Gero Miesenboeck reengineers a brain

Prevodilac: Radica Stojanović Lektor: Sandra Gojic

I have a doppelganger.

Ja imam zlog dvojnika (Doppelganger).

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

Dr. Gero is a brilliant

Dr Gero je sjajan

but slightly mad scientist

ali pomalo lud naučnik

in the "Dragonball Z: Android Saga."

iz Zmajeve kugle Z "Android Sage".

If you look very carefully,

Ako pogledate pažljivo,

you see that his skull has been replaced

videćete da je njegova lobanja zamenjena

with a transparent Plexiglas dome

providnim svodom od pleksiglasa

so that the workings of his brain can be observed

kako bi rad njegovog mozga mogao biti posmatran

and also controlled with light.

i takođe kontrolisan svetlošću.

That's exactly what I do --

To je upravo ono što ja radim --

optical mind control.

optička kontrola misli.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

But in contrast to my evil twin

Ali za razliku od mog zlog blizanca,

who lusts after world domination,

koji žudi za svetskom dominacijom,

my motives are not sinister.

moji motivi nisu grešni.

I control the brain

Ja kontrolišem mozak

in order to understand how it works.

kako bih razumeo način na koji radi.

Now wait a minute, you may say,

Čekaj malo, možete reći,

how can you go straight to controlling the brain

kako možeš ići pravo na kontrolisanje mozga

without understanding it first?

ako ga prvenstveno ne razumeš?

Isn't that putting the cart before the horse?

Zar to nije nešto kao uprezanje terentnih kola pre dovođenja konja?

Many neuroscientists agree with this view

Mnogi neuronaučnici su saglasni sa ovim gledištem

and think that understanding will come

i misle da će razumevanje doći

from more detailed observation and analysis.

tek nakon detaljnih opservacija i analiza.

They say, "If we could record the activity of our neurons,

Oni kažu, "Kada bismo mogli snimiti aktivnost neurona,

we would understand the brain."

razumeli bismo mozak."

But think for a moment what that means.

Ali razmislite na trenutak šta to znači.

Even if we could measure

Čak i ukoliko bismo mogli da izmerimo

what every cell is doing at all times,

šta svaka ćelija radi svo vreme,

we would still have to make sense

i dalje bismo morali da pronađemo smisao

of the recorded activity patterns,

u modelima snimanih aktivnosti,

and that's so difficult,

a to je toliko komplikovano,

chances are we'll understand these patterns

šanse da razumemo te modele

just as little as the brains that produce them.

su jednako male koliko i razumevanje mozga koji ih produkuje.

Take a look at what brain activity might look like.

Pogledajte kako bi moždana aktivnost mogla da izgleda.

In this simulation, each black dot

U ovoj simulaciji, svaka crna tačka

is one nerve cell.

predstavlja jednu nervnu ćeliju.

The dot is visible

Tačka je vidljiva

whenever a cell fires an electrical impulse.

kada god ćelija ispali električni impuls.

There's 10,000 neurons here.

Ovde je prikazano 10000 neurona.

So you're looking at roughly one percent

Tako da vi gledate, u gruboj proceni, jedan procenat

of the brain of a cockroach.

mozga bubašvabe.

Your brains are about 100 million times

Vaš mozak je oko 100 miliona puta

more complicated.

komplikovaniji.

Somewhere, in a pattern like this,

Negde se nalazi model sličan ovom,

is you,

tu ste vi,

your perceptions,

vaša percepcija,

your emotions, your memories,

vaše emocije, pamćenje,

your plans for the future.

vaši planovi za budućnost.

But we don't know where,

Ali ne znamo gde,

since we don't know how to read the pattern.

s obzirom da ne umemo da pročitamo te modele.

We don't understand the code used by the brain.

Ne razumemo kod koji koristi naš mozak.

To make progress,

Da bi napravili pomak,

we need to break the code.

potrebno je da otkrijemo šifru.

But how?

Ali kako?

An experienced code-breaker will tell you

Iskusna osoba u dešifrovanju će vam reći da

that in order to figure out what the symbols in a code mean,

kako biste razumeli značenje simbola u šifri,

it's essential to be able to play with them,

morate biti u stanju da se igrate njima,

to rearrange them at will.

da možete da ih reorganizujete.

So in this situation too,

Tako, u ovoj situaciji takođe,

to decode the information

da biste dekodirali informaciju

contained in patterns like this,

sadržanu u ovakvom modelu,

watching alone won't do.

samo posmatranje neće pomoći;

We need to rearrange the pattern.

potrebno je da reorganizujemo model.

In other words,

Drugim rečima,

instead of recording the activity of neurons,

umesto da snimamo aktivnost neurona,

we need to control it.

potrebno je da je kontrolišemo.

It's not essential that we can control

Nije neophodno da možemo da kontrolišemo

the activity of all neurons in the brain, just some.

aktivnost svih neurona u mozgu, samo nekih.

The more targeted our interventions, the better.

Mada što je veći deo zahvaćen našim intervencijama, tim bolje.

And I'll show you in a moment

I pokazaću vam za momenat

how we can achieve the necessary precision.

kako možemo postići neophodnu preciznost.

And since I'm realistic, rather than grandiose,

I s obzirom na to da sam realističan, pre nego grandiozan,

I don't claim that the ability to control the function of the nervous system

ne tvrdim da će mogućnost kontrole funkcija nervnog sistema

will at once unravel all its mysteries.

odmah razotkriti sve misterije.

But we'll certainly learn a lot.

Ali sigurno je da će se naučiti dosta.

Now, I'm by no means

Ja sam bez sumnje

the first person to realize

prva osoba koja shvata

how powerful a tool intervention is.

moć ove vrste intervencija.

The history of attempts

Istorija pokušaja

to tinker with the function of the nervous system

petljanja sa funkcijama nervnog sistema

is long and illustrious.

je dugačka i slavna.

It dates back at least 200 years,

Datira oko 200 godina unazad,

to Galvani's famous experiments

do čuvenih Galvanovih eksperimenata

in the late 18th century and beyond.

pri kraju XVIII veka i dalje.

Galvani showed that a frog's legs twitched

Galvan je pokazao da se noga žabe zgrči

when he connected the lumbar nerve

kada poveže lumbalni nerv

to a source of electrical current.

sa izvorom električne struje.

This experiment revealed the first, and perhaps most fundamental,

Ovaj eksperiment je otkrio prvu, i možda najbitniju,

nugget of the neural code:

stvar o neuralnom kodu:

that information is written in the form

da je informacija zapisana u formi

of electrical impulses.

električnih impulsa.

Galvani's approach

Galvanov pristup

of probing the nervous system with electrodes

stimuliranja nervnog sistema elektrodama

has remained state-of-the-art until today,

je ostao dominantan pristup sve do danas,

despite a number of drawbacks.

uprkos njegovim brojnim manama.

Sticking wires into the brain is obviously rather crude.

Zabadanje žica u mozak je bez sumnje prilično surovo.

It's hard to do in animals that run around,

Teško je da se to radi sa životinjama koje jure unaokolo,

and there is a physical limit

a tu je i fizički limit

to the number of wires

koji se odnosi na broj žica

that can be inserted simultaneously.

koje je moguće simultano priključiti.

So around the turn of the last century,

Tako sam krajem prošlog veka,

I started to think,

počeo da razmišljam,

"Wouldn't it be wonderful if one could take this logic

kako bi bilo divno kad bi neko mogao da izvrne

and turn it upside down?"

ovu logiku.

So instead of inserting a wire

Tako da umesto ubacivanja žice

into one spot of the brain,

u neku tačku mozga,

re-engineer the brain itself

rekonstruišemo sam mozak

so that some of its neural elements

tako da neki od neuralnih elemenata

become responsive to diffusely broadcast signals

postanu sposobni da odgovaraju na difuznu emisiju signala,

such as a flash of light.

kao što su to snopovi svetlosti.

Such an approach would literally, in a flash of light,

Takav pristup bi bukvalno, dok trepneš,

overcome many of the obstacles to discovery.

prevazišao mnoge prepreke na putu do otkrića.

First, it's clearly a non-invasive,

Prvo, očigledno je neinvazivan,

wireless form of communication.

bežični oblik komunikacije.

And second, just as in a radio broadcast,

I drugo, baš kao i pri radio emitovanju,

you can communicate with many receivers at once.

može se komunicirati sa mnogim prijemnicima odjednom.

You don't need to know where these receivers are,

Nije potrebno da znate gde se nalaze primaoci.

and it doesn't matter if these receivers move --

I nije važno ukoliko su ovi prijemnici u pokretu --

just think of the stereo in your car.

samo pomislite na muzički uređaj u svom autu.

It gets even better,

I postaje još i bolje,

for it turns out that we can fabricate the receivers

jer se ispostavlja da možemo proizvoditi prijemnike

out of materials that are encoded in DNA.

od materijala koji je kodiran u DNK.

So each nerve cell

Tako će svaka nervna ćelija

with the right genetic makeup

sa pravim genetičkim uređenjem

will spontaneously produce a receiver

spontano proizvoditi prijemnik

that allows us to control its function.

koji će nam omogućiti da kontrolišemo njenu funkciju.

I hope you'll appreciate

Nadam se da ćete ceniti

the beautiful simplicity

predivnu jednostavnost

of this concept.

ovog koncepta.

There's no high-tech gizmos here,

Ne postoje komplikovani visoko tehnološki koncepti,

just biology revealed through biology.

samo jednostavna biologija otkrivena biologijom.

Now let's take a look at these miraculous receivers up close.

Sada pogledajmo ove čudesne prijemnike izbliza.

As we zoom in on one of these purple neurons,

Ukoliko zumiramo jedan od ovih purpurnih neurona,

we see that its outer membrane

videćemo da njegova spoljašnja membrana

is studded with microscopic pores.

okovana mikroskopskim porama.

Pores like these conduct electrical current

Pore kao što su ove sakupljaju električnu struju

and are responsible

i odgovorne su

for all the communication in the nervous system.

za ukupnu komunikaciju na nivou nervnog sistema.

But these pores here are special.

Ali ove pore ovde su specifične.

They are coupled to light receptors

One su spojene kako bi osvetlile receptore

similar to the ones in your eyes.

slično onima u vašim očima.

Whenever a flash of light hits the receptor,

Kada snop svetlosti pogodi receptor,

the pore opens, an electrical current is switched on,

pora se otvori i električna struja se uključi,

and the neuron fires electrical impulses.

i neuron ispaljuje električne impulse.

Because the light-activated pore is encoded in DNA,

I jer je svetlosno aktivirana pora kodirana u DNK,

we can achieve incredible precision.

možemo postići neverovatnu preciznost.

This is because,

To je zbog toga što,

although each cell in our bodies

iako svaka ćelija u našim telima

contains the same set of genes,

sadrži iste setove gena,

different mixes of genes get turned on and off

različiti miksovi gena se pale i gase

in different cells.

u različitim ćelijama.

You can exploit this to make sure

Možete iskoristiti to kako biste se uverili

that only some neurons

da samo neki neuroni

contain our light-activated pore and others don't.

sadrže naše svetlosno aktivne pore dok druge ne sadrže.

So in this cartoon, the bluish white cell

Tako na ovom crtežu, plavo bela ćelija

in the upper-left corner

u gornjem levom uglu

does not respond to light

ne reaguje na svetlost

because it lacks the light-activated pore.

jer nema svetlosno aktivne pore.

The approach works so well

Ovaj pristup funkcioniše toliko dobro

that we can write purely artificial messages

da možemo pisati čisto proizvoljne poruke

directly to the brain.

direktno u mozak.

In this example, each electrical impulse,

U ovom primeru, svaki električni impuls,

each deflection on the trace,

svako skretanje sa staze,

is caused by a brief pulse of light.

uzrokovano je kratkim blokom svetlosti.

And the approach, of course, also works

A ovaj pristup takođe funkcioniše

in moving, behaving animals.

kod životinja u pokretu.

This is the first ever such experiment,

Ovo je prvi ovakav eksperiment,

sort of the optical equivalent of Galvani's.

nešto kao optički ekvivalent Galvanu.

It was done six or seven years ago

Urađen je pre šest ili sedam godina

by my then graduate student, Susana Lima.

od strane jedne moje svršene studentkinje, Suzane Lime.

Susana had engineered the fruit fly on the left

Suzana je preuredila voćnu mušicu sa leve strane

so that just two out of the 200,000 cells in its brain

tako da samo dve od 200 000 ćelija u mozgu

expressed the light-activated pore.

iskazuju svetlosno aktivne pore.

You're familiar with these cells

Poznate su vam ove ćelije

because they are the ones that frustrate you

jer su to one koje vas frustriraju

when you try to swat the fly.

kada pokušavate da je ubijete.

They trained the escape reflex that makes the fly jump into the air

One su uvežbale refleks za bežanje koji omogućava mušici da odleti

and fly away whenever you move your hand in position.

kad god pomerite svoju ruku.

And you can see here that the flash of light has exactly the same effect.

I možete videti ovde da udar svetlosti ima isti efekat.

The animal jumps, it spreads its wings, it vibrates them,

Životinja skoči, raširi krila, vibrira njima,

but it can't actually take off

ali ne može zapravo otići,

because the fly is sandwiched between two glass plates.

jer je zaglavljena između dve staklene ploče.

Now to make sure that this was no reaction of the fly

Kako bi bila sigurna da ovo nije reakcija mušice

to a flash it could see,

na svetlost koju može videti,

Susana did a simple

Suzana je uradila jednostavan

but brutally effective experiment.

ali brutalno efektan eksperiment.

She cut the heads off of her flies.

Odsekla je glave mušicama.

These headless bodies can live for about a day,

Ova bezglava tela mogu živeti od prilike jedan dan,

but they don't do much.

ali ne rade mnogo šta.

They just stand around

Ona samo stoje naokolo

and groom excessively.

i preterano se doteruju.

So it seems that the only trait that survives decapitation is vanity.

Tako izgleda da je jedina osobina koja opstaje i nakon odsecanja glave sujeta.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

Anyway, as you'll see in a moment,

U svakom slučaju, kao što ćete videti za trenutak,

Susana was able to turn on the flight motor

Suzana je uspela da uključi motor za letenje

of what's the equivalent of the spinal cord of these flies

onoga što je ekvivalent kičmenoj moždini kod ovih mušica

and get some of the headless bodies

i učini da se neka od ovih obezglavljenih tela

to actually take off and fly away.

zaista pokrenu i odlete.

They didn't get very far, obviously.

Nisu daleko odmakli, očigledno.

Since we took these first steps,

Od kako smo načinili ove prve korake,

the field of optogenetics has exploded.

polje optogenetike je "eksplodiralo".

And there are now hundreds of labs

I danas postoje stotine laboratorija

using these approaches.

koje koriste ove pristupe.

And we've come a long way

I prešli smo dugačak put

since Galvani's and Susana's first successes

od Galvanovih i Suzaninih prvih uspeha

in making animals twitch or jump.

vezanih za trzanje ili skakanje životinja.

We can now actually interfere with their psychology

Sada možemo zaći u njihovu psihologiju

in rather profound ways,

na dublje načine

as I'll show you in my last example,

kao što ću vam pokazati u svom poslednjem primeru

which is directed at a familiar question.

koji je povezan sa nekim uobičajenim pitanjima.

Life is a string of choices

Život je niz izbora

creating a constant pressure to decide what to do next.

i vrši stalni pritisak na vas da odlučite šta da uradite sledeće.

We cope with this pressure by having brains,

Borimo se sa ovim pritiskom tako što imamo mozgove,

and within our brains, decision-making centers

a unutar naših mozgova, imamo centre za donošenje odluka

that I've called here the "Actor."

koje sam ovde nazvao "Operativac".

The Actor implements a policy that takes into account

Operativac sprovodi politiku koja uzima u obzir

the state of the environment

stanje okruženja

and the context in which we operate.

i kontekst u kome deluje.

Our actions change the environment, or context,

Naše akcije menjaju sredinu, ili kontekst,

and these changes are then fed back into the decision loop.

i ove promene se tada vraćaju u središte odlučivanja.

Now to put some neurobiological meat

Sada da stavimo malo neurobiološke mase

on this abstract model,

na ovaj apstraktni model,

we constructed a simple one-dimensional world

konstruisaćemo jednostavan jednodimenzionalan svet

for our favorite subject, fruit flies.

za naše omiljene subjekte, voćne mušice.

Each chamber in these two vertical stacks

Svaka komora u ova dva vertikalna skladišta

contains one fly.

sadrže po jednu mušicu.

The left and the right halves of the chamber

Leva i desna polovina komora

are filled with two different odors,

sadrže dve različite vrste mirisa,

and a security camera watches

i sigurnosna kamera posmatra

as the flies pace up and down between them.

kako se mušice kreću između njih.

Here's some such CCTV footage.

Evo nekih snimaka tih kamera.

Whenever a fly reaches the midpoint of the chamber

Kad god bi mušica stigla do središta komore

where the two odor streams meet,

gde se susreću dve vrste mirisa,

it has to make a decision.

morala je da napravi izbor.

It has to decide whether to turn around

Morala je da odluči da li da se okrene

and stay in the same odor,

i ostane u istom mirisnom polju,

or whether to cross the midline

ili da pređe središnju liniju

and try something new.

i da proba nešto novo.

These decisions are clearly a reflection

Ove odluke su očito refleksija

of the Actor's policy.

politike Operativca.

Now for an intelligent being like our fly,

E sada, za inteligentno biće kao što je naša mušica,

this policy is not written in stone

politika nije nepromenljiva,

but rather changes as the animal learns from experience.

već se menja pošto životinje uče iskustvom.

We can incorporate such an element

Možemo uključiti taj element

of adaptive intelligence into our model

inteligencije prilagođavanja u naš model

by assuming that the fly's brain

uz pretpostavku da mozak mušice

contains not only an Actor,

sadrži ne samo Operativca,

but a different group of cells,

već i različite grupe ćelija,

a "Critic," that provides a running commentary

Kritiku, koja omogućava preispitivanje

on the Actor's choices.

izbora koje pravi Opertivac.

You can think of this nagging inner voice

Možete razmišljati o ovom "džangrizavom" unutrašnjem glasu

as sort of the brain's equivalent

kao o vrsti moždanog ekvivalenta

of the Catholic Church,

katoličke crkve,

if you're an Austrian like me,

ukoliko ste iz Austrije kao ja,

or the super-ego, if you're Freudian,

ili superega, ukoliko ste Frojdovac,

or your mother, if you're Jewish.

ili vaše majke, ako ste Jevrej.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

Now obviously,

Sada ozbiljno,

the Critic is a key ingredient

kritika je ključni činilac

in what makes us intelligent.

koji nas čini inteligentnima.

So we set out to identify

Tako smo krenuli da otkrijemo

the cells in the fly's brain

ćelije u mozgu mušice

that played the role of the Critic.

koje igraju ulogu Kritike.

And the logic of our experiment was simple.

Logika našeg eksperimenta je bila jednostavna.

We thought if we could use our optical remote control

Pomislili smo da ako bi bili u stanju da iskoristimo naš optički daljinski upravljač

to activate the cells of the Critic,

kako bismo aktivirali ćelije Kritike,

we should be able, artificially, to nag the Actor

mogli bismo, veštački, da isprovociramo Operativca

into changing its policy.

da promeni politiku.

In other words,

Drugim rečima,

the fly should learn from mistakes

mušica bi učila na greškama

that it thought it had made

pomislila bi da je učinila nešto,

but, in reality, it had not made.

što u stvarnosti nije.

So we bred flies

Tako smo svrstali mušice

whose brains were more or less randomly peppered

čiji su mozgovi bili manje ili više nasumično poprskani

with cells that were light addressable.

ćelijama - prijemnicima za svetlo.

And then we took these flies

I tada smo uzeli te mušice

and allowed them to make choices.

i dozvolili im da naprave izbore.

And whenever they made one of the two choices,

I kad god bi napravile jedan od dva izbora,

chose one odor,

izabrale jedan miris,

in this case the blue one over the orange one,

u ovom slučaju ovaj plavi spram narandžastog,

we switched on the lights.

mi bismo promenili svetla.

If the Critic was among the optically activated cells,

Da je kritika bila među optički aktiviranim ćelijama,

the result of this intervention

rezultat ove intervencije

should be a change in policy.

bi trebalo da bude menjanje politike.

The fly should learn to avoid

Mušica bi naučila da izbegava

the optically reinforced odor.

optički pojačan miris.

Here's what happened in two instances:

Evo šta se dešava u dve situacije.

We're comparing two strains of flies,

Upoređujemo dve vrste mušica,

each of them having

svaka od njih ima

about 100 light-addressable cells in their brains,

oko 100 ćelija - prijemnika za svetlo u svojim mozgovima,

shown here in green on the left and on the right.

što je prikazano zelenom bojom sa leve i desne strane.

What's common among these groups of cells

Ono što je zajedničko u ovim grupama ćelija

is that they all produce the neurotransmitter dopamine.

jeste to da one sve produkuju neurotransmiter dopamin.

But the identities of the individual

Ali među samim neuronima

dopamine-producing neurons

koji proizvode dopamin

are clearly largely different on the left and on the right.

postoje velike razlike, između ovih sa leve i ovih sa desne strane.

Optically activating

Optički aktivirane

these hundred or so cells

ovih stotinu ćelija

into two strains of flies

u dve vrste mušica,

has dramatically different consequences.

imaju dramatično različite posledice.

If you look first at the behavior

Ako pogledate prvo ponašanje

of the fly on the right,

mušica na desnoj strani,

you can see that whenever it reaches the midpoint of the chamber

možete videti da kad god stignu do središnje tačke komore

where the two odors meet,

gde se dva mirisa susreću,

it marches straight through, as it did before.

one prolaze pravo napred kao što su to činile i ranije.

Its behavior is completely unchanged.

Njihovo ponašanje je u potpunosti nepromenjeno.

But the behavior of the fly on the left is very different.

Ali ponašanje mušica sa leve strane je različito.

Whenever it comes up to the midpoint,

Kad god dođe do središnje tačke,

it pauses,

zastane,

it carefully scans the odor interface

pažljivo osmotri unutrašnjost tog dela mirisne komore,

as if it was sniffing out its environment,

kao da njuši to okruženje,

and then it turns around.

a potom se vraća nazad.

This means that the policy that the Actor implements

Ovo znači da politika koju Operativac sada sprovodi

now includes an instruction to avoid the odor

uključuje i informaciju da izbegne miris

that's in the right half of the chamber.

koji je u desnoj strani komore.

This means that the Critic

Ovo znači da je Kritika

must have spoken in that animal,

morala progovoriti u toj životinji,

and that the Critic must be contained

i da je Kritika sadržana

among the dopamine-producing neurons on the left,

unutar neurona koji produkuju dopamin sa leve strane,

but not among the dopamine producing neurons on the right.

ali ne i među neuronima sa desne strane.

Through many such experiments,

Kroz mnogo ovakvih eksperimenata,

we were able to narrow down

uspeli smo da suzimo

the identity of the Critic

identitet Kritike

to just 12 cells.

na samo 12 ćelija.

These 12 cells, as shown here in green,

Ovih 12 ćelija, kao što je pokazano zelenom bojom,

send the output to a brain structure

su poslale izveštaj moždanoj strukturi

called the "mushroom body,"

koja se zove pečurkasto telo,

which is shown here in gray.

i koja je ovde sive boje.

We know from our formal model

Znamo iz našeg modela

that the brain structure

da je moždana struktura

at the receiving end of the Critic's commentary is the Actor.

na kraju prijemnih komentara Kritike zapravo Operativac.

So this anatomy suggests

Tako ova anatomija sugeriše

that the mushroom bodies have something to do

da pečurkasta tela treba nešto da urade

with action choice.

u akciji vršenja izbora.

Based on everything we know about the mushroom bodies,

S obzirom na sve što znamo o pečurkastim telima,

this makes perfect sense.

ovo savršeno ima smisla.

In fact, it makes so much sense

Zapravo, ovo toliko ima smilsla,

that we can construct an electronic toy circuit

da možemo konstruisati električnu igračku

that simulates the behavior of the fly.

koja simulira ponašanje mušice.

In this electronic toy circuit,

U ovoj električnoj igrački

the mushroom body neurons are symbolized

neuroni pečurkastog tela su simbolizovani

by the vertical bank of blue LEDs

vertikalnim nagibom plave diode,

in the center of the board.

na centru table.

These LED's are wired to sensors

Ove diode su povezane sa senzorima

that detect the presence of odorous molecules in the air.

koji detektuju prisustvo mirisnih molekula u vazduhu.

Each odor activates a different combination of sensors,

Svaka vrsta mirisa aktivira različitu kombinaciju senzora,

which in turn activates

koji dalje aktiviraju

a different odor detector in the mushroom body.

različite detektore mirisa u pečurkastom telu.

So the pilot in the cockpit of the fly,

Tako pilot u pilotskoj kabini mušice,

the Actor,

Operativac,

can tell which odor is present

može reći koji miris je prisutan

simply by looking at which of the blue LEDs lights up.

jednostavnim pogledom na to koja je od plavih dioda upaljena.

What the Actor does with this information

Šta će Operativac uraditi sa tom informacijom

depends on its policy,

zavisi od njegove politike,

which is stored in the strengths of the connection,

koja počiva na čvrstini veza,

between the odor detectors

između detektora mirisa

and the motors

i motora

that power the fly's evasive actions.

koji pokreću mušicu na odlučujuću akciju.

If the connection is weak, the motors will stay off

Ukoliko je veza slaba, motori će ostati isključeni

and the fly will continue straight on its course.

i mušica će nastaviti pravo na svom kursu.

If the connection is strong, the motors will turn on

Ako je veza jaka, motori će se uključiti

and the fly will initiate a turn.

i mušica će se okrenuti.

Now consider a situation

Sada razmotrite situaciju

in which the motors stay off,

u kojoj motori ostaju isključeni,

the fly continues on its path

i mušica nastavi svojom stazom

and it suffers some painful consequence

i doživi neke bolne posledice

such as getting zapped.

kao recimo da bude uhvaćena.

In a situation like this,

U ovakvoj situaciji,

we would expect the Critic to speak up

možemo očekivati da Kritika progovori

and to tell the Actor

i kaže Operativcu

to change its policy.

da promeni politiku.

We have created such a situation, artificially,

Kreirali smo veštačku situaciju

by turning on the critic with a flash of light.

pokrenuvši Kritiku snopom svetlosti.

That caused a strengthening of the connections

To je dovelo do jačanja veza

between the currently active odor detector

između trenutno aktivnog detektora mirisa

and the motors.

i motora.

So the next time

I tako se sledeći put

the fly finds itself facing the same odor again,

mušica našla suočena ponovo sa istim mirisom,

the connection is strong enough to turn on the motors

veza je dovoljno jaka da pokrene motore

and to trigger an evasive maneuver.

i da pokrene odlučujuću akciju.

I don't know about you,

Ne znam za vas,

but I find it exhilarating to see

ali ja mislim da je prosvetljujuće

how vague psychological notions

kako maglovita psihološka zapažanja

evaporate and give rise

nestaju i ostavljaju prostor

to a physical, mechanistic understanding of the mind,

za fizička i mehanicistička objašnjenja uma,

even if it's the mind of the fly.

pa makar to bio i um mušice.

This is one piece of good news.

Ovo je jedan deo dobrih vesti.

The other piece of good news,

Drugi deo dobrih vesti,

for a scientist at least,

makar i samo za naučnike,

is that much remains to be discovered.

jeste to da je ostalo još mnogo toga da bude tek otkriveno.

In the experiments I told you about,

U eksperimentima o kojima sam vam govorio,

we have lifted the identity of the Critic,

uspeli smo da identifikujemo Kritiku,

but we still have no idea

ali i dalje nemamo ideju

how the Critic does its job.

kako ona radi svoj posao.

Come to think of it, knowing when you're wrong

Kada razmislite o tome, saznanje da ste pogrešili

without a teacher, or your mother, telling you,

bez učitelja, ili majke da vam na to ukaže,

is a very hard problem.

veoma je velik problem.

There are some ideas in computer science

Postoje neke ideje u informatici

and in artificial intelligence

i veštačkoj inteligenciji

as to how this might be done,

o tome kako je to moguće učiniti,

but we still haven't solved

ali još uvek nismo rešili

a single example

ni jedan primer

of how intelligent behavior

kako inteligentno ponašanje

springs from the physical interactions

prelazi iz fizičke interakcije

in living matter.

u živu materiju.

I think we'll get there in the not too distant future.

Mislim da ćemo dobiti odgovore u bliskoj budućnosti.

Thank you.

Hvala vam.

(Applause)

(Aplauz)