How to sequence the human genome - Mark J. Kiel

1,501,141 views ・ 2013-12-09

TED-Ed


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Prevoditelj: Irma Komljenović Recezent: Ivan Stamenković
00:06
You've probably heard of the human genome,
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Vjerojatno znaš za ljudski genom,
00:08
the huge collection of genes
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ogromnu zbirku gena
00:10
inside each and every one of your cells.
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unutar svake od tvojih stanica.
00:13
You probably also know
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Vjerojatno znaš
00:14
that we've sequenced the human genome,
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i da smo sekvencirali ljudski genom,
00:16
but what does that actually mean?
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no što to zapravo znači?
00:18
How do you sequence someone's genome?
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Kako sekvenciraš nečiji genom?
00:22
Let's back up a bit.
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Vratimo se malo unatrag.
00:23
What is a genome?
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Što je to genom?
00:25
Well, a genome is all the genes plus some extra
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Pa, genom su svi geni
00:30
that make up an organism.
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koji čine organizam.
00:32
Genes are made up of DNA,
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Geni su dio DNK,
00:34
and DNA is made up of long, paired strands
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a DNK je sastavljena od dugih, sparenih lanaca
00:37
of A's,
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00:38
T's,
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A,
T,
00:40
C's,
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C
00:41
and G's.
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i G.
00:42
Your genome is the code
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Tvoj je genom kod
00:44
that your cells use to know how to behave.
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pomoću kojeg ti stanice znaju kako se ponašati.
00:47
Cells interacting together make tissues.
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Međusobna interakcija stanica čini tkiva.
00:51
Tissues cooperating with each other make organs.
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Međusobna suradnja tkiva čini organe.
00:54
Organs cooperating with each other
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Međusobna suradnja organa
00:56
make an organism,
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čini organizam,
00:57
you!
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tebe!
00:59
So, you are who you are
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Pa, ono si što jesi
01:01
in large part because of your genome.
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velikim dijelom zbog svog genoma.
01:04
The first human genome
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Prvi ljudski genom
01:06
was sequenced ten years ago
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sekvenciran je prije deset godina,
01:08
and was no easy task.
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što nije bio lagan zadatak.
01:09
It took two decades to complete,
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Da bi bilo završeno, bila su potrebna dva desetljeća
01:12
required the effort of hundreds of scientists
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te trud stotina znanstvenika
01:15
across dozens of countries,
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iz desetaka država,
01:17
and cost over three billion dollars.
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a koštao je više od tri milijarde dolara.
01:20
But some day very soon,
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Jednog dana u bliskoj budućnosti,
01:22
it will be possible to know the sequence of letters
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bit će moguće znati niz slova
01:24
that make up your own personal genome
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koja sastavljaju tvoj genom
01:26
all in a matter of minutes
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u nekoliko minuta,
01:28
and for less than the cost
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i to jeftinije
01:29
of a pretty nice birthday present.
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od prilično lijepog rođendanskog poklona.
01:32
How is that possible?
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Kako je to moguće?
01:34
Let's take a closer look.
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Pogledajmo malo bolje.
01:36
Knowing the sequence of the billions of letters
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Znati niz milijardi slova
01:38
that make up your genome
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koja čine tvoj genom
01:40
is the goal of genome sequencing.
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cilj je sekvenciranja genoma.
01:42
A genome is both really, really big
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Genom je istovremeno jako, jako velik
01:46
and very, very small.
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i jako, jako malen.
01:49
The individual letters of DNA,
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Individualna slova DNK,
01:51
the A's, T's, G's, and C's,
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A, T, G i C,
01:54
are only eight or ten atoms wide,
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široka su samo osam ili deset atoma,
01:57
and they're all packed together into a clump,
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a svi su oni zgurani u grumen
02:01
like a ball of yarn.
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sličan klupku vune.
02:03
So, to get all that information
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Da bismo sve te informacije izvukli
02:05
out of that tiny space,
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iz tog sićušnog prostora,
02:07
scientists first have to break
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znanstvenici prvo moraju razlomiti
02:08
the long string of DNA down into smaller pieces.
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dugačak lanac DNK na manje komadiće.
02:14
Each of these pieces is then separated in space
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Svaki je od tih komadića odmaknut od drugih
02:17
and sequenced individually,
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i pojedinačno sekvenciran,
02:18
but how?
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ali kako?
02:20
It's helpful to remember
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Korisno je sjetiti se
02:21
that DNA binds to other DNA
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da se DNK spaja s drugom DNK
02:24
if the sequences are the exact opposite of each other.
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samo ako su nizovi međusobno potpuno suprotni.
02:27
A's bind to T's,
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A se veže za T,
02:29
and T's bind to A's.
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a T se veže za A
02:32
G's bind to C's,
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G se veže za C,
02:34
and C's to G's.
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a C se veže za G.
02:36
If the A-T-G-C sequence of two pieces of DNA
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Ako je redoslijed A-T-G-C dvije DNK
02:40
are exact opposites,
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potpuno suprotan,
02:42
they stick together.
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vežu se jedna za drugu.
02:43
Because the genome pieces
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S obzirom da su djelići genoma
02:45
are so very small,
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iznimno maleni,
02:47
we need some way to increase
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potreban nam ja način da povećamo
02:48
the signal we can detect
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signal koji možemo dobiti
02:50
from each of the individual letters.
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od svakog od pojedinačnih slova.
02:52
In the most common method,
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U najčešćoj metodi
02:54
scientists use enzymes to make thousands of copies
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znanstvenici pomoću enzima stvaraju tisuće kopija
02:57
of each genome piece.
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svakog djelića genoma.
02:59
So, we now have thousands of replicas
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Sada imamo tisuću replika
03:01
of each of the genome pieces,
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svakog od djelića genoma,
03:03
all with the same sequence
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od kojih svaki ima isti niz
03:05
of A's, T's, G's, and C's.
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A, T, G i C.
03:09
But we have to read them all somehow.
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No moramo ih na neki način pročitati.
03:12
To do this, we need to make
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Da bismo to učinili, moramo napraviti
03:14
a batch of special letters,
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seriju posebnih slova,
03:15
each with a distinct color.
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od kojih je svako različite boje.
03:17
A mixture of these special colored letters and enzymes
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Smjesa tih posebno obojenih slova i enzima
03:20
are then added to the genome
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dodana je genomu
03:22
we're trying to read.
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koji pokušavamo pročitati.
03:23
At each spot on the genome,
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Na svakom mjestu genoma
03:25
one of the special letters
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jedno od posebnih slova
03:26
binds to its opposite letter,
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veže se sa suprotnim slovom,
03:28
so we now have a double-stranded piece of DNA
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tako da smo dobili dvostruki lanac DNK
03:32
with a colorful spot at each letter.
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sa obojanom točkom na svakom slovu.
03:34
Scientists then take pictures
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Znanstvenici onda fotografiraju
03:36
of each snippet of genome.
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svaki komadić genoma.
03:38
Seeing the order of the colors
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Ako vidimo redoslijed boja,
03:40
allows us to read the sequence.
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možemo pročitati niz.
03:43
The sequences of each
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Nizovi svakih od tih
03:45
of these millions of pieces of DNA
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milijuna komadića DNK
03:47
are stitched together using computer programs
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spojeni su koristeći kompjuterske programe
03:49
to create a complete sequence of the entire genome.
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kako bi nastao cjeloviti redoslijed cijeloga genoma.
03:52
This isn't the only way
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To nije jedini način
03:53
to read the letter sequences of pieces of DNA,
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čitanja nizova slova komadića DNK,
03:56
but it's one of the most common.
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no jedan je od najčešćih.
03:58
Of course, just reading the letters in the genome
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Naravno, samo čitanje slova iz genoma
04:00
doesn't tell us much.
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ne govori nam puno.
04:02
It's kind of like looking through a book
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To je kao da čitaš knjigu
04:04
written in a language you don't speak.
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napisanu na jeziku koji ne govoriš.
04:07
You can recognize all the letters
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Možeš prepoznati sva slova,
04:08
but still have no idea what's going on.
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no nemaš pojma o čemu se radi.
04:11
So, the next step is to decipher
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Idući je korak dešifriranje
04:13
what the sequence means,
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značenja tog niza,
04:15
how your genome and my genome are different.
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na koji su način tvoj i moj genom različiti.
04:18
Interpreting the genes of the genome
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Na interpretaciji gena genoma
04:20
is the part scientists are still working on.
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znanstvenici još uvijek rade.
04:23
While not every difference is consequential,
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Iako svaka razlika nije važna,
04:26
the sum of these differences
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ukupnost tih razlika
04:27
is responsible for differences
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razlog je različitosti
04:29
in how we look,
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u našem izgledu,
04:30
what we like,
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preferencama,
04:31
how we act,
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ponašanju,
04:32
and even how likely we are to get sick
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pa čak i vjerojatnosti da ćemo se razboljeti
04:34
or respond to specific medicines.
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ili reagirati na specifične lijekove.
04:37
Better understanding of how disparities
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Bolje razumijevanje načina na koji disparitet
04:38
between our genomes
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naših genoma
04:40
account for these differences
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utječe na te razlike
04:41
is sure to change the way we think
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promijenit će način na koji razmišljamo,
04:43
not only about how doctors treat their patients,
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ne samo kako liječnici liječe svoje pacijente,
04:46
but also how we treat each other.
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nego i kako se odnosimo jedni prema drugima.
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