're very separate from the surface,
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื ืžื•ืคืจื“ื™ื ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ ืžืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื—
13:17
make a vast array of novel compounds.
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ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ืชืจื›ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช
13:21
And so, the potential for exploiting this
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ, ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœ ื”ื ื™ืฆื•ืœ ืฉืœื”ื
13:23
for pharmaceutical and industrial chemical uses
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ื‘ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื•ื‘ืชืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื›ื™ืžื™ืช
13:26
is completely untapped,
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ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ ืœื ืžื ื•ืฆืœ
13:28
but probably exceeds most of the rest
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ื•ื›ื ืจืื” ื’ื•ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืจื•ื‘ ืฉืืจ
13:30
of the biodiversity of the planet.
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ื”ื’ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื‘ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
13:32
So, lava-tube caves--
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืฆื™ื ื•ืจื•ืช ืœื‘ื”
13:34
I've just told you about organisms that live here on this planet.
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ืกื™ืคืจืชื™ ืœื›ื ืขืœ ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืฉื—ื™ื™ื ื›ืืŸ ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ื–ื”
13:37
We know that on Mars and the Moon
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ื•ืขืœ ื”ื™ืจื—
13:39
there are tons of these structures.
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ื™ืฉ ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืžื‘ื ื™ื ื›ืืœื•
13:41
We can see them.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืื•ืชื
13:42
On the left you can see a lava tube forming
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ืžืฉืžืืœ ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉืคื•ืคืจืช-ืœื‘ื” ื ื•ืฆืจืช
13:44
at a recent eruption -- Mount Etna in Sicily --
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ื‘ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช ื•ืœืงื ื™ืช ืฉื”ืชืจื—ืฉื” ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” -- ื”ืจ ืืชื ื” ื‘ืกื™ืฆื™ืœื™ื” --
13:47
and this is the way these tubes form.
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ื•ื–ื• ื”ื“ืจืš ื‘ื” ื”ืฉืคื•ืคืจื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ื ื•ืฆืจื•ืช
13:49
And when they hollow out,
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ื•ื›ืฉื”ืŸ ืžืชืจื•ืงื ื•ืช
13:50
then they become habitats for organisms.
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ื”ืŸ ื”ื•ืคื›ื•ืช ืœื‘ื™ืช ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ืœื™ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื
13:53
These are all over the planet Mars,
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ืืœื• ื ืžืฆืื•ืช ืขืœ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช ืžืื“ื™ื
13:55
and we're busy cataloguing them now.
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืขืกื•ืงื™ื ื‘ืจื™ืฉื•ื ืฉืœื”ื ืขื›ืฉื™ื•.
13:57
And so, there's very interesting cave real estate
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื™ืฉ ืžืขืจื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ื•ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ื•ืช
13:59
on Mars, at least of that type.
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ื‘ืžืื“ื™ื, ืœื›ืœ ื”ืคื—ื•ืช ืžื”ืกื•ื’ ื”ื–ื”
14:02
In order to access
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ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœื’ืฉืช
14:04
these sub-surface environments that we're interested in,
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ืœืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืชืช-ืงืจืงืขื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื”ืŸ
14:07
we're very interested in developing the tools to do this.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืื•ื“ ืžืชืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืคื™ืชื•ื— ื›ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”
14:10
You know, it's not easy to get into these caves.
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ืœื™ื“ื™ืขืชื›ื, ืœื ืงืœ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืžืขืจื•ืช ื”ืืœื•,
14:12
It requires crawling, climbing,
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ื ื“ืจืฉืช ื–ื—ื™ืœื”, ื˜ื™ืคื•ืก
14:14
rope-work, technical rope-work
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ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื—ื‘ืœื™ื, ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช-ื—ื‘ืœื™ื ื˜ื›ื ื™ืช
14:17
and many other complex human motions
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ื•ืขื•ื“ ืชื ื•ืขื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ื•ืžืกื•ื‘ื›ื•ืช ืฉืจืง ืื ืฉื™ื ืขื•ืฉื™ื
14:21
in order to access these.
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ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœื’ืฉืช ืœืฉื.
14:23
We face the problem of, how can we do this robotically?
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื ื™ืฆื‘ื™ื ื‘ืคื ื™ ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ืฉืœ ืื™ืš ืœื‘ืฆืข ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜?
14:26
Why would we want to do it robotically?
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ืœืžื” ืฉื ืจืฆื” ืœื‘ืฆืข ื’ื™ืฉื” ืœืžืขืจื” ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜?
14:28
Well, we're going to be sending
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ืœืฉืœื•ื—
14:30
robotic missions to Mars
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ืžืฉื™ืžื•ืช ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืœืžืื“ื™ื
14:32
long in advance of human missions.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื ืฉืœื— ืžืฉื™ืžื•ืช ืžืื•ื™ื™ืฉื•ืช.
14:34
And then, secondly, getting back to that earlier point that I made
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ื•ืฉื•ื‘, ื ื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœื ืงื•ื“ื” ืฉื”ื“ื’ืฉืชื™ ืงื•ื“ื
14:37
about the preciousness of any life that we may find
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ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื”ื–ื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืžืคื ื™ ื›ืœ ืฆื•ืจืช ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื ืคื’ื•ืฉ
14:41
on Mars, we don't want to contaminate it.
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ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื, ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื–ื”ื ืื•ืชื”
14:43
And one of the best ways to study something without contaminating it
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ื•ืื—ืช ื”ื“ืจื›ื™ื ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืžืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ืœื™ ืœื–ื”ื ืื•ืชื•
14:46
is to have an intermediary.
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ื”ื•ื ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืžืชื•ื•ืš
14:48
And in this case, we're imagining
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ื•ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื”, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื“ืžื™ื™ื ื™ื
14:50
intermediary robotic devices
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ืžืชื•ื•ืš ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜ื™
14:52
that can actually do some of that
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื—ืœืง
14:54
front-end work for us,
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ืžืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื”ืงืฆื” ื‘ืขื‘ื•ืจื ื•.
14:56
to protect any potential life that we find.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ื›ืœ ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืื•ืœื™ ื ืžืฆื
14:58
I'm not going to go through all of these projects now,
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ืื ื™ ืœื ื”ื•ืœื›ืช ืœืกืงื•ืจ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ื™ื ื”ืืœื• ืขื›ืฉื™ื•
15:01
but we're involved in about half-a-dozen robotic development projects,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ืžืขื•ืจื‘ืช ื‘ื›ื—ืฆื™ ืชืจื™ืกืจ ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ื™ ืคื™ืชื•ื— ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜ื™ื
15:04
in collaboration with a number of different groups.
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ื‘ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื” ืขื ืžืกืคืจ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช
15:07
I want to talk specifically about the
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ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื“ื‘ืจ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™ ืขืœ
15:09
array that you see on the top.
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ื”ืžืขืจืš ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ืœืžืขืœื”
15:11
These are hopping microbot swarms.
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ืืœื• ื ื—ื™ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื™ื ื™-ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜ื™ื ืžื“ืœื’ื™ื
15:14
I'm working on this with the Field and Space Robotics Laboratory
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ืฉืื ื™ ืขื•ื‘ื“ืช ืขืœื™ื”ื ื‘ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืขื ืžืขื‘ื“ื•ืช "ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜ื™ืงื” ื‘ืฉื˜ื— ื•ื‘ื—ืœืœ"
15:16
and my friend Steve Dubowsky at MIT,
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ื•ื—ื‘ืจื™ ืกื˜ื™ื‘ ื“ื•ื‘ื•ืกืงื™ ืž MIT
15:19
and we have come up with the idea
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ื•ื”ืขืœื ื• ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ
15:21
of having little, jumping bean-like
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ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜ื™ื ืžืงืคืฆื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื
15:24
robots
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ื“ืžื•ื™ื™ ืฉืขื•ืขื™ืช
15:26
that are propelled by artificial muscle,
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ืฉืžื•ื ืขื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉืจื™ืจ ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™
15:29
which is one of the Dubowsky Lab's specialties --
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ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžืขื‘ื“ื” ืฉืœ ื“ื•ื‘ื•ืกืงื™
15:32
are the EPAMs, or artificial muscles.
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ื”ืฉืจื™ืจื™ื ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ื™ื ( EPAM )
15:34
And these allow them to hop.
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ื•ื”ื ืžืืคืฉืจื™ื ืœื”ื ืœืงืคืฅ
15:36
They behave with
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ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช
15:38
a swarm behavior,
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ืฉืœ ื ื—ื™ืœ
15:40
where they relate to each other,
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ื›ืฉื”ื ืžืชื™ื—ืกื™ื ืื—ื“ ืœืฉื ื™
15:42
modeled after insect swarm behavior,
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ืœืคื™ ืžื•ื“ืœ ืฉื ืœืžื“ ืžื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื ื—ื™ืœ ื—ืจืงื™ื
15:44
and they could be made very numerous.
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ื•ืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืื•ืชื ื‘ืžืกืคืจื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื
15:47
And so, one can send a thousand of them,
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ื•ื›ืš, ืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉืœื•ื— ืืœืคื™ื ืžื”ื
15:49
as you can see in this upper left-hand picture,
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ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืฉืžืืœื™ืช ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื”
15:52
a thousand of them could fit into the payload bay
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ืืœืฃ ืžื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชืื™ื ืœืชื•ืš ืชื ืžื˜ืขืŸ
15:55
that was used for one of the current MER Rovers.
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ืฉื”ืชืื™ื ืœืื—ื“ ืžืจื›ื‘ื™ ื” MER ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ื™ื
15:58
And these little guys -- you could lose many of them.
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ื•ื”ื‘ื—ื•ืจื™ื ื”ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” -- ืืคืฉืจ ืœืื‘ื“ ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ื
16:01
If you send a thousand of them,
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ืื ื ืฉืœื— ืืœืฃ ืžื”ื
16:03
you could probably get rid of 90 percent of them and still have a mission.
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ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœื•ื“ืื™ ืฉื’ื ืื 90 ืื—ื•ื– ืžื”ื ื™ืื‘ื“ื• ืขื“ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื” ืชื•ืฉืœื
16:05
And so, that allows you the flexibility
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ื•ื›ืš ื–ื” ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ื’ืžื™ืฉื•ืช
16:08
to go into very challenging terrain
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ืœื”ื›ื ืก ืœืชื•ืš ืฉื˜ื— ืžืื•ื“ ืžืืชื’ืจ
16:11
and actually make your way where you want to go.
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ื•ืœืžืขืฉื” ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืืŸ ืฉืืชื” ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืœื›ืช
16:13
Now, to wrap this up, I want to talk for two seconds
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ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื˜ื•ืฃ ืืช ื–ื” ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืœืฉืชื™ ืฉื ื™ื•ืช
16:16
about caves and the human expansion beyond Earth
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ืขืœ ื”ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ ื‘ืžืขืจื•ืช ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
16:19
as a natural outgrowth of the work that we do in caves.
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ื›ื”ืชืคื—ื•ืช ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉืขืฉื™ื ื• ื‘ืžืขืจื•ืช
16:22
It occurred to us a number of years ago
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ื”ืชื—ื•ื•ืจ ืœื ื• ืœืคื ื™ ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื ื™ื
16:24
that caves have many properties
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ืฉืœืžืขืจื•ืช ื™ืฉ ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช
16:26
that people have used
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ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ื”ื
16:28
and other organisms have used as habitat in the past.
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ื•ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ื”ื ื›ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืช ืžื’ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืขื‘ืจ
16:30
And perhaps it's time we started to explore those,
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ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื’ื™ืข ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืื•ืชื.
16:34
in the context of future Mars and the Moon exploration.
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ื‘ืงืฉืจ ืœื”ืชื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืขืชื™ื“ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ื•ื”ื™ืจื—
16:37
So, we have just finished a NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts Phase II study,
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ื•ื›ืš ืกื™ื™ืžื ื• ืฉืœื‘ ืฉื ื™ ืฉืœ ืžื—ืงืจ ืžืชืงื“ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ NASA
16:42
looking at the irreducible set of technologies
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ืฉื‘ื• ื—ืงืจื ื• ืืช ื”ืกื˜ ื”ื›ื™ ืงื˜ืŸ ืฉืœ ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”
16:44
that you would need in order to
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ืฉื ืฆื˜ืจืš ื›ื“ื™
16:46
actually allow people to inhabit lava tubes
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ืฉื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœืื›ืœืก ืฉืคื•ืคืจื•ืช ืœื‘ื”
16:49
on the Moon or Mars.
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ืขืœ ื”ื™ืจื— ืื• ื‘ืžืื“ื™ื
16:51
It turns out to be a fairly simple and small list,
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ื”ืชื‘ืจืจ ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ืจืฉื™ืžื” ื“ื™ ืงื˜ื ื” ื•ืคืฉื•ื˜ื”
16:54
and we have gone
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ื•ื”ืœื›ื ื• ืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ
16:56
in the relatively primitive technology direction.
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ืฉืœ ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ื“ื™ ืคืจื™ืžื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช
16:58
So, we're talking about things like inflatable liners
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื“ื™ื‘ืจื ื• ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืžื• ืฆื™ืคื•ื™ื™ื ืžืชื ืคื—ื™ื
17:01
that can conform to the complex topological shape
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชืื™ื ืœื˜ื•ืคื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช
17:04
on the inside of a cave,
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ื‘ืชื•ืš ืžืขืจื”
17:06
foamed-in-place airlocks to deal with this complex topology,
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ืžื ืขืœื™ ืื•ื™ืจ ืฉื ืื˜ืžื™ื ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืงืฆืฃ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ื‘ื˜ื•ืคื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช
17:10
various ways of getting breathing gases
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ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ื’ื–ื™ ื ืฉื™ืžื”
17:13
made from the intrinsic materials of these bodies.
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ืฉื™ื™ื•ืฆืจื• ืžื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ื’ื•ืคื™ื ื”ืืœื•
17:16
And the future is there for us
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ื•ื”ืขืชื™ื“ ื”ื•ื ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ
17:18
to use these lava-tube caves on Mars.
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ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืฉืคื•ืคืจื•ืช ืœื‘ื” ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื
17:21
And right now we're in caves, and we're doing science and recreation,
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ื”ื™ื•ื ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ืžืขืจื•ืช ื”ืืœื•, ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืฉื ืžื“ืข ื•ืžืฉืชืขืฉื™ื ืฉื
17:25
but I think in the future we'll be using them
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืฉื‘ืขืชื™ื“ ื ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืžืขืจื•ืช ื”ืืœื•
17:27
for habitat and science on these other bodies.
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ืœืžื’ื•ืจื™ื ื•ืœืžื“ืข ืขืœ ื”ื’ื•ืคื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื•
17:29
Now, my view of what the current status
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืžื‘ื˜ ืฉืœื™ ืขืœ ื”ืžืฆื‘ ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™
17:32
of potential life on Mars is
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ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ื”ื™ื
17:34
that it's probably been on the planet,
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ืฉื›ื ืจืื” ื™ืฉ ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘
17:37
maybe one in two chances.
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ื‘ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ืฉืœ ืื•ืœื™ ืื—ื“ ืœืฉื ื™ื.
17:40
The question as to whether
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ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ืื
17:43
there is life on Mars that is related to life on Earth
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ื™ืฉ ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืžืื“ื™ื ืฉืงืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
17:47
has now been very muddied,
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ื”ืคื›ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ืขื›ื•ืจื”
17:49
because we now know,
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื›ืขืช ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื
17:50
from Mars meteorites that have made it to Earth,
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ืžื—ืงืจ ืฉืœ ืžื˜ืื•ืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืฉืžืงื•ืจื ื‘ืžืื“ื™ื ืฉื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
17:53
that there's material that can be exchanged between those two planets.
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ืฉื—ื•ืžืจ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืชื™ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื”ืœืœื•
17:57
One of the burning questions, of course, is
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ืื—ืช ื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ื‘ื•ืขืจื•ืช ื”ื™ื, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ,
17:59
if we go there and find life in the sub-surface,
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ืฉืื ื ืœืš ืœืฉื ื•ื ืžืฆื ื—ื™ื™ื ืžืชื—ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื—
18:02
as I fully expect that we will,
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ื›ืคื™ ืฉืื ื™ ืžืฆืคื” ืฉื™ืงืจื”
18:04
is that a second genesis of life?
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ื”ืื ื–ื• ื”ืชื—ืœื” ืฉื ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื?
18:06
Did life start here
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ื”ืื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื• ืคื”
18:08
and was it transported there?
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ื•ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจื• ืœืฉื?
18:10
Did it start there and get transported here?
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ื”ืื ื”ื ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื• ืฉื ื•ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจื• ืœืคื”?
18:13
This will be a fascinating puzzle as we go into the next half-century,
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ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ืคืื–ืœ ืžืจืชืง ืœืคืชื•ืจ ื‘ื—ืฆื™ ื”ืžืื” ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื”
18:17
and where I expect that we will
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ืฉื‘ื” ืื ื™ ืžืฆืคื” ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื•
18:19
have more and more Mars missions to answer these questions.
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ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืฉื™ืžื•ืช ืœืžืื“ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื ื•ืช ืขืœ ืฉืืœื” ื–ื•
18:22
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื”
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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