How we can store digital data in DNA | Dina Zielinski

譯者: Lilian Chiu 審譯者: 易帆 余

I could fit all movies ever made inside of this tube.

我可以把過去所有的電影 都放進這個試管中。

If you can't see it, that's kind of the point.

如果你看不到，那就對了。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

Before we understand how this is possible,

我們在了解這怎麼可能辦到之前，

it's important to understand the value of this feat.

重要的是先了解這項技術的價值。

All of our thoughts and actions these days,

現今我們所有的想法和行為，

through photos and videos --

透過照片、影片——

even our fitness activities --

甚至我們的健身活動——

are stored as digital data.

以數位資料的形式儲存起來。

Aside from running out of space

要不是手機上的空間不夠用，

on our phones,

we rarely think about our digital footprint.

我們幾乎不會去思考 我們儲存了多少數位資料。

But humanity has collectively generated more data

但人類在過去幾年間

產生出來的資料，

in the last few years

than all of preceding human history.

比先前人類歷史上所產生的都還要多。

Big data has become a big problem.

大數據成為了大問題。

Digital storage is really expensive,

數位儲存十分昂貴，

and none of these devices that we have really stand the test of time.

我們現有的儲存裝置 都無法經過時間的考驗。

There's this nonprofit website called the Internet Archive.

有一個非營利的網站 叫做網路檔案庫。

In addition to free books and movies,

除了免費書籍和電影外，

you can access web pages as far back as 1996.

你還能取得過去的網頁， 最早可追溯到 1996 年。

Now, this is very tempting,

這實在非常誘人，

but I decided to go back and look at the TED website's very humble beginnings.

但我決定回去看看 TED 網站最初低調的樣子。

As you can see, it's changed quite a bit in the last 30 years.

各位可以看到，在過去 三十年間它確實改變了不少。

So this led me to the first-ever TED,

這讓我回憶起第一次與 TED 的接觸，

back in 1984,

時間回到 1984 年

and it just so happened to be a Sony executive

主題正好就是 Sony 的經理

explaining how a compact disk works.

解釋光碟如何運作的原理。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

Now, it's really incredible to be able to go back in time

能回到過去，存取當時的那一刻，

and access this moment.

真的很不可思議。

It's also really fascinating that after 30 years, after that first TED,

有趣的是，在第一次 TED 演講過後的三十年，

we're still talking about digital storage.

我們仍然在談數位儲存。

Now, if we look back another 30 years,

如果我們回頭看看另一個三十年，

IBM released the first-ever hard drive

IBM 推出了史上第一個硬碟，

back in 1956.

那年是 1956 年。

Here it is being loaded for shipping in front of a small audience.

這張照片是硬碟在一小群 觀眾面前被裝載上連輸車。

It held the equivalent of one MP3 song

它的容量等同於 一首 MP3 格式的歌曲，

and weighed over one ton.

但重量卻有一公噸重。

At 10,000 dollars a megabyte,

平均每 1MB 就要美金一萬元，

I don't think anyone in this room would be interested in buying this thing,

我不認為在座有人 會想要買這個東西，

除非想拿來當作收藏品。

except maybe as a collector's item.

But it's the best we could do at the time.

但在當年，我們最多也只能做到這樣。

We've come such a long way in data storage.

我們在資料儲存方面 有很大的進步。

Devices have evolved dramatically.

裝置設備也有很大的改良。

But all media eventually wear out or become obsolete.

但，所有的儲存媒體終將 會損耗掉或被淘汰掉。

If someone handed you a floppy drive today to back up your presentation,

如果現今有人給你 一張軟碟片來備份簡報，

you'd probably look at them kind of strange, maybe laugh,

你可能會用奇怪的表情 看著他們，也許會笑出來，

but you'd have no way to use the damn thing.

但你完全沒辦法 使用那該死的古董。

These devices can no longer meet our storage needs,

這些裝置已經無法滿足 我們在儲存上的需求，

although some of them can be repurposed.

只是其中某一些還能 轉做其它目的使用。

All technology eventually dies or is lost,

所有的科技最終都會停用或過時，

along with our data,

把我們的資料、

all of our memories.

我們所有的記憶一同帶走。

There's this illusion that the storage problem has been solved,

「儲存問題已經解決」 只是一種幻覺，

but really, we all just externalize it.

事實上，我們只是把它外化了。

We don't worry about storing our emails and our photos.

我們不擔心電子郵件 和相片的儲存。

They're just in the cloud.

反正它們全都在雲端。

But behind the scenes, storage is problematic.

但在這些場景背後的儲存卻問題多多。

After all, the cloud is just a lot of hard drives.

畢竟，雲端是由很多硬碟組成的。

Now, most digital data, we could argue, is not really critical.

我們可以爭辯說，大部分 數位資料都沒那麼重要。

Surely, we could just delete it.

當然，我們可以輕鬆地 就把它們刪除掉。

But how can we really know what's important today?

但現今，我們怎麼可能 知道什麼才是重要的？

We've learned so much about human history

我們從人類歷史中得到很多知識，

from drawings and writings in caves,

有來自在洞穴裡的壁畫和文字，

from stone tablets.

還有石碑。

We've deciphered languages from the Rosetta Stone.

我們破解了羅塞塔石碑上的語言。

You know, we'll never really have the whole story, though.

但，我們永遠不可能 知道完整的故事全貌。

Our data is our story,

我們的資料就是我們的故事，

even more so today.

現今更是如此。

We won't have our record recorded on stone tablets.

我們的記錄不再需要刻在石碑上。

But we don't have to choose what is important now.

現在我們不需要去選擇什麼重要。

There's a way to store it all.

有種方法可以把它們全部儲存起來。

It turns out that there's a solution that's been around

原來，這個解決方案 其實一直都在我們身邊，

for a few billion years,

已經存在幾十億年了，

and it's actually in this tube.

它其實就在這個試管中。

DNA is nature's oldest storage device.

DNA 是大自然最古老的儲存裝置。

After all, it contains all the information necessary

畢竟，它保存著建構和維持

人類生命的所有必要訊息。

to build and maintain a human being.

But what makes DNA so great?

但，DNA 為什麼如此強大？

Well, let's take our own genome

嗯，就拿我們的基因組來當例子。

as an example.

If we were to print out all three billion A's, T's, C's and G's

如果我們想要列印出所有三十億個 A、T、C、G（DNA 的鹼基），

on a standard font, standard format,

且採用標準字體，標準格式，

and then we were to stack all of those papers,

接著我們把印出來的紙張 全都堆疊起來，

it would be about 130 meters high,

高度會達到約 130 公尺，

somewhere between the Statue of Liberty and the Washington Monument.

這高度大約是介在自由女神像 和華盛頓紀念碑之間。

Now, if we converted all those A's, T's, C's and G's

如果我們把所有的 A、T、C、G 轉換成

to digital data, to zeroes and ones,

數位資料，也就是 0 和 1，

it would total a few gigs.

總共大約只有幾 GB。

And that's in each cell of our body.

這就是一個人體細胞的容量。

We have more than 30 trillion cells.

而我們有超過三十兆個細胞。

You get the idea:

這樣你們就懂了：

DNA can store a ton of information in a minuscule space.

DNA 能夠在極小的空間中 儲存超大量的資訊。

DNA is also very durable,

DNA 也非常耐久，

and it doesn't even require electricity to store it.

甚至不需電力就能儲存。

We know this because scientists have recovered DNA from ancient humans

我們會知道這些， 是因為科學家重獲了

數十萬年前的古人的 DNA。

that lived hundreds of thousands of years ago.

One of those is Ötzi the Iceman.

其中之一就是冰人奧茨（Ötzi）。

Turns out, he's Austrian.

結果發現，他是奧地利人。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

He was found high, well-preserved,

他被發現完好地保存在 義大利和奧地利間的高山上，

in the mountains between Italy and Austria,

and it turns out that he has living genetic relatives here in Austria today.

結果還發現，現今他還有 活著的親戚住在奧地利。

So one of you could be a cousin of Ötzi.

在座可能有人就是奧茨的表親。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

The point is that we have a better chance of recovering information

重點是，相對之下， 從古人身上復原資訊

from an ancient human

than we do from an old phone.

比從舊手機復原資料容易。

It's also much less likely that we'll lose the ability to read DNA

與任何單一的人造設備相比，

我們不太可能失去解讀 DNA 的能力。

than any single man-made device.

Every single new storage format requires a new way to read it.

每一種新的儲存格式， 都需要對應一種新的讀取方式。

We'll always be able to read DNA.

而我們將一直保有解讀 DNA 的能力。

If we can no longer sequence, we have bigger problems

若我們無法做 DNA 定序， 那我們要擔心的問題

than worrying about data storage.

可就遠大於資料儲存問題了。

Storing data on DNA is not new.

用 DNA 儲存資料不是新觀念。

Nature's been doing it for several billion years.

數十億年來大自然 都一直在這麼做。

In fact, every living thing is a DNA storage device.

事實上，每個生物都是 一個 DNA 儲存裝置。

But how do we store data on DNA?

但我們要如何把資料存在 DNA 上？

This is Photo 51.

這是「照片 51」。

It's the first-ever photo of DNA,

它是史上第一張 DNA 的照片，

taken about 60 years ago.

大約在六十年前拍攝的。

This is around the time that that same hard drive was released by IBM.

大約在那個時期，IBM 也推出了硬碟。

So really, our understanding of digital storage and of DNA have coevolved.

所以，我們對於數位儲存 及 DNA 的了解是同步在演進的。

We first learned to sequence, or read DNA,

我們先學會 DNA 定序， 也就是解讀 DNA，

and very soon after, how to write it,

沒多久後，又學會如何 寫 DNA，或說合成它。

or synthesize it.

This is much like how we learn a new language.

這非常類似我們 學習新語言的方式。

And now we have the ability to read, write and copy DNA.

現在我們有能力去讀、 寫，和複製 DNA。

We do it in the lab all the time.

我們經常在實驗室做這些事。

So anything, really anything, that can be stored as zeroes and ones

所以，不論是什麼， 只要可以轉成 0 和 1 來儲存，

can be stored in DNA.

就可以儲存在 DNA 上。

To store something digitally, like this photo,

若要用數位的方式 來儲存資料，比如這張照片，

we convert it to bits, or binary digits.

要把它轉成位元或二進制的數字，

Each pixel in a black-and-white photo is simply a zero or a one.

黑白照片中的每個像素 其實就是 0 或 1。

And we can write DNA much like an inkjet printer can print letters on a page.

我們寫 DNA 的方式就類似噴墨 印表機在紙上列印字母的方式。

We just have to convert our data, all of those zeroes and ones,

我們只需要把我們的資料， 所有那些 0 和 1，

to A's, T's, C's and G's,

轉為 A、T、C、G，

and then we send this to a synthesis company.

接著，把它交給合成公司。

So we write it, we can store it,

我們可以寫它，可以儲存它，

and when we want to recover our data, we just sequence it.

當我們想取回我們的資料時， 只要對它做定序即可。

Now, the fun part of all of this is deciding what files to include.

這當中最有趣的地方， 就是決定要放入什麼檔案，

We're serious scientists, so we had to include a manuscript

我們是嚴肅的科學家， 所以我們放入了一份手稿，

for good posterity.

留給後代子孫。

We also included a $50 Amazon gift card --

我們還放入了一張美金 五十元的亞馬遜禮卷——

don't get too excited, it's already been spent, someone decoded it --

別太興奮，有人已經 把它解碼然後花掉了——

as well as an operating system,

還有作業系統、

one of the first movies ever made

最早的電影之一，

and a Pioneer plaque.

還有先鋒號鍍金鋁板。

Some of you might have seen this.

在座有些人可能看過。

It has a depiction of a typical -- apparently -- male and female,

上面畫著很有代表性的一男一女，

and our approximate location in the Solar System,

以及我們在太陽系中的概略位置，

in case the Pioneer spacecraft ever encounters extraterrestrials.

萬一先鋒號真的遇到了 外星人就派得上用場。

So once we decided what sort of files we want to encode,

一旦我們決定好了 要將哪些檔案編碼存入，

we package up the data,

我們把資料打包起來，

convert those zeroes and ones to A's, T's, C's and G's,

將 0 和 1 轉換成 A、T、C、G，

and then we just send this file off to a synthesis company.

再交給合成公司處理。

And this is what we got back.

這就是我們拿回來的東西。

Our files were in this tube.

我們的檔案都在這支試管裡。

All we had to do was sequence it.

我們只需要將它定序即可。

This all sounds pretty straightforward,

這一切聽起來似乎很簡單，

but the difference between a really cool, fun idea

但，要讓一個很酷很有趣的點子

and something we can actually use

變成能夠真正實做的東西，

is overcoming these practical challenges.

是必須要克服許多現實困難的。

Now, while DNA is more robust than any man-made device,

雖然 DNA 比任何 人造裝置都更耐用，

it's not perfect.

但也不是完美的。

It does have some weaknesses.

它也有一些缺點。

We recover our message by sequencing the DNA,

我們可以透過 DNA 定序 來還原我們的訊息，

and every time data is retrieved,

而每次還原資料時，

we lose the DNA.

我們就會失去某些 DNA 片段。

That's just part of the sequencing process.

這是定序過程的一部分。

We don't want to run out of data,

我們不想把資料用完。

but luckily, there's a way to copy the DNA

但，幸運的是， 有個方法可以複製 DNA，

that's even cheaper and easier than synthesizing it.

且這方法比合成 DNA 更便宜、更容易。

We actually tested a way to make 200 trillion copies of our files,

我們真的測試過一種方法， 把我們的檔案複製二百兆份，

and we recovered all the data without error.

且我們完全無誤地還原了所有資料，

So sequencing also introduces errors into our DNA,

定序也會將誤差引入 DNA ，

into the A's, T's, C's and G's.

引入 A、T、C、G 中。

Nature has a way to deal with this in our cells.

大自然會在細胞中處理這些問題。

But our data is stored in synthetic DNA in a tube,

但我們的資料是儲存在 試管裡的合成 DNA 中，

so we had to find our own way to overcome this problem.

所以我們得自己想出 另外的辦法來克服這個問題。

We decided to use an algorithm that was used to stream videos.

我們決定使用一個 影像串流用的演算法。

When you're streaming a video,

當你在傳輸影像串流時，基本上，

you're essentially trying to recover the original video, the original file.

你其實就是在試圖還原 原始的影片，原始的檔案。

When we're trying to recover our original files,

當我們試圖還原 我們的原始檔案時，

we're simply sequencing.

我們做的就是定序。

But really, both of these processes are about recovering enough zeroes and ones

但，其實，這兩個流程 都是在還原足夠的 0 與 1，

to put our data back together.

將數據重新組合起來。

And so, because of our coding strategy,

所以，根據我們的編碼策略，

we were able to package up all of our data

我們打包所有資料時所用的方式

in a way that allowed us to make millions and trillions of copies

能夠以一種可以製造上萬億份 拷貝的方式將所有數據打包，

and still always recover all of our files back.

且隨時都可以把所有的檔案還原回來。

This is the movie we encoded.

這是被我們拿來編碼的電影。

It's one of the first movies ever made,

它是史上最早的電影之一，

and now the first to be copied more than 200 trillion times on DNA.

現在它也是最早在 DNA 上 被複製二百兆份的電影。

Soon after our work was published,

在我們的研究公佈後不久，

we participated in an "Ask Me Anything" on the website reddit.

我們參加了 Reddit 網站上的「來問我任何事」。

If you're a fellow nerd, you're very familiar with this website.

如果你是個宅研究員的話， 應該很熟悉這個網站。

Most questions were thoughtful.

大部分問題都有經過仔細考量。

Some were comical.

有些問題還挺詼諧。

For example, one user wanted to know when we would have a literal thumb drive.

比如，有位使用者想知道 我們何時會推出真的「拇指」碟。

Now, the thing is,

重點是，

our DNA already stores everything needed to make us who we are.

我們的 DNA 已經儲存了 塑造我們所需要的所有資訊。

It's a lot safer to store data on DNA

將資料儲存在試管中的 合成 DNA 要安全得多。

in synthetic DNA in a tube.

Writing and reading data from DNA is obviously a lot more time-consuming

很顯然，讀寫 DNA 上的 資料相當花時間，

than just saving all your files on a hard drive --

遠比將所有的檔案 存在硬碟上更耗時——

for now.

目前是如此。

So initially, we should focus on long-term storage.

所以，一開始，我們應該 把焦點放在長期儲存。

Most data are ephemeral.

大部分的資料都是短期用途的。

It's really hard to grasp what's important today,

很難去掌握現在 有哪些資訊比較重要，

or what will be important for future generations.

或哪些資訊對未來世代會很重要。

But the point is, we don't have to decide today.

但，重點是，我們 不需要馬上決定這些。

There's this great program by UNESCO called the "Memory of the World" program.

聯合國教科文組織的 「世界的記憶」計畫相當不錯。

It's been created to preserve historical materials

計畫的目的是要保存 有歷史意義的素材，

that are considered of value to all of humanity.

對全人類都很有價值的素材。

Items are nominated to be added to the collection,

被選中的訊息會被加入收藏起來，

including that film that we encoded.

包括被我們編碼的那部電影。

While a wonderful way to preserve human heritage,

這是保存人類遺跡的好方法，

it doesn't have to be a choice.

但不見得現在就要選擇 哪些才是重要的資訊。

Instead of asking the current generation -- us --

與其詢問目前的世代——我們——

what might be important in the future,

哪些資訊在未來可能會很重要，

we could store everything in DNA.

不如直接把所有資訊都存入 DNA 即可。

Storage is not just about how many bytes

儲存的重點不只是有多少位元，

but how well we can actually store the data and recover it.

還有我們能把資料的 儲存和還原做到多好。

There's always been this tension between how much data we can generate

一直以來，我們都很難去平衡 「我們能產生多少資料」、

and how much we can recover

「我們能還原多少資料」， 及「我們能儲存多少資料」。

and how much we can store.

Every advance in writing data has required a new way to read it.

每當寫資料的技術有新進展， 就表示也需要有新方法來讀資料。

We can no longer read old media.

我們無法再讀取舊的儲存媒介。

How many of you even have a disk drive in your laptop,

在座有誰的筆記型電腦 還有裝磁碟機？

never mind a floppy drive?

軟碟機就更不用說了。

This will never be the case with DNA.

用 DNA 就絕對不會有這種狀況。

As long as we're around, DNA is around,

只要我們還在，DNA 就會在，

and we'll find a way to sequence it.

且我們會找到方法來做定序。

Archiving the world around us is part of human nature.

將身邊的世界收集歸檔 是人類天性的一部分。

This is the progress we've made in digital storage in 60 years,

這是過去六十年我們 數位存儲的發展，

at a time when we were only beginning to understand DNA.

六十年前我們也才剛剛開始理解 DNA 。

Yet, we've made similar progress in half that time with DNA sequencers,

但我們只花了一半的時間 DNA 定序儀就有相當的進展，

and as long as we're around, DNA will never be obsolete.

而且只要人類還在， DNA 就永遠不會被淘汰。

Thank you.

謝謝大家。

(Applause)

（掌聲）