How turtle shells evolved... twice - Judy Cebra Thomas

913,603 views ใƒป 2019-07-30

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Allon Sasson ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
00:06
Meet Odontochelys semitestacea.
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ื”ื›ื™ืจื• ืืช ืื•ื“ื•ื ื˜ื•ื›ืœื™ืก ืกืžื™ื˜ืกื˜ืกื™ื”
00:09
This little creature spends its days splashing in Late Triassic swamps
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ื”ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ื–ื” ืžื‘ืœื” ืืช ื™ืžื™ื• ื‘ืฉื›ืฉื•ืš ื‘ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืช ืฉืœ ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื˜ืจื™ืืก ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ
00:14
with a host of other reptiles.
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ื‘ื—ื‘ืจืช ื–ื•ื—ืœื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
00:16
Under the surface lies its best defense against attack:
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ืžืชื—ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ื ืžืฆืืช ื”ื”ื’ื ื” ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœื• ื ื’ื“ ื”ืชืงืคื”:
00:20
a hard shell on its belly.
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ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ ืงืฉื” ืขืœ ื”ื‘ื˜ืŸ ืฉืœื•.
00:23
Odontochelys is an early ancestor of the turtle.
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ืื•ื“ื•ื ื˜ื•ื›ืœื™ืก ื”ื•ื ืื—ื“ ื”ืื‘ื•ืช ื”ืงื“ืžื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื‘.
00:26
Its half-shelled body illustrates an important point about the modern turtle:
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ื’ื•ืคื• ื”ืžืฉื•ืจื™ื™ืŸ ืœืžื—ืฆื” ืžื“ื’ื™ืฉ ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืฆื‘ ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™:
00:31
it actually has two shells that develop totally separately
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ื™ืฉ ืœื• ืฉื ื™ ืฉืจื™ื•ื ื™ื ืฉืžืชืคืชื—ื™ื ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื‘ื ืคืจื“
00:34
while the turtle is still an embryo.
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ื›ืฉื”ืฆื‘ ื”ื•ื ืขื“ื™ืŸ ืขื•ื‘ืจ.
00:37
Both are extensions of the animalโ€™s skeleton,
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ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื”ื ืฉืœื•ื—ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืœื“ ืฉืœ ื‘ืขืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื,
00:39
and together they are made of almost 60 bones.
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ื•ื‘ื™ื—ื“ ื”ื ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืžื›ืžืขื˜ 60 ืขืฆืžื•ืช.
00:43
Like other embryos,
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ื›ืžื• ืขื•ื‘ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื,
00:45
turtle embryos are made of undifferentiated cells
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ืขื•ื‘ืจื™ ืฆื‘ ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืžืชืื™ื ืฉืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื
00:48
that become specific cell types,
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ืฉื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื ืœืกื•ื’ื™ ืชืื™ื ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™ื™ื,
00:50
and then organs and tissues,
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ื•ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ืœืื™ื‘ืจื™ื ื•ืœืจืงืžื•ืช,
00:52
through gene activity and communication between cells.
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ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช ื•ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืชืื™ื.
00:55
At first, turtle embryos look very similar to those of other reptiles,
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ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœื”, ืขื•ื‘ืจื™ ืฆื‘ื™ื ื ืจืื™ื ื“ื•ืžื™ื ืžืื“ ืœืืœื• ืฉืœ ื–ื•ื—ืœื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื,
01:00
birds, and mammals,
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ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ื•ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื,
01:02
except for a bulge of cells called the carapacial ridge.
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ืžืœื‘ื“ ื‘ืœื™ื˜ื” ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ืจื›ืก ืงืจืคืกื™ืืœื™.
01:06
The ridge expands around the body between the neck and lower back,
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ื”ืจื›ืก ืžืชืžืฉืš ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฆื•ื•ืืจ ืœื’ื‘ ื”ืชื—ืชื•ืŸ,
01:10
creating a disc shape.
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ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ื•ืฆืจ ืฆื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื“ืกืงื™ืช.
01:12
It guides the formation of the upper part of the turtleโ€™s shell,
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ื”ื•ื ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ื”ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื‘,
01:15
called the carapace, likely by attracting the cells that will become ribs.
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ืฉืžื›ื•ื ื” ืงืจืคื™ื™ืก (ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ), ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืฉื™ื›ืช ื”ืชืื™ื ืฉื™ื”ืคื›ื• ืœืฆืœืขื•ืช.
01:20
Instead of curving downwards to make a regular rib cage,
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ืชืขืงืœ ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื‘ื™ืช ื—ื–ื” ืจื’ื™ืœ,
01:24
the ribs move outwards towards the carapacial ridge.
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ื”ืฆืœืขื•ืช ื ืžืฉื›ื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ืฆื” ืœืขื‘ืจ ื”ืจื›ืก ื”ืงืคืจืกื™ืืœื™.
01:28
They then secrete a signaling protein
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ืื– ื”ื ืžืคืจื™ืฉื™ื ื—ืœื‘ื•ืŸ ืžืกืžืŸ
01:30
that converts surrounding cells into bone-forming cells.
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ืฉื”ื•ืคืš ืืช ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืžืงื™ืคื™ื ืœืชืื™ื ื‘ื•ื ื™-ืขืฆื.
01:34
These fifty bones grow until they meet and connect with sutures.
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ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ื ื”ืขืฆืžื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ื’ื“ืœื•ืช ืขื“ ืฉื”ืŸ ื ืคื’ืฉื•ืช ื•ืžืชื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืชืคืจื™ื.
01:38
A ring of bone solidifies the carapaceโ€™s edges.
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ื˜ื‘ืขืช ืฉืœ ืขืฆื ื”ื•ืคื›ืช ืืช ืงืฆื” ื”ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ ืœืžื•ืฆืง.
01:42
The outer layer of skin cells produces the scales, known as scutes,
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ื”ืฉื›ื‘ื” ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืชืื™ ื”ืขื•ืจ ืžื™ื™ืฆืจืช ืืช ื”ืœื•ื—ื™ื•ืช, ืฉืžื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื’ื scutes,
01:47
that cover the carapace.
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ืฉืžื›ืกื•ืช ืืช ื”ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ.
01:49
The development of the bottom half of the shell, the plastron,
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ื”ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืฆื™ ื”ืชื—ืชื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ, ื”ืคืœืกื˜ืจื•ืŸ,
01:53
is driven by neural crest cells,
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ืžื•ื ืขืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืชืื™ ืงืจืกื˜ ืขืฆื‘ื™ื™ื,
01:55
which can produce a variety of different cell types including neurons,
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืกื•ื’ื™ ืชืื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื›ื•ืœืœ ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื,
02:00
cartilage and bone.
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ืกื—ื•ืก ื•ืขืฆื.
02:01
A thick shield of these cells spreads across the belly,
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ืžื’ืŸ ืขื‘ื” ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื ืืœื• ื ืžืฉืš ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ื‘ื˜ืŸ,
02:05
coming together in regions that produce nine plate-like bones.
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ืžืชื—ื‘ืจ ื‘ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื ืชืฉืข ืขืฆืžื•ืช ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช-ืฆืœื—ืช.
02:10
Eventually, these connect to the carapace by sutures.
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ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ืืœื• ืžืชื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืœืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืชืคืจื™ื.
02:14
A turtleโ€™s shell has obvious advantages for guarding against predators,
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ืœืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืฆื‘ ื™ืฉ ื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ื‘ืจื•ืจ ื‘ืฉืžื™ืจื” ืžืคื ื™ ื˜ื•ืจืคื™ื,
02:19
but the rigid casing also presents some challenges.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื›ื™ืกื•ื™ ื”ืงืฉื™ื— ืžืฆื™ื‘ ื’ื ืžืกืคืจ ืืชื’ืจื™ื.
02:22
As the turtle grows,
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ื›ืฉื”ืฆื‘ ื’ื“ืœ,
02:24
the sutures between the bones of the carapace and plastron spread.
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ื”ืชืคืจื™ื ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืขืฆืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ื•ื”ืชื—ืชื•ืŸ ืžืชืจื—ื‘ื™ื.
02:28
Most mammals and reptiles rely on a flexible rib cage
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื ื•ื”ื–ื•ื—ืœื™ื ืžืกืชืžื›ื™ื ืขืœ ื›ืœื•ื‘ ื—ื–ื” ื’ืžื™ืฉ
02:32
that expands to allow them to breathe,
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ืฉืžืชืจื—ื‘ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื ืœื ืฉื•ื,
02:34
but turtles use abdominal muscles attached to the shell instead:
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ืื‘ืœ ืฆื‘ื™ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืฉืจื™ืจื™ ื‘ื˜ืŸ ืฉืžื—ื•ื‘ืจื™ื ืœืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื–ืืช:
02:38
one to breathe in, and one to breathe out.
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ืื—ื“ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืื•ืฃ ื•ืื—ื“ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื ืฉื•ืฃ.
02:41
So how did the shell evolve?
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ืื– ืื™ืš ื”ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืชืคืชื—?
02:44
Though there are still gaps in the fossil record,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืคืขืจื™ื ื‘ืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืื•ื‘ื ื•ืช,
02:46
the first step seems to have been a thickening of the ribs.
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ื›ื ืจืื” ืฉื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ื”ืชืขื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืฆืœืขื•ืช.
02:49
The oldest known turtle ancestor,
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ื”ืื‘ ื”ืงื“ืžื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื™ื“ื•ืข ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื‘ื™ื,
02:52
a creature called Eunotosaurus africanus,
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ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืฉืฉืžื• ื™ื•ื ื•ื˜ื•ืกืื•ืจื•ืก ืืคืจื™ืงื ื•ืก,
02:55
lived 260 million years ago and looked almost nothing like a modern turtle,
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ื—ื™ ืœืคื ื™ 260 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื™ื ื•ื›ืžืขื˜ ืฉืœื ื ืจืื” ื›ืœืœ ื›ืžื• ื”ืฆื‘ ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™,
03:01
but it had a set of broad, flat ribs
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ืกื˜ ืฉืœ ืฆืœืขื•ืช ืฉื˜ื•ื—ื•ืช ืจื—ื‘ื•ืช
03:04
that anchored the muscles of its powerful forearms.
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ืฉืขื™ื’ื ื• ืืช ื”ืฉืจื™ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื–ืจื•ืขื•ืช ื”ื—ื–ืงื•ืช ืฉืœื•.
03:08
Eunotosaurus was likely a burrowing creature,
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ื™ื•ื ื•ื˜ื•ืกืื•ืจื•ืก ื”ื™ื” ื›ื ืจืื” ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื ื‘ืจืŸ,
03:11
digging homes for itself in whatโ€™s now southern Africa.
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ืฉื—ืคืจ ืœืขืฆืžื• ื‘ืชื™ื ื‘ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื•ื ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื”ื“ืจื•ืžื™ืช.
03:15
Odontochelys semitestacea illustrates another, later step in turtle evolution,
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ืื•ื“ื•ื ื˜ื•ื›ืœื™ืก ืกืžื™ื˜ืกื˜ืกื™ื” ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืฉืœื‘ ืื—ืจ, ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื”ืฆื‘,
03:21
with thick ribs like Eunotosaurus plus a belly plate for protection.
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ืขื ืฆืœืขื•ืช ืขื‘ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื•ื ื•ืกื˜ื•ืกืื•ืจื•ืก ื‘ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ืœื•ื— ื‘ื˜ืŸ ืœื”ื’ื ื”.
03:25
Our first fossil evidence of the full shell characteristic of modern turtles
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ื”ืขื“ื•ืช ื”ืžืื•ื‘ื ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืœื ื• ืœืžืืคื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื‘ืฆื‘ ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™
03:30
is about 210 million years old,
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ื”ื™ื ื‘ืช ื›- 210 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื™ื,
03:33
and belongs to a species called Proganochelys quenstedti,
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ื•ืฉื™ื™ื›ืช ืœื–ืŸ ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ืคืจื•ื’ื ื•ืกืœื™ืก ืงื•ื•ืื ืกื˜ื“ื˜ื™,
03:37
whose ribs had fused.
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ืฉื”ืฆืœืขื•ืช ืฉืœื• ื”ืชืื—ื•.
03:39
Proganochelys could move between water and land.
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ืคืจื•ื’ื ื•ืกืœื™ืก ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื™ื ืœื™ื‘ืฉื”.
03:43
Unlike modern turtles, it couldnโ€™t retract its head into its shell,
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ืฉืœื ื›ืžื• ืฆื‘ื™ื ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื™ื, ื”ื•ื ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืืช ื”ืจืืฉ ืฉืœื• ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ,
03:47
but had defensive spines on its neck.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื• ืœื• ืขื•ืงืฆื™ ื”ื’ื ื” ืขืœ ื”ืฆื•ื•ืืจ.
03:51
Modern turtle shells are almost as diverse as the turtles themselves.
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ืฉืจื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฆื‘ื™ื ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื™ื ื”ื ืžื’ื•ื•ื ื™ื ื›ืžืขื˜ ื›ืžื• ื”ืฆื‘ื™ื ืขืฆืžื.
03:56
Sea turtles have flatter, lighter shells for streamlined gliding through the water.
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ืœืฆื‘ื™ ื™ื ื™ืฉ ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื˜ื•ื— ื•ืงืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื’ืœื™ืฉื” ื—ืœืงื” ื‘ืžื™ื.
04:02
Land-dwelling tortoises, meanwhile,
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ืฆื‘ื™ื ืฉื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ื‘ืฉื”, ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช,
04:04
have domed shells that can slip free of predatorsโ€™ jaws
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ื™ืฉ ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ ื“ืžื•ื™ ื›ื™ืคื”, ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื—ืžื•ืง ืžืžืœืชืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ื˜ื•ืจืคื™ื
04:08
and help them turn right-side up if they fall on their backs.
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ื•ืขื•ื–ืจื™ื ืœื”ื ืœื”ืชื”ืคืš ื‘ื—ื–ืจื” ืื ื”ื ื ื•ืคืœื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื’ื‘.
04:13
Leatherback and softshell turtles
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ืœืฆื‘ื™ ืขื•ืจ ื•ืฆื‘ื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ ืจืš
04:15
have shells without the ring of bone around the edge of the carapace
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ื™ืฉ ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ ืœืœื ื˜ื‘ืขืช ื”ืขืฆื ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืงืฆื” ื”ืฉืจื™ื•ืŸ
04:19
or the tough scutes covering it,
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ื•ืœืœื ื”ืœื•ื—ื™ื•ืช ืฉืžื›ืกื•ืช ืื•ืชื•,
04:21
making it easier for them to squeeze into tight spaces.
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ืžื” ืฉืžืงืœ ืขืœื™ื”ื ืœื”ืฉืชื—ืœ ืœืชื•ืš ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืฆืจื™ื.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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