Gero Miesenboeck reengineers a brain

52,142 views ใƒป 2010-11-05

TED


์•„๋ž˜ ์˜๋ฌธ์ž๋ง‰์„ ๋”๋ธ”ํด๋ฆญํ•˜์‹œ๋ฉด ์˜์ƒ์ด ์žฌ์ƒ๋ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

๋ฒˆ์—ญ: Alf Bae ๊ฒ€ํ† : Jongyeon Ee
00:15
I have a doppelganger.
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์ €์—๊ฒŒ๋Š” ๋ถ„์‹ ์ด ํ•˜๋‚˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
00:18
(Laughter)
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(์›ƒ์Œ)
00:21
Dr. Gero is a brilliant
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๊ฒŒ๋กœ ๋ฐ•์‚ฌ๋Š” ๋งŒํ™” ๋“œ๋ž˜๊ณค๋ณผ Z "์•ˆ๋“œ๋กœ์ด๋“œ ์‚ฌ๊ฐ€"์— ๋‚˜์˜ค๋Š”
00:24
but slightly mad scientist
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๋ช…์„ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ
00:26
in the "Dragonball Z: Android Saga."
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์‚ด์ง ๋ฏธ์นœ ๊ณผํ•™์ž์ฃ .
00:29
If you look very carefully,
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์ž˜ ์‚ดํŽด๋ณด์‹œ๋ฉด,
00:31
you see that his skull has been replaced
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๊ฒŒ๋กœ ๋ฐ•์‚ฌ ๋จธ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ํˆฌ๋ช…ํ•œ ์œ ๋ฆฌ ๋”์œผ๋กœ
00:34
with a transparent Plexiglas dome
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๋˜์–ด ์žˆ์–ด์„œ
00:36
so that the workings of his brain can be observed
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๊ทธ์˜ ๋‡Œ๊ฐ€ ์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ๋Œ์•„๊ฐ€๋Š”์ง€ ๊ด€์ฐฐํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์ง€์š”.
00:39
and also controlled with light.
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๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ๋น›์œผ๋กœ ํ†ต์ œํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ๋„ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅํ•˜๋‹ต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
00:42
That's exactly what I do --
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์ด๊ฒŒ ์ œ๊ฐ€ ๋ฐ”๋กœ ํ•˜๋Š” ์ผ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
00:44
optical mind control.
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์ฆ‰, ๊ด‘ํ•™์  ๋งˆ์ธ๋“œ ์ปจํŠธ๋กค์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
00:46
(Laughter)
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(์›ƒ์Œ)
00:48
But in contrast to my evil twin
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ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ์„ธ๊ณ„ ์ •๋ณต ์š•๋ง์„ ๋ถˆํƒœ์šฐ๋Š”
00:50
who lusts after world domination,
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์ œ ์‚ฌ์•…ํ•œ ๋ถ„์‹ ์ธ ๊ฒŒ๋กœ ๋ฐ•์‚ฌ์™€๋Š” ๋‹ฌ๋ฆฌ
00:53
my motives are not sinister.
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์ œ ๋™๊ธฐ๋Š” ๋‚˜์œ ๊ฒŒ ์•„๋‹ˆ์ฃ .
00:56
I control the brain
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์ €๋Š” ๋‡Œ๊ฐ€ ์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ๋Œ์•„๊ฐ€๋Š”์ง€
00:58
in order to understand how it works.
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์ดํ•ดํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ๊ทธ๊ฑธ ์กฐ์ข…ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ˆ๊นŒ์š”.
01:00
Now wait a minute, you may say,
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์—ฌ๊ธฐ์„œ ์ž ๊น ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์€ ์•„๋งˆ
01:02
how can you go straight to controlling the brain
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๋‡Œ๋ฅผ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜์ง€๋„ ๋ชปํ–ˆ๋Š”๋ฐ
01:05
without understanding it first?
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์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ๋‡Œ๋ฅผ ํ†ต์ œํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ฑธ๋กœ ๋„˜์–ด๊ฐ”๋ƒ๊ณ  ํ•˜์‹ค์ง€๋„ ๋ชจ๋ฆ…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
01:07
Isn't that putting the cart before the horse?
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๋งˆ์น˜ ๋ง ์•ž์— ๋งˆ์ฐจ๋ฅผ ๋‘๋Š”๊ฒƒ ๊ฐ™์ง€ ์•Š๋ƒ๊ณ  ํ•˜์‹ค ์ˆ˜๋„ ์žˆ์ฃ .
01:11
Many neuroscientists agree with this view
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๋งŽ์€ ์‹ ๊ฒฝ๊ณผํ•™์ž๋“ค์ด ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ด€์ ์— ๋™์˜ํ•˜๊ณ 
01:14
and think that understanding will come
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๋ณด๋‹ค ์ •๊ตํ•œ ๊ด€์ฐฐ๊ณผ ๋ถ„์„์„ ํ†ตํ•ด
01:17
from more detailed observation and analysis.
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๋‡Œ๋ฅผ ์ดํ•ดํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค๊ณ  ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
01:20
They say, "If we could record the activity of our neurons,
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์‹ ๊ฒฝ๊ณผํ•™์ž๋“ค์€, "์šฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ๋‰ด๋Ÿฐ์˜ ํ™œ๋™์„ ๊ธฐ๋กํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค๋ฉด,
01:24
we would understand the brain."
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๋‡Œ๋ฅผ ์ดํ•ดํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์„ ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค." ๋ผ๊ณ  ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
01:27
But think for a moment what that means.
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๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ์ด๊ฒƒ์ด ์–ด๋–ค ์˜๋ฏธ์ธ์ง€ ์ž ์‹œ ์ƒ๊ฐํ•ด๋ณด๋ฉด
01:30
Even if we could measure
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๋งŒ์•ฝ ์šฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ๋ชจ๋“  ์„ธํฌ๋“ค์ด ๋ญ˜ ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š”์ง€ ํ•ญ์ƒ
01:32
what every cell is doing at all times,
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์ธก์ •ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค๋ฉด
01:34
we would still have to make sense
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๊ธฐ๋ก๋œ ํ™œ๋™ ํŒจํ„ด์„
01:36
of the recorded activity patterns,
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ์ดํ•ดํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์–ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ๋ง์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
01:38
and that's so difficult,
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๊ทธ๊ฑด ์ •๋ง ์–ด๋ ค์šด ์ผ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
01:40
chances are we'll understand these patterns
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ์ด๋Ÿฐ ํŒจํ„ด์„ ์ดํ•ดํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ํ™•๋ฅ ์€
01:42
just as little as the brains that produce them.
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๋‘๋‡Œ๊ฐ€ ๊ทธ ํŒจํ„ด์„ ์ƒ์‚ฐํ•ด๋‚ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ ๋งŒํผ์ด๋‚˜ ์•„์ฃผ ํฌ๋ฐ•ํ•˜์ฃ .
01:45
Take a look at what brain activity might look like.
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๋‘๋‡Œ ํ™œ๋™์ด ์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ๋ณด์ด๋Š”์ง€ ํ•œ ๋ฒˆ ๋ณด์‹œ์ฃ .
01:48
In this simulation, each black dot
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์—ฌ๊ธฐ ์‹œ๋ฎฌ๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์—์„œ ๋ณด์‹œ๋Š” ๊ฐ๊ฐ์˜ ๊ฒ€์€ ์ ์€
01:50
is one nerve cell.
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ํ•˜๋‚˜์˜ ์‹ ๊ฒฝ ์„ธํฌ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
01:52
The dot is visible
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์ด ์ ๋“ค์€ ๊ฐ ์„ธํฌ๊ฐ€
01:54
whenever a cell fires an electrical impulse.
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๊ฐ ์„ธํฌ๊ฐ€ ์ „๊ธฐ์  ์‹ ํ˜ธ๋ฅผ ๋ฐœํ™”ํ•  ๋•Œ๋งˆ๋‹ค ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
01:56
There's 10,000 neurons here.
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์—ฌ๊ธฐ์—๋Š” ๋งŒ ๊ฐœ์˜ ๋‰ด๋Ÿฐ์ด ์žˆ๋Š”๋ฐ,
01:58
So you're looking at roughly one percent
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์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์ด ๋ณด์‹œ๋Š” ๊ฑด ๋ฐ”ํ€ด๋ฒŒ๋ ˆ ๋‡Œ์˜
02:00
of the brain of a cockroach.
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๋Œ€๋žต 1%์ผ ๊ฒƒ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
02:04
Your brains are about 100 million times
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์‚ฌ๋žŒ์˜ ๋‡Œ๋Š” ์ด๋ณด๋‹ค ์•ฝ 1์–ต ๋ฐฐ ์ •๋„
02:07
more complicated.
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๋” ๋ณต์žกํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
02:09
Somewhere, in a pattern like this,
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์ด๋Ÿฐ ํŒจํ„ด์˜ ์–ด๋””๊ฐ€๋Š”
02:11
is you,
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๋ฐ”๋กœ ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์ด์ฃ .
02:13
your perceptions,
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์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์˜ ์ง€๊ฐ,
02:15
your emotions, your memories,
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๊ฐ์ •๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์–ต,
02:18
your plans for the future.
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๋ฏธ๋ž˜์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ณ„ํš ๊ฐ™์€ ๊ฒƒ์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋ƒ…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
02:20
But we don't know where,
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ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๊ทธ๊ฒŒ ์–ด๋””์ธ์ง€ ๋ชจ๋ฆ…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
02:22
since we don't know how to read the pattern.
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์ด๋Ÿฐ ํŒจํ„ด์„ ์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ์ฝ์–ด์•ผ ํ• ์ง€ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
02:25
We don't understand the code used by the brain.
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๋‡Œ๊ฐ€ ์–ด๋–ค ์•”ํ˜ธ๋ฅผ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜๋Š”์ง€ ๋ชจ๋ฆ…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
02:28
To make progress,
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๊ทธ ์ด์ƒ์„ ์•Œ๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š”
02:30
we need to break the code.
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์ด ์•”ํ˜ธ๋ฅผ ํ•ด๋…ํ•ด์•ผ ํ•˜์ง€์š”.
02:32
But how?
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ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ํ•ด๋…ํ•ด์•ผ ํ• ๊นŒ์š”?
02:35
An experienced code-breaker will tell you
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์ „๋ฌธ ์•”ํ˜ธํ•ด๋…์ž๋ผ๋ฉด ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์—๊ฒŒ
02:37
that in order to figure out what the symbols in a code mean,
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์•”ํ˜ธ ์†์˜ ์ƒ์ง•์ด ๋ญ˜ ์˜๋ฏธํ•˜๋Š”์ง€ ํŒŒ์•…ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š”
02:40
it's essential to be able to play with them,
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์•”ํ˜ธ๋ฅผ ๋‹ค๋ฃฐ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š”์ง€์™€
02:43
to rearrange them at will.
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์›ํ•˜๋Š” ๋Œ€๋กœ ์žฌ๋ฐฐ์—ดํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š”์ง€๊ฐ€ ์ค‘์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค๊ณ  ํ•  ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
02:45
So in this situation too,
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๊ทธ๋ž˜์„œ ์ด ๊ฒฝ์šฐ์—๋„
02:47
to decode the information
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์ด์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ํŒจํ„ด์„ ๊ฐ–๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š”
02:49
contained in patterns like this,
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์ •๋ณด๋ฅผ ํ•ด๋…ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š”
02:51
watching alone won't do.
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๊ด€์ฐฐํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ๋งŒ์œผ๋กœ๋Š” ๋ถ€์กฑํ•˜๊ณ 
02:53
We need to rearrange the pattern.
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๊ทธ ํŒจํ„ด์„ ์žฌ๋ฐฐ์—ดํ•ด๋ด์•ผ ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
02:55
In other words,
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๋‹ค์‹œ ๋งํ•˜๋ฉด,
02:57
instead of recording the activity of neurons,
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๋‰ด๋Ÿฐ์˜ ํ™œ๋™์„ ๊ธฐ๋กํ•˜๋Š” ๋Œ€์‹ 
02:59
we need to control it.
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ํ†ต์ œํ•ด์•ผ ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฑฐ์ฃ .
03:01
It's not essential that we can control
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๋‡Œ ์•ˆ์˜ ๋ชจ๋“  ๋‰ด๋Ÿฐ์˜ ํ™œ๋™์„
03:03
the activity of all neurons in the brain, just some.
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์ œ์–ดํ•  ํ•„์š”๋Š” ์—†๊ณ  ๊ทธ์ € ์ผ๋ถ€๋งŒ ํ†ต์ œํ•ด ๋ณด๋ฉด ๋ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
03:06
The more targeted our interventions, the better.
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์ข€ ๋” ์ž˜ ์ œ์–ด๋œ ํ†ต์ œ๋ผ๋ฉด ๋”์šฑ ์ข‹๊ฒ ์ฃ .
03:08
And I'll show you in a moment
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์ œ๊ฐ€ ์ž ์‹œ ํ›„์— ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„๊ป˜ ๋ณด์—ฌ๋“œ๋ฆด ๊ฒƒ์€
03:10
how we can achieve the necessary precision.
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ํ•„์š”ํ•œ ์ •๋ฐ€๋„๋ฅผ ๋‹ฌ์„ฑํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋ƒ๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
03:13
And since I'm realistic, rather than grandiose,
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์ €๋Š” ๊ทธ๋Ÿด์‹ธํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋ถ€ํ’€๋ ค ๋งํ•˜๊ธฐ๋ณด๋‹ค ํ˜„์‹ค์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋งํ•˜๋Š” ํŽธ์ด๋ผ์„œ
03:16
I don't claim that the ability to control the function of the nervous system
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์‹ ๊ฒฝ๊ณ„์˜ ๊ธฐ๋Šฅ์„ ์กฐ์ ˆํ•˜๋Š” ๋Šฅ๋ ฅ์ด
03:19
will at once unravel all its mysteries.
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๋ชจ๋“  ๋ฏธ์Šคํ…Œ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์ฆ‰๊ฐ ํ’€์–ด์ค„ ๊ฑฐ๋ผ๊ณ ๋Š” ๋งํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๊ฒ ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
03:22
But we'll certainly learn a lot.
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๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ํ™•์‹คํžˆ ๋งŽ์€ ๊ฒƒ์„ ๋ฐฐ์šธ ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
03:27
Now, I'm by no means
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์Œ, ์ €๋Š” ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์ œ์–ด ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์ด
03:29
the first person to realize
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์–ผ๋งˆ๋‚˜ ๊ฐ•๋ ฅํ•œ ์ˆ˜๋‹จ์ธ์ง€
03:31
how powerful a tool intervention is.
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๋ฐœ๊ฒฌํ•œ ์ฒซ๋ฒˆ์งธ ์‚ฌ๋žŒ์€ ์•„๋‹™๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
03:34
The history of attempts
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์‹ ๊ฒฝ๊ณ„์˜ ๊ธฐ๋Šฅ์„
03:36
to tinker with the function of the nervous system
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์ž๊ทน์‹œ์ผœ ๋ณด๋Š” ์‹œ๋„๋Š” ์‚ฌ์‹ค
03:38
is long and illustrious.
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๊ฝค ์˜ค๋ž˜ ๋˜์—ˆ๊ณ  ์ž˜ ์•Œ๋ ค์ ธ ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด์ฃ .
03:40
It dates back at least 200 years,
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์ ์–ด๋„ 200๋…„ ์ „์œผ๋กœ ๋Œ์•„๊ฐ€ ๋ณด๋ฉด
03:43
to Galvani's famous experiments
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18์„ธ๊ธฐ ํ›„๋ฐ˜์— ๊ฐˆ๋ฐ”๋‹ˆ์˜ (๊ฐˆ๋ฐ”๋‹ˆ: ์ดํƒˆ๋ฆฌ์•„์˜ ์ƒ๋ฆฌํ•™์žยท๋ฌผ๋ฆฌํ•™์ž)
03:45
in the late 18th century and beyond.
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์œ ๋ช…ํ•œ ์‹คํ—˜์ด ์žˆ์—ˆ์ฃ .
03:49
Galvani showed that a frog's legs twitched
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๊ฐˆ๋ฐ”๋‹ˆ๋Š” ๊ฐœ๊ตฌ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์š”์ถ”์‹ ๊ฒฝ์— ์ „๋ฅ˜๋ฅผ ์—ฐ๊ฒฐ์‹œ์ผฐ์„ ๋•Œ
03:52
when he connected the lumbar nerve
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๊ฐœ๊ตฌ๋ฆฌ ๋‹ค๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ๊ฟˆํ‹€๊ฑฐ๋ฆฐ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„
03:54
to a source of electrical current.
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์‹คํ—˜์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ณด์—ฌ์คฌ์ฃ .
03:57
This experiment revealed the first, and perhaps most fundamental,
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์ด ์‹คํ—˜์€ ์ตœ์ดˆ๋กœ ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์•„๋งˆ๋„ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๊ทผ๋ณธ์ ์ธ
04:00
nugget of the neural code:
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์‹ ๊ฒฝ ์ฝ”๋“œ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ฐœ๋…์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ฃผ์—ˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
04:02
that information is written in the form
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์ฆ‰, ์ •๋ณด๊ฐ€ ์ „๊ธฐ ์ž๊ทน์˜
04:04
of electrical impulses.
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ํ˜•ํƒœ๋กœ ์“ฐ์—ฌ์ ธ ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ๋ง์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
04:08
Galvani's approach
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์ „๊ทน์„ ๊ฐ–๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š” ์‹ ๊ฒฝ๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๊ทœ๋ช…ํ•˜๋ ค๋Š”
04:10
of probing the nervous system with electrodes
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๊ฐˆ๋ฐ”๋‹ˆ์˜ ์‹œ๋„๋Š”
04:12
has remained state-of-the-art until today,
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์˜ค๋Š˜๋‚ ๊นŒ์ง€๋„ ์˜ˆ์ˆ ๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ๊ฒฝ์ง€๋กœ ์—ฌ๊ฒจ์ง‘๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
04:15
despite a number of drawbacks.
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๋ช‡ ๊ฐ€์ง€ ๊ฒฐ์ ์—๋„ ๋ถˆ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ  ๋ง์ด์ฃ .
04:18
Sticking wires into the brain is obviously rather crude.
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๋‡Œ์— ์ „์„ ์„ ๋ถ™์ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์€ ๋ถ„๋ช… ์ข€ ์—‰์„ฑํ•  ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
04:21
It's hard to do in animals that run around,
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์—ฌ๊ธฐ์ €๊ธฐ ๋›ฐ์–ด๋‹ค๋‹ˆ๋Š” ๋™๋ฌผํ•œํ…Œ ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๊ธฐ๋„ ์–ด๋ ต๊ฑฐ๋‹ˆ์™€
04:23
and there is a physical limit
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๋™์‹œ์— ๊ฝ‚์„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š”
04:25
to the number of wires
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์ „์„  ๊ฐœ์ˆ˜์—๋„
04:27
that can be inserted simultaneously.
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์‹ค์งˆ์ ์ธ ํ•œ๊ณ„๊ฐ€ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
04:30
So around the turn of the last century,
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๊ทธ๋ž˜์„œ ์ง€๋‚œ ์„ธ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ๋„˜์–ด๊ฐˆ ๋ฌด๋ ต
04:32
I started to think,
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์ €๋Š” ์ด๋Ÿฐ ์ƒ๊ฐ์„ ํ–ˆ์ฃ .
04:34
"Wouldn't it be wonderful if one could take this logic
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์ด ๋…ผ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ๋’ค์ง‘์–ด์„œ ์ƒ๊ฐํ•ด๋ณด๋ฉด
04:37
and turn it upside down?"
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๋ฉ‹์ง€์ง€ ์•Š์„๊นŒ ํ•˜๊ณ  ๋ง์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
04:39
So instead of inserting a wire
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๊ทธ๋ž˜์„œ ๋‡Œ์˜ ํ•œ ๋ถ€๋ถ„์—
04:41
into one spot of the brain,
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์ „์„ ์„ ์‚ฝ์ž…ํ•˜๋Š” ๋Œ€์‹ 
04:44
re-engineer the brain itself
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๋‡Œ ์ž์ฒด๋ฅผ ์žฌ์„ค๊ณ„ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
04:46
so that some of its neural elements
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์‹ ๊ฒฝ ์š”์†Œ ์ผ๋ถ€๊ฐ€
04:49
become responsive to diffusely broadcast signals
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๋ฐฉ์‚ฐ๋˜๋Š” ์‹ ํ˜ธ์— ์ž๊ทนํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋„๋ก ๋ง์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
04:52
such as a flash of light.
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์˜ˆ๋ฅผ ๋“ค์–ด ๋น›์„ ์ชผ์ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ ๊ฐ™์€ ๊ฑฐ์ฃ .
04:55
Such an approach would literally, in a flash of light,
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๋ง ๊ทธ๋Œ€๋กœ ๋น›์„ ์ชผ์ด๋Š” ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์‹œ๋„๋Š”
04:58
overcome many of the obstacles to discovery.
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์ง€๊ธˆ๊ป ๋ฐœ๊ฒฌ์„ ์–ด๋ ต๊ฒŒ ํ–ˆ๋˜ ์žฅ์• ๋“ค์„ ๊ทน๋ณตํ•˜๊ฒŒ ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
05:01
First, it's clearly a non-invasive,
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์šฐ์„ , ์ด ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์€ ๋ถ„๋ช… ๋น„(้ž)์นจํˆฌ์ ์ธ
05:04
wireless form of communication.
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๋ฌด์„  ์ปค๋ฎค๋‹ˆ์ผ€์ด์…˜ ํ˜•ํƒœ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
05:07
And second, just as in a radio broadcast,
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๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ๋‘๋ฒˆ์งธ๋กœ ๋ผ๋””์˜ค ๋ฐฉ์†ก์ฒ˜๋Ÿผ
05:09
you can communicate with many receivers at once.
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๋งŽ์€ ์ˆ˜์‹ ๊ธฐ์™€ ๋™์‹œ์— ์†Œํ†ตํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
05:12
You don't need to know where these receivers are,
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์ˆ˜์‹ ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ์–ด๋””์— ์žˆ๋Š”์ง€ ์•Œ ํ•„์š”๋Š” ์—†์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
05:15
and it doesn't matter if these receivers move --
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๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์ˆ˜์‹ ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ๋Œ์•„๋‹ค๋…€๋„ ์ƒ๊ด€์—†์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
05:17
just think of the stereo in your car.
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์ฐจ์— ์žˆ๋Š” ์Šคํ…Œ๋ ˆ์˜ค ์žฅ์น˜๋ฅผ ์ƒ๊ฐํ•ด๋ณด์„ธ์š”.
05:20
It gets even better,
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€
05:23
for it turns out that we can fabricate the receivers
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DNA์— ์•”ํ˜ธํ™”๋œ ๋ฌผ์งˆ๋กœ ๋งŒ๋“ 
05:26
out of materials that are encoded in DNA.
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์ˆ˜์‹ ๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ์ œ์ž‘ํ•ด ๋‚ผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค๋ฉด ๋”์šฑ ์ข‹๊ฒ ์ฃ .
05:29
So each nerve cell
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๊ทธ๋ž˜์„œ ์ ์ ˆํ•œ ์œ ์ „์  ๊ตฌ์„ฑ์„ ๊ฐ€์ง„
05:31
with the right genetic makeup
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๊ฐ๊ฐ์˜ ์‹ ๊ฒฝ ์„ธํฌ๊ฐ€
05:33
will spontaneously produce a receiver
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ๊ทธ ๊ธฐ๋Šฅ์„ ํ†ต์ œํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š”
05:36
that allows us to control its function.
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์ˆ˜์‹ ๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๋™์‹œ์— ์ƒ์‚ฐํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ฒŒ ๋ง์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
05:39
I hope you'll appreciate
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์ €๋Š” ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„๊ป˜์„œ
05:41
the beautiful simplicity
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์ด ๊ฐœ๋…์˜ ์•„๋ฆ„๋‹ค์šด ๋‹จ์ˆœํ•จ์„
05:43
of this concept.
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์ฃผ๋ชฉํ•ด ์ฃผ์…จ์œผ๋ฉด ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
05:45
There's no high-tech gizmos here,
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์—ฌ๊ธฐ์—๋Š” ์–ด๋–ค ํ•˜์ดํ…Œํฌ ์žฅ์น˜๋„ ์—†์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
05:47
just biology revealed through biology.
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๊ทธ์ € ์ƒ๋ฌผํ•™์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ฐํ˜€์ง„ ์ƒ๋ฌผํ•™์ผ ๋ฟ์ด์ง€์š”.
05:51
Now let's take a look at these miraculous receivers up close.
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์ž, ๊ทธ๋Ÿผ ์ด ์—„์ฒญ๋‚œ ์ˆ˜์‹ ๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ์ž์„ธํžˆ ์‚ดํŽด ๋ณด๋„๋ก ํ•˜์ฃ .
05:54
As we zoom in on one of these purple neurons,
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์—ฌ๊ธฐ ๋ณด๋ผ์ƒ‰ ๋‰ด๋Ÿฐ ์ค‘ ํ•˜๋‚˜๋ฅผ ํ™•๋Œ€ํ•ด๋ณด๋ฉด
05:57
we see that its outer membrane
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๋ฐ”๊นฅ์ชฝ ํ”ผ๋ง‰์—
05:59
is studded with microscopic pores.
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๋ฏธ์„ธํ•œ ๊ธฐ๊ณต๋“ค์ด ์‚ฐ์žฌํ•ด ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ฑธ ๋ณด์‹ค ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
06:01
Pores like these conduct electrical current
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์ด๋Ÿฐ ๊ธฐ๊ณต๋“ค์€ ์ „๋ฅ˜๋ฅผ ์œ ๋„ํ•˜๊ณ 
06:03
and are responsible
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์‹ ๊ฒฝ๊ณ„์˜
06:05
for all the communication in the nervous system.
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๋ชจ๋“  ์˜์‚ฌ์†Œํ†ต์„ ๋‹ด๋‹นํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
06:07
But these pores here are special.
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๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ์—ฌ๊ธฐ ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ธฐ๊ณต๋“ค์€ ํŠน๋ณ„ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
06:09
They are coupled to light receptors
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์ด ๊ธฐ๊ณต์€ ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์˜ ๋ˆˆ๊ณผ ๋น„์Šทํ•œ
06:11
similar to the ones in your eyes.
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๋น› ์ˆ˜์šฉ์ฒด์™€ ๊ฒฐํ•ฉ๋˜์–ด ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
06:14
Whenever a flash of light hits the receptor,
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์ด ์ˆ˜์šฉ์ฒด์— ๋น›์ด ์ชผ์—ฌ์งˆ ๋•Œ๋งˆ๋‹ค
06:16
the pore opens, an electrical current is switched on,
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๊ธฐ๊ณต์ด ์—ด๋ฆฌ๊ฒŒ ๋˜๋ฉด ์ „๋ฅ˜๊ฐ€ ์—ฐ๊ฒฐ๋˜๊ณ 
06:19
and the neuron fires electrical impulses.
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๋‰ด๋Ÿฐ์€ ์ „๊ธฐ์  ์ž๊ทน์„ ๋ณด๋‚ด๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
06:22
Because the light-activated pore is encoded in DNA,
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์™œ๋ƒํ•˜๋ฉด ๊ด‘(ๅ…‰)ํ™œ์„ฑ๋œ ๊ธฐ๊ณต์€ DNA์— ์•”ํ˜ธํ™”๋˜์–ด ์žˆ๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์—
06:25
we can achieve incredible precision.
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๋†€๋ผ์šด ์ •๋ฐ€์„ฑ์„ ๊ฐ–๊ฒŒ ๋˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด์ฃ .
06:28
This is because,
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๊ทธ๋ž˜์„œ ์ด๊ฒƒ์ด
06:30
although each cell in our bodies
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ ๋ชธ์— ๋ชจ๋“  ์„ธํฌ๋“ค์ด
06:32
contains the same set of genes,
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๊ฐ™์€ ์กฐํ•ฉ์˜ ์œ ์ „์ž๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ณ  ์žˆ์Œ์—๋„ ๋ถˆ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ 
06:34
different mixes of genes get turned on and off
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์œ ์ „์ž์˜ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์กฐํ•ฉ์ด ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ
06:36
in different cells.
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๋ฐ˜์‘ํ–ˆ๋‹ค ์•ˆ ํ–ˆ๋‹ค ํ•˜๋Š” ์ด์œ ์ธ ๊ฒƒ์ด์ฃ .
06:38
You can exploit this to make sure
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์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์€ ์ด๊ฑธ ์ด์šฉํ•ด์„œ ๋ช‡ ๊ฐœ์˜ ๋‰ด๋Ÿฐ๋งŒ
06:40
that only some neurons
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๊ด‘(ๅ…‰)ํ™œ์„ฑ๋œ ๊ธฐ๊ณต์„ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ณ  ์žˆ๊ณ 
06:42
contain our light-activated pore and others don't.
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๋‹ค๋ฅธ ๊ฒƒ๋“ค์€ ๊ทธ๋ ‡์ง€ ์•Š๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฑธ ํ™•์ธํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
06:45
So in this cartoon, the bluish white cell
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์—ฌ๊ธฐ ๊ทธ๋ฆผ์—์„œ ์ขŒ์ธก ์ƒ๋‹จ์— ์žˆ๋Š”
06:47
in the upper-left corner
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ํ‘ธ๋ฅด์Šค๋ฆ„ํ•œ ํ•˜์–€ ์„ธํฌ๋Š”
06:49
does not respond to light
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๋น›์— ๋ฐ˜์‘ ํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๊ณ  ์žˆ์ฃ .
06:51
because it lacks the light-activated pore.
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์™œ๋ƒํ•˜๋ฉด ๊ด‘(ๅ…‰)ํ™œ์„ฑ๋œ ๊ธฐ๊ณต์ด ์—†๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด์ฃ .
06:54
The approach works so well
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์ด๋Ÿฐ ์‹œ๋„๊ฐ€ ์ž˜ ๋˜๋ฉด
06:56
that we can write purely artificial messages
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์™„์ „ํžˆ ์ธ์œ„์ ์ธ ๋ฉ”์‹œ์ง€๋ฅผ ์ž‘์„ฑํ•ด์„œ
06:58
directly to the brain.
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๋‡Œ์— ์ง์ ‘ ๋ณด๋‚ผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
07:00
In this example, each electrical impulse,
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์ด ๊ทธ๋ž˜ํ”„์—์„œ ๊ฐ๊ฐ์˜ ์ „๊ธฐ ์ž๊ทน๊ณผ
07:02
each deflection on the trace,
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๊ถค์ ์„ ๋ฒ—์–ด๋‚œ ์ดํƒˆ์€
07:05
is caused by a brief pulse of light.
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์ˆœ๊ฐ„์ ์ธ ๋น›์˜ ์ง„๋™ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์— ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•œ ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
07:08
And the approach, of course, also works
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๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์‚ฌ๋ก€๋Š”
07:10
in moving, behaving animals.
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์›€์ง์ด๊ฑฐ๋‚˜ ํ™œ๋™์ค‘์ธ ๋™๋ฌผ์—์„œ๋„ ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์ฃ .
07:13
This is the first ever such experiment,
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์ด๊ฑด ๊ฐˆ๋ฐ”๋‹ˆ์˜ ๊ด‘ํ•™์  ์‹คํ—˜ ๋ฒ„์ „์— ํ•ด๋‹นํ•˜๋Š”
07:15
sort of the optical equivalent of Galvani's.
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์ตœ์ดˆ์˜ ์‹คํ—˜์ด์ฃ .
07:18
It was done six or seven years ago
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์ด ์‹คํ—˜์€ ๋‹น์‹œ ์ €์˜ ํ•™์ƒ์ด์—ˆ๋˜ ์ˆ˜์‚ฌ๋‚˜ ๋ฆฌ๋งˆ๊ฐ€
07:20
by my then graduate student, Susana Lima.
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6-7๋…„ ์ •๋„ ์ „์— ํ–ˆ๋˜ ๊ฒƒ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
07:23
Susana had engineered the fruit fly on the left
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์ˆ˜์‚ฌ๋‚˜๋Š” ์™ผ์ชฝ์— ๋ณด์‹œ๋Š” ์ดˆํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์กฐ์ž‘ํ•ด์„œ
07:26
so that just two out of the 200,000 cells in its brain
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์ดˆํŒŒ๋ฆฌ ๋‡Œ์˜ ์ด์‹ญ ๋งŒ ๊ฐœ ์„ธํฌ ์ค‘ ๋‹จ ๋‘ ๊ฐœ ๋งŒ์ด
07:30
expressed the light-activated pore.
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๊ด‘(ๅ…‰)ํ™œ์„ฑ๋œ ๊ธฐ๊ณต์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ด๋„๋ก ํ–ˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
07:33
You're familiar with these cells
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์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์€ ์•„๋งˆ๋„ ์ด ์„ธํฌ์— ์ต์ˆ™ ํ•˜์‹คํ…๋ฐ์š”.
07:35
because they are the ones that frustrate you
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๋ฐ”๋กœ ์ด ์„ธํฌ๊ฐ€ ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์ด ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์žก์„ ๋•Œ
07:37
when you try to swat the fly.
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์‚ฌ๋žŒ์„ ํž˜๋“ค๊ฒŒ ๋งŒ๋“œ๋Š” ์„ธํฌ๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด์ฃ .
07:39
They trained the escape reflex that makes the fly jump into the air
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์ด ์„ธํฌ๋Š” ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์ด ์†์„ ์›€์ง์—ฌ ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์žก์œผ๋ ค๊ณ  ํ•  ๋•Œ๋งˆ๋‹ค ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ๊ณต์ค‘์œผ๋กœ
07:42
and fly away whenever you move your hand in position.
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๋‚ ์•„๊ฐ€ ๋ฒ„๋ฆฌ๊ฒŒ ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ˜์‚ฌ ๋ฐ˜์‘ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅํ•˜๊ฒŒ ํ•˜๋Š” ์„ธํฌ์ฃ .
07:46
And you can see here that the flash of light has exactly the same effect.
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๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ๋น›์„ ์ชผ์—ฌ์ฃผ๋Š” ๊ฑด ๊ฐ™์€ ํšจ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๋ฐœ์ƒ์‹œํ‚จ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฑธ ๋ณด์‹ค ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
07:49
The animal jumps, it spreads its wings, it vibrates them,
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ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ๋›ฐ์–ด์˜ฌ๋ผ์„œ ๋‚ ๊ฐœ๋ฅผ ํŽด๊ณ , ํŒŒ๋‹ฅ๊ฑฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
07:52
but it can't actually take off
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๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์‹ค์ œ๋กœ๋Š” ๋‚ ์•„์˜ค๋ฅด์ง€๋Š” ๋ชปํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
07:54
because the fly is sandwiched between two glass plates.
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์™œ๋ƒํ•˜๋ฉด ๋‘ ์žฅ์˜ ์œ ๋ฆฌํŒ ์‚ฌ์ด์— ๋ผ์—ฌ ์žˆ๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
07:58
Now to make sure that this was no reaction of the fly
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์ž, ์ด์ œ ํ™•์ธํ•  ๊ฑด ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ๋น›์„ ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์–ด์„œ
08:00
to a flash it could see,
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๋ฐ˜์‘์„ ํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์ด ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ผ๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
08:03
Susana did a simple
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์ˆ˜์‚ฌ๋‚˜๋Š” ๊ฐ„๋‹จํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ
08:05
but brutally effective experiment.
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์ž”์ธํ•˜๊ฒŒ ํšจ๊ณผ์ ์ธ ์‹คํ—˜์„ ํ–ˆ๋Š”๋ฐ
08:07
She cut the heads off of her flies.
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ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋จธ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ๋–ผ์–ด๋ฒ„๋ฆฐ ๊ฑฐ์˜€์ฃ .
08:11
These headless bodies can live for about a day,
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์ด๋ ‡๊ฒŒ ๋จธ๋ฆฌ ์—†๋Š” ๋ชธ์œผ๋กœ ์•ฝ ํ•˜๋ฃจ ์ •๋„ ์‚ด ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ธด ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ
08:14
but they don't do much.
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๋ณ„๋กœ ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์ผ์€ ์—†์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
08:16
They just stand around
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๊ทธ๋ƒฅ ์„œ์„ฑ์ด๊ฑฐ๋‚˜
08:19
and groom excessively.
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์—ด์‹ฌํžˆ ๋ชธ๋‹จ์žฅ ํ•˜๋Š” ํ–‰๋™์„ ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒŒ ๋‹ค์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
08:22
So it seems that the only trait that survives decapitation is vanity.
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์ฐธ์ˆ˜๋‹นํ•˜๊ณ ๋„ ๋‚จ์•„ ์žˆ๋Š” ์œ ์ผํ•œ ์Šต์„ฑ์€ ํ—ˆ์˜์‹ฌ ๊ฐ™๋„ค์š”.
08:25
(Laughter)
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(์›ƒ์Œ)
08:30
Anyway, as you'll see in a moment,
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์–ด์จŒ๋“  ์ž ์‹œ ํ›„์— ๋ณด์‹œ ๋“ฏ
08:32
Susana was able to turn on the flight motor
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์ˆ˜์‚ฌ๋‚˜๊ฐ€ ์ด ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์ฒ™์ˆ˜์— ํ•ด๋‹นํ•˜๋Š”
08:35
of what's the equivalent of the spinal cord of these flies
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๋น„ํ–‰ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์„ ์ž‘๋™์‹œ์ผœ์„œ
08:38
and get some of the headless bodies
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์ด ๋จธ๋ฆฌ ์—†๋Š” ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ ๋ชธ์ฒด๊ฐ€
08:40
to actually take off and fly away.
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์‹ค์ œ๋กœ ๋‚  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ฒŒ ํ–ˆ์ฃ .
08:47
They didn't get very far, obviously.
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๋ถ„๋ช…ํ•œ ๊ฑด ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ๋ฉ€๋ฆฌ ๊ฐ€์ง„ ๋ชปํ–ˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
08:50
Since we took these first steps,
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์ฒซ ๊ฑธ์Œ์„ ๋‚ด๋”›์€ ์ดํ›„
08:52
the field of optogenetics has exploded.
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๊ด‘(ๅ…‰)์œ ์ „ํ•™ ๋ถ„์•ผ๋Š” ํญ๋ฐœ์  ์„ฑ์žฅ์„ ํ–ˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
08:55
And there are now hundreds of labs
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์ง€๊ธˆ์€ ์ˆ˜ ๋ฐฑ ๊ฐœ์˜ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์‹ค์ด
08:57
using these approaches.
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์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์œผ๋กœ ์—ฐ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
08:59
And we've come a long way
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๊ฐˆ๋ฐ”๋‹ˆ์™€ ์ˆ˜์‚ฌ๋‚˜์˜ ์ด๋Ÿฐ
09:01
since Galvani's and Susana's first successes
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๋™๋ฌผ๋“ค์„ ์›€์ฐ”๊ฑฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฒŒ ํ•˜๊ฑฐ๋‚˜ ๋›ฐ์–ด์˜ค๋ฅด๊ฒŒ ํ•˜๋Š” ์ฒซ ๋ฒˆ์งธ ์‹คํ—˜ ์„ฑ๊ณต ์ดํ›„
09:04
in making animals twitch or jump.
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๋จผ ๊ธธ์„ ๊ฑธ์–ด ์™”์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
09:06
We can now actually interfere with their psychology
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์ด์ œ ์‹ค์ œ๋กœ ์‹ฌ๋ฆฌํ•™์— ๊ด€์—ฌํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋˜์—ˆ์ฃ .
09:09
in rather profound ways,
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๋ณด๋‹ค ์‹ฌ์˜คํ•œ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์„ ํ†ตํ•ด์„œ ๋ง์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
09:11
as I'll show you in my last example,
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์—ฌ๊ธฐ ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰ ์‚ฌ๋ก€๋ฅผ ๋ณด์—ฌ ๋“œ๋ฆฌ๊ฒ ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
09:13
which is directed at a familiar question.
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์•„๋งˆ๋„ ์ต์ˆ™ํ•œ ์งˆ๋ฌธ์—์„œ ๋‚˜์˜จ ๊ฒƒ์ผ ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
09:16
Life is a string of choices
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์‚ถ์ด๋ž€ ๋‹ค์Œ์— ๋ฌด์—‡์„ ํ•  ๊ฒƒ์ธ์ง€ ์ •ํ•ด์•ผ ํ•˜๋Š”
09:19
creating a constant pressure to decide what to do next.
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๋Š์ž„์—†๋Š” ์••๋ ฅ์ด ์ƒ๊ธฐ๋Š” ์„ ํƒ์˜ ์—ฐ์†์ด๋ผ๋Š” ๊ฑฐ์ฃ .
09:23
We cope with this pressure by having brains,
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๋‡Œ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ณ  ์žˆ๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์— ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์••๋ ฅ์„ ์กฐ์ ˆํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
09:26
and within our brains, decision-making centers
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ ๋‡Œ์•ˆ์—๋Š” ์ œ๊ฐ€ 'ํ–‰์œ„์ž' ๋ผ๊ณ  ๋ถ€๋ฅด๋Š”
09:29
that I've called here the "Actor."
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์˜์‚ฌ ๊ฒฐ์ • ๋ณธ๋ถ€๊ฐ€ ์žˆ์ฃ .
09:33
The Actor implements a policy that takes into account
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์ด ํ–‰์œ„์ž ๊ธฐ๊ด€์€ ์ฃผ๋ณ€ ํ™˜๊ฒฝ์˜ ์ƒํƒœ์™€
09:36
the state of the environment
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ์›€์ง์ด๋Š” ๋งฅ๋ฝ์„ ๊ณ ๋ คํ•˜๋Š”
09:38
and the context in which we operate.
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์ •์ฑ…์„ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์‹œํ‚ต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
09:41
Our actions change the environment, or context,
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ํ–‰๋™์€ ํ™˜๊ฒฝ์ด๋‚˜ ๋งฅ๋ฝ์„ ๋ณ€ํ™”์‹œํ‚ค์ฃ .
09:44
and these changes are then fed back into the decision loop.
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๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Š” ๋‹ค์‹œ ์˜์‚ฌ ๊ฒฐ์ • ๊ณผ์ •์œผ๋กœ ๋ฐ˜์˜๋˜๊ณ ์š”.
09:48
Now to put some neurobiological meat
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์ด๋Ÿฐ ์ถ”์ƒ์ ์ธ ๋ชจ๋ธ์—
09:51
on this abstract model,
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์‹ ๊ฒฝ์ƒ๋ฌผํ•™์ ์ธ ๊ณจ์ž๋ฅผ ๋”ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ
09:53
we constructed a simple one-dimensional world
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ์ข‹์•„ํ•˜๋Š” ์‹คํ—˜ ๋Œ€์ƒ์ธ ์ดˆํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•œ
09:55
for our favorite subject, fruit flies.
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๊ฐ„๋‹จํ•œ ์ผ์ฐจ์› ์„ธ๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๊ตฌ์„ฑํ•ด๋ดค์ฃ .
09:58
Each chamber in these two vertical stacks
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๋‘ ๊ฐœ์˜ ์ˆ˜์ง ๊ตฌ์กฐ์˜ ๊ฐ ๋ฐฉ์—๋Š”
10:00
contains one fly.
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ํ•œ ๋งˆ๋ฆฌ์˜ ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ๋“ค์–ด ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
10:02
The left and the right halves of the chamber
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๊ฐ ๋ฐฉ์˜ ์˜ค๋ฅธ์ชฝ ๋ฐ˜๊ณผ ์™ผ์ชฝ ๋ฐ˜์€
10:05
are filled with two different odors,
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๋‘ ๊ฐ€์ง€ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ํ–ฅ์œผ๋กœ ์ฑ„์›Œ์ ธ ์žˆ์ฃ .
10:07
and a security camera watches
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๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ๊ฐ์‹œ ์นด๋ฉ”๋ผ๋Š”
10:09
as the flies pace up and down between them.
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์˜ค๋ฅธ์ชฝ๊ณผ ์™ผ์ชฝ ์‚ฌ์ด์—์„œ ๋นจ๋ฆฌ ์›€์ง์ด๋Š”์ง€ ๋Š๋ฆฌ๊ฒŒ ์›€์ง์ด๋Š”์ง€๋ฅผ ๋ณด๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
10:12
Here's some such CCTV footage.
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์ด๊ฑด ๊ทธ CCTV ๊ธฐ๋ก์ธ๋ฐ์š”.
10:14
Whenever a fly reaches the midpoint of the chamber
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๋‘ ํ–ฅ์ด ๊ฒน์น˜๋Š”
10:17
where the two odor streams meet,
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๋ฐฉ์˜ ์ค‘๊ฐ„ ์ง€์ ์— ์ด๋ฅผ ๋•Œ๋งˆ๋‹ค
10:19
it has to make a decision.
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ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๊ฒฐ์ •์„ ๋‚ด๋ ค์•ผ ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
10:21
It has to decide whether to turn around
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๋˜๋Œ์•„ ๊ฐˆ ๊ฒƒ์ธ์ง€
10:23
and stay in the same odor,
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์•„๋‹ˆ๋ฉด ๊ฐ™์€ ํ–ฅ ์†์— ์žˆ์„ ๊ฒƒ์ธ์ง€ ๋ง์ด์ฃ .
10:25
or whether to cross the midline
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์•„๋‹ˆ๋ฉด ์ค‘๊ฐ„ ์ง€์ ์„ ๋„˜์–ด์„œ
10:27
and try something new.
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๋ญ”๊ฐ€ ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ๊ฒƒ์„ ์‹œ๋„ํ•  ๊ฒƒ์ธ์ง€ ๋ง์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
10:29
These decisions are clearly a reflection
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์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ฒฐ์ •์€ ๋ถ„๋ช…ํžˆ ํ–‰์œ„์ž ๊ธฐ๊ด€์˜ ์ •์ฑ…์ด
10:32
of the Actor's policy.
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๋ฐ˜์˜๋œ ๊ฒƒ์ด์ฃ .
10:36
Now for an intelligent being like our fly,
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์Œ, ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ์ง€์ ์ธ ์ƒ๋ช…์ฒดํ•œํ…Œ
10:39
this policy is not written in stone
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์ด๋Ÿฐ ์ •์ฑ…์€ ์„ํŒ์— ์ƒˆ๊ฒจ์ง„ ๊ฒƒ์ด๋ผ๊ธฐ ๋ณด๋‹ค๋Š”
10:42
but rather changes as the animal learns from experience.
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๊ฒฝํ—˜์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ฐฐ์›Œ๊ฐ€๋ฉด์„œ ๋ณ€ํ™”ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด์ฃ .
10:45
We can incorporate such an element
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์ด๋Ÿฐ ์ ์‘์  ์ง€๋Šฅ ๊ฐ™์€ ์š”์†Œ๋ฅผ
10:47
of adaptive intelligence into our model
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ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋‡Œ๊ฐ€ ํ–‰์œ„์ž ๊ธฐ๊ด€ ๋ฟ๋งŒ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ผ
10:50
by assuming that the fly's brain
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๋‹ค๋ฅธ ๊ทธ๋ฃน์˜ ์„ธํฌ, ์ฆ‰ ํ–‰์œ„์ž ๊ธฐ๊ด€์˜ ์„ ํƒ์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด
10:52
contains not only an Actor,
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๋Š์ž„์—†๋Š” ํ‰๊ฐ€๋ฅผ ํ•ด์ฃผ๋Š”
10:54
but a different group of cells,
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'๋น„ํ‰๊ฐ€' ๋„ ํฌํ•จํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š”
10:56
a "Critic," that provides a running commentary
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๊ฐ€์ •์„ ํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ
10:59
on the Actor's choices.
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋ชจ๋ธ์— ํ†ตํ•ฉํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
11:01
You can think of this nagging inner voice
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์ด๋Ÿฐ ์ž”์†Œ๋ฆฌ ๊ฐ™์€ ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ๋ชฉ์†Œ๋ฆฌ๋Š”
11:04
as sort of the brain's equivalent
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๋งŒ์•ฝ ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์ด ์ €๊ฐ™์€ ํ˜ธ์ฃผ ์‚ฌ๋žŒ์ด๋ผ๋ฉด,
11:06
of the Catholic Church,
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๋จธ๋ฆฌ ์†์— ์žˆ๋Š” ์ผ์ข…์˜ ์„ฑ๋‹น์ด๋ผ๊ณ 
11:08
if you're an Austrian like me,
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์ƒ๊ฐํ•˜์‹ค ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ณ ์š”.
11:11
or the super-ego, if you're Freudian,
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ํ”„๋กœ์ด๋“œ๋ฅผ ๋ฏฟ์œผ์‹œ๋ฉด ์ดˆ์ž์•„ ๋ผ๊ณ  ๋ณด์‹ค ์ˆ˜๋„ ์žˆ๊ณ ์š”. (์ดˆ์ž์•„:์ž์•„๋ฅผ ๊ฐ์‹œํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฌด์˜์‹์  ์–‘์‹ฌ)
11:14
or your mother, if you're Jewish.
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์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์ด ์œ ๋Œ€์ธ์ด๋ผ๋ฉด ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ๋กœ ๋ณด์‹ค ์ˆ˜๋„ ์žˆ๊ฒ ์ฃ .
11:16
(Laughter)
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(์›ƒ์Œ)
11:20
Now obviously,
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๋ถ„๋ช…ํ•œ ๊ฑด
11:22
the Critic is a key ingredient
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๋น„ํ‰์˜ ์—ญํ• ์€ ์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์ง€์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋งŒ๋“œ๋Š”
11:25
in what makes us intelligent.
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์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ์š”์†Œ๋ผ๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
11:27
So we set out to identify
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๊ทธ๋ž˜์„œ ์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋‡Œ์˜
11:29
the cells in the fly's brain
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์–ด๋Š ์„ธํฌ๊ฐ€ ๋น„ํ‰๊ฐ€์˜ ์—ญํ• ์„ ๋‹ด๋‹นํ•˜๋Š”์ง€
11:31
that played the role of the Critic.
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๊ทœ๋ช…ํ•ด๋ณด๊ธฐ๋กœ ํ•˜์˜€์ฃ .
11:33
And the logic of our experiment was simple.
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ•œ ์‹คํ—˜์˜ ๋…ผ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๊ฐ„๋‹จํ–ˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
11:36
We thought if we could use our optical remote control
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๋น„ํ‰๊ฐ€ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์˜ ์„ธํฌ๋ฅผ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™”์‹œํ‚ค๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ
11:39
to activate the cells of the Critic,
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๊ด‘ํ•™์  ์›๊ฒฉ ์ œ์–ด๋ฅผ ์ด์šฉํ•˜๋ ค๋ฉด
11:42
we should be able, artificially, to nag the Actor
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์ธ์œ„์ ์œผ๋กœ ํ–‰์œ„์ž ๊ธฐ๊ด€์—๊ฒŒ ์ •์ฑ…์„ ๋ฐ”๊พธ๋ผ๊ณ 
11:45
into changing its policy.
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์ž”์†Œ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์–ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด์—ˆ์ฃ .
11:47
In other words,
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๋‹ค์‹œ ๋งํ•˜๋ฉด
11:49
the fly should learn from mistakes
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ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์ž๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ํ•œ ์‹ค์ˆ˜๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด์„œ
11:51
that it thought it had made
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๋ญ”๊ฐ€๋ฅผ ๋ฐฐ์›Œ์•ผ ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ
11:53
but, in reality, it had not made.
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ํ˜„์‹ค์—์„œ๋Š” ์‹ค์ˆ˜๋ฅผ ํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๊ฑฐ๋“ ์š”.
11:56
So we bred flies
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๊ทธ๋ž˜์„œ ์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๊ด‘(ๅ…‰)์—ฐ์ƒ์ž‘์šฉ์ด ๊ฐ€๋Šฅํ•œ
11:58
whose brains were more or less randomly peppered
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์„ธํฌ๊ฐ€ ๊ฑฐ์˜ ๋ฌด์ž‘์œ„๋กœ ๋ถ„ํฌ๋œ ๋‡Œ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ–๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š”
12:01
with cells that were light addressable.
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ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ๋ฐฐ์–‘ํ–ˆ์ฃ .
12:03
And then we took these flies
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๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์ด ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€
12:05
and allowed them to make choices.
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์„ ํƒ์„ ๋‚ด๋ฆฌ๋„๋ก ์‹คํ—˜ํ–ˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
12:07
And whenever they made one of the two choices,
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๋‘ ๊ฐ€์ง€ ์„ ํƒ ์ค‘์— ํ•˜๋‚˜์˜ ๊ฒฐ์ •์„ ํ•  ๋•Œ๋งˆ๋‹ค
12:09
chose one odor,
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์ฆ‰, ํ•œ ๊ฐœ์˜ ํ–ฅ์„ ์„ ํƒํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฑฐ์ฃ .
12:11
in this case the blue one over the orange one,
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์ด ๊ฒฝ์šฐ์—” ์ฃผํ™ฉ์ƒ‰์ด ์•„๋‹Œ ํŒŒ๋ž€์ƒ‰์„ ์„ ํƒํ•˜๋ฉด
12:13
we switched on the lights.
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๋ถˆ์ด ์ผœ์ง€๋Š” ๊ฑฐ์˜€์ฃ .
12:15
If the Critic was among the optically activated cells,
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๊ด‘(ๅ…‰)ํ™œ์„ฑ์„ฑ ์„ธํฌ ๊ฐ€์šด๋ฐ ๋น„ํ‰๊ฐ€ ์—ญํ• ์„ ํ•˜๋Š” ์„ธํฌ๊ฐ€ ์žˆ๋‹ค๋ฉด
12:18
the result of this intervention
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๊ทธ ๋น„ํ‰๊ฐ€ ์„ธํฌ์˜ ์ค‘์žฌ์˜ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋Š”
12:20
should be a change in policy.
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์ •์ฑ…์— ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ ธ ์˜ฌ ๊ฒƒ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
12:23
The fly should learn to avoid
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๊ทธ๋ž˜์„œ ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๊ด‘ํ•™์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ฐ•ํ™”๋œ ํ–ฅ์„
12:25
the optically reinforced odor.
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ํ”ผํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋˜๋Š” ๊ฑธ ๋ฐฐ์šฐ๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
12:27
Here's what happened in two instances:
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์—ฌ๊ธฐ ๋‘ ๊ฐ€์ง€ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ๊ฐ€ ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
12:30
We're comparing two strains of flies,
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๋‘ ๊ฐ€์ง€ ์ข…์˜ ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ์„ ๋น„๊ตํ•ด ๋ณด๋ฉด
12:33
each of them having
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๊ฐ๊ฐ์˜ ์ข…์€
12:35
about 100 light-addressable cells in their brains,
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์•ฝ ๋ฐฑ ์—ฌ ๊ฐœ์˜ ๊ด‘(ๅ…‰)์—ฐ์ƒ์„ฑ ๋‡Œ์„ธํฌ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ณ  ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
12:37
shown here in green on the left and on the right.
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์—ฌ๊ธฐ ์™ผ์ชฝ๊ณผ ์˜ค๋ฅธ์ชฝ์— ๋ณด์ด๋Š” ๋…น์ƒ‰์˜ ๊ฒƒ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
12:40
What's common among these groups of cells
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์ด๋“ค ์„ธํฌ ๊ทธ๋ฃน์˜ ๊ณตํ†ต์ ์€
12:43
is that they all produce the neurotransmitter dopamine.
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๋ชจ๋‘ ์‹ ๊ฒฝ ์ „๋‹ฌ ๋ฌผ์งˆ์ธ ๋„ํŒŒ๋ฏผ์„ ๋ถ„๋น„ํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
12:46
But the identities of the individual
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๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ๋„ํŒŒ๋ฏผ์„ ๋ถ„๋น„ํ•˜๋Š”
12:48
dopamine-producing neurons
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๊ฐ๊ฐ์˜ ๋‰ด๋Ÿฐ์˜ ํŠน์„ฑ์€
12:50
are clearly largely different on the left and on the right.
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์™ผ์ชฝ๊ณผ ์˜ค๋ฅธ์ชฝ์ด ๊ฐ๊ฐ ๋ถ„๋ช…ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋งŽ์ด ๋‹ค๋ฆ…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
12:53
Optically activating
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๋น›์œผ๋กœ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™”๋˜๋Š”
12:55
these hundred or so cells
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์ด๋“ค ์ˆ˜ ๋ฐฑ ๊ฐœ์˜ ์„ธํฌ๋Š”
12:57
into two strains of flies
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๋‘ ์ข…๋ฅ˜์˜ ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๋“ค์—๊ฒŒ ๊ฐ๊ฐ ์žˆ๋Š”๋ฐ
12:59
has dramatically different consequences.
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๊ทน๋‹จ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ ธ์˜ค์ฃ .
13:01
If you look first at the behavior
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์˜ค๋ฅธ์ชฝ์˜ ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ ์ง‘๋‹จ์˜
13:03
of the fly on the right,
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ํ–‰๋™์„ ๋จผ์ € ๋ณด์‹œ๋ฉด,
13:05
you can see that whenever it reaches the midpoint of the chamber
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๋‘ ํ–ฅ์ด ๋งŒ๋‚˜๋Š” ๋ฐฉ์˜
13:08
where the two odors meet,
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์ค‘๊ฐ„ ์ง€์ ์— ๋‹ค๋‹ค๋ฅผ ๋•Œ ๋งˆ๋‹ค
13:10
it marches straight through, as it did before.
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์˜ˆ์ „์— ๊ทธ๋žฌ๋“ฏ์ด ๊ทธ๋ƒฅ ์ญ‰ ์ง์ง„ํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
13:13
Its behavior is completely unchanged.
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์ด๋“ค์˜ ํ–‰๋™์€ ์ „ํ˜€ ๋ณ€ํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š์•˜์ฃ .
13:15
But the behavior of the fly on the left is very different.
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ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ์™ผ์ชฝ ๊ทธ๋ฃน์— ์žˆ๋Š” ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ์˜ ํ–‰๋™์€ ์ƒ๋‹นํžˆ ๋‹ค๋ฆ…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
13:18
Whenever it comes up to the midpoint,
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์ค‘๊ฐ„ ์ง€์ ์— ๋‹ค๋‹ค๋ฅผ ๋•Œ ๋งˆ๋‹ค
13:21
it pauses,
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๋ฉˆ์ถฅ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
13:23
it carefully scans the odor interface
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์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ํ™˜๊ฒฝ์„ ๋งˆ์ฃผํ•˜๋ฉด ํ‚ํ‚ ๊ฑฐ๋ฆฌ๋ฉฐ ๋ƒ„์ƒˆ ๋งก๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ฒ˜๋Ÿผ
13:25
as if it was sniffing out its environment,
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์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ํ–ฅ์„ ์กฐ์‹ฌ์Šค๋Ÿฝ๊ฒŒ ์‚ดํŽด๋ณด๊ณ 
13:27
and then it turns around.
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๋Œ์•„์„œ ๋ฒ„๋ฆฝ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
13:29
This means that the policy that the Actor implements
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์ด๊ฑด ์˜ค๋ฅธ์ชฝ ๊ณต๊ฐ„์— ์žˆ๋Š” ํ–ฅ์„ ํ”ผํ•˜๋ผ๋Š”
13:32
now includes an instruction to avoid the odor
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์ฃผ๋ฌธ์„ ํ–‰์œ„์ž ๊ธฐ๊ด€์ด ์ •์ฑ…์—
13:34
that's in the right half of the chamber.
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๋ฐ˜์˜ํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฑธ ์˜๋ฏธํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
13:37
This means that the Critic
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์ด๊ฒƒ์€ ๋น„ํ‰๊ฐ€ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์ด ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ ์•ˆ์—์„œ
13:39
must have spoken in that animal,
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๋ญ”๊ฐ€๋ฅผ ๋งํ–ˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ๋œปํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
13:41
and that the Critic must be contained
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๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ๊ทธ ๋น„ํ‰๊ฐ€ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์€ ๋ถ„๋ช…ํžˆ
13:43
among the dopamine-producing neurons on the left,
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์™ผ์ชฝ ๊ทธ๋ฃน์˜ ๋„ํŒŒ๋ฏผ ๋ถ„๋น„ ๋‰ด๋Ÿฐ ์ค‘์— ํ•˜๋‚˜๋ผ๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
13:46
but not among the dopamine producing neurons on the right.
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์˜ค๋ฅธ์ชฝ์˜ ๋„ํŒŒ๋ฏผ ๋ถ„๋น„ ๋‰ด๋Ÿฐ ์ค‘์— ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ฒŒ ์•„๋‹ˆ์ฃ .
13:49
Through many such experiments,
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๊ทธ๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋งŽ์€ ์‹คํ—˜์„ ํ†ตํ•ด์„œ
13:52
we were able to narrow down
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๋น„ํ‰๊ฐ€ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์˜ ์‹ค์ฒด๋ฅผ
13:54
the identity of the Critic
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๋‹จ 12๊ฐœ์˜ ์„ธํฌ๋กœ
13:56
to just 12 cells.
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์••์ถ•ํ–ˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
13:58
These 12 cells, as shown here in green,
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์—ฌ๊ธฐ ๋…น์ƒ‰์œผ๋กœ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ง€๋Š” 12 ๊ฐœ์˜ ์„ธํฌ๋Š”
14:01
send the output to a brain structure
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์—ฌ๊ธฐ ํšŒ์ƒ‰ ๋ถ€๋ถ„์˜
14:03
called the "mushroom body,"
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๋ฒ„์„ฏํ˜• ๋ชธ์ฒด๋กœ ๋ถˆ๋ฆฌ์šฐ๋Š”
14:05
which is shown here in gray.
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๋‘๋‡Œ ๊ตฌ์กฐ์— ์ถœ๋ ฅ์„ ๋ณด๋ƒ…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
14:07
We know from our formal model
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์ •ํ˜•์ ์ธ ๋ชจ๋ธ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด์„œ
14:09
that the brain structure
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๋น„ํ‰๊ฐ€ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์˜ ์ž”์†Œ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์ˆ˜์šฉํ•˜๋Š”
14:11
at the receiving end of the Critic's commentary is the Actor.
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์ตœ์ข… ๋‘๋‡Œ ๊ตฌ์กฐ๋Š” ํ–‰์œ„์ž ๊ธฐ๊ด€์ด๋ผ๋Š” ๊ฑธ ์•Œ์•„๋ƒˆ์ฃ .
14:14
So this anatomy suggests
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๊ทธ๋ž˜์„œ ์ด ํ•ด๋ถ€๋„๋Š”
14:16
that the mushroom bodies have something to do
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์—ฌ๊ธฐ ๋ฒ„์„ฏํ˜• ๋ชธ์ฒด๊ฐ€ ํ–‰์œ„์˜ ์„ ํƒ๊ณผ
14:19
with action choice.
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๊ด€๋ จ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฑธ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ค๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
14:21
Based on everything we know about the mushroom bodies,
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๋ฒ„์„ฏํ˜• ๋ชธ์ฒด์— ๊ด€ํ•ด ์šฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ์•Œ๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š” ๋ชจ๋“  ๊ฒƒ์— ์˜ํ•˜๋ฉด
14:23
this makes perfect sense.
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์ด๊ฑด ์™„์ „ํžˆ ์ดํ•ด๋˜๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
14:25
In fact, it makes so much sense
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์‚ฌ์‹ค ์šฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ์˜ ํ–‰๋™์„ ์ž๊ทน์‹œํ‚ค๋Š”
14:27
that we can construct an electronic toy circuit
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์ „๊ธฐ ์žฅ๋‚œ๊ฐ ํšŒ๋กœ๋ฅผ ๋งŒ๋“ค์—ˆ๋‹ค๊ณ 
14:30
that simulates the behavior of the fly.
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ํ•˜๋ฉด ์ž˜ ์ดํ•ด๊ฐ€ ๋˜๊ฒ ๊ตฐ์š”.
14:33
In this electronic toy circuit,
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์ด ์ „๊ธฐ ์žฅ๋‚œ๊ฐ ํšŒ๋กœ์—์„œ
14:36
the mushroom body neurons are symbolized
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๋ฒ„์„ฏํ˜• ๋ชธ์ฒด ๋‰ด๋Ÿฐ์€
14:38
by the vertical bank of blue LEDs
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๋ณด๋“œ ๊ฐ€์šด๋ฐ์— ์žˆ๋Š”
14:41
in the center of the board.
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ํŒŒ๋ž€์ƒ‰ LED์˜ ์ˆ˜์ง ๋‹จ์ž๋กœ ์ƒ์ง•๋ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
14:44
These LED's are wired to sensors
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์ด LED๋“ค์€ ๋Œ€๊ธฐ ์ค‘์— ์žˆ๋Š” ๋ƒ„์ƒˆ ๋ถ„์ž์˜ ์กด์žฌ๋ฅผ
14:46
that detect the presence of odorous molecules in the air.
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๊ฐ์ง€ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์„ผ์„œ์— ์—ฐ๊ฒฐ๋˜์–ด ์žˆ์ฃ .
14:50
Each odor activates a different combination of sensors,
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๊ฐ๊ฐ์˜ ํ–ฅ์€ ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์กฐํ•ฉ์˜ ์„ผ์„œ๋“ค์„ ํ™œ์„ฑํ•˜์‹œํ‚ค๋Š”๋ฐ,
14:53
which in turn activates
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์ด๊ฑด ๋ฒ„์„ฏํ˜• ๋ชธ์ฒด์— ์žˆ๋Š”
14:55
a different odor detector in the mushroom body.
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๋‹ค๋ฅธ ๋ƒ„์ƒˆ ๊ฐ์ง€ ์žฅ์น˜๋ฅผ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™”์‹œํ‚ต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
14:58
So the pilot in the cockpit of the fly,
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๊ทธ๋ž˜์„œ ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์กฐ์ข…์„์— ์žˆ๋Š” ํŒŒ์ผ๋Ÿฟ,
15:00
the Actor,
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์ฆ‰, ํ–‰์œ„์ž๊ฐ€
15:02
can tell which odor is present
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์–ด๋–ค ํŒŒ๋ž€์ƒ‰ LED๊ฐ€ ์ผœ์ ธ ์žˆ๋Š”์ง€ ๋ณด๊ฒŒ ๋˜๋ฉด
15:04
simply by looking at which of the blue LEDs lights up.
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์–ด๋–ค ํ–ฅ์ด ์กด์žฌํ•˜๋Š”์ง€ ๊ตฌ๋ถ„ํ•ด๋‚ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
15:09
What the Actor does with this information
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ํ–‰์œ„์ž๊ฐ€ ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์ •๋ณด๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ณ  ํ•˜๋Š” ์ผ์€
15:11
depends on its policy,
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๊ทธ ์ •์ฑ…์— ๋‹ฌ๋ ค์žˆ๋Š”๋ฐ
15:13
which is stored in the strengths of the connection,
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์ด๊ฑด ๋ƒ„์ƒˆ ๊ฐ์ง€ ์žฅ์น˜์™€
15:15
between the odor detectors
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ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ๋„๋ง๊ฐ€๊ฒŒ ํ•˜๋Š” ๋™๋ ฅ์„ ์ฃผ๋Š”
15:17
and the motors
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์šด๋™ ์‹ ๊ฒฝ
15:19
that power the fly's evasive actions.
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์‚ฌ์ด์˜ ์—ฐ๊ฒฐ ๊ฐ•๋„์— ์ €์žฅ์ด ๋˜๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
15:22
If the connection is weak, the motors will stay off
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๋งŒ์•ฝ ์—ฐ๊ฒฐ์ด ์•ฝํ•˜๋ฉด ์šด๋™ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์€ ์ž‘๋™๋˜์ง€ ์•Š๊ณ 
15:24
and the fly will continue straight on its course.
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ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๊ทธ๋Œ€๋กœ ์•ž์œผ๋กœ ๊ฐ€๋˜ ๊ธธ์„ ๊ฐ€๊ฒŒ ๋  ๊ฒƒ์ด๊ณ 
15:27
If the connection is strong, the motors will turn on
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๋ฐ˜๋ฉด ์—ฐ๊ฒฐ์ด ๊ฐ•ํ•˜๋ฉด ์šด๋™ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์ด ์ž‘๋™ ๋˜์–ด์„œ
15:30
and the fly will initiate a turn.
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ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๋ฐฉํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฐ”๊พธ๊ฒŒ ๋˜๊ฒ ์ฃ .
15:33
Now consider a situation
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์ž, ์šด๋™ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์ด ์ž‘๋™ ๋˜์ง€ ์•Š๋Š”
15:35
in which the motors stay off,
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ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ€๋˜ ๊ธธ์„ ๊ณ„์† ๊ฐ€๋Š”
15:37
the fly continues on its path
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์ƒํ™ฉ์„ ์ƒ๊ฐํ•ด๋ณด์„ธ์š”.
15:40
and it suffers some painful consequence
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์ด๊ฑด ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ํƒ ์žกํžˆ๊ฒŒ ๋˜๋Š”
15:42
such as getting zapped.
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์•„์ฃผ ๊ณ ํ†ต์Šค๋Ÿฐ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ์ดˆ๋ž˜ํ•  ๊ฒƒ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
15:44
In a situation like this,
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์ด ๊ฐ™์€ ์ƒํ™ฉ์—์„œ
15:46
we would expect the Critic to speak up
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๋น„ํ‰๊ฐ€ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์ด
15:48
and to tell the Actor
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ํ–‰์œ„์ž ๊ธฐ๊ด€ํ•œํ…Œ
15:50
to change its policy.
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๊ณ„ํš์„ ๋ฐ”๊พธ๋ผ๊ณ  ๋งํ•˜๋ผ๊ณ  ํ•˜๊ณ  ์‹ถ๊ฒ ์ฃ .
15:52
We have created such a situation, artificially,
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๋น›์œผ๋กœ ๋น„ํ‰๊ฐ€ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์ด ์ž‘๋™๋˜๊ฒŒ ํ•˜์—ฌ์„œ
15:55
by turning on the critic with a flash of light.
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์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์ƒํ™ฉ์„ ์ธ์œ„์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋งŒ๋“  ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
15:58
That caused a strengthening of the connections
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๊ทธ๊ฒƒ์€ ํ˜„์žฌ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™”๋œ ๋ƒ„์ƒˆ ๊ฐ์ง€ ์žฅ์น˜์™€
16:01
between the currently active odor detector
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์šด๋™ ๊ธฐ๊ด€ ์‚ฌ์ด์˜ ์—ฐ๊ฒฐ์„
16:04
and the motors.
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๊ฐ•ํ™”์‹œํ‚ค๊ฒŒ ๋ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
16:06
So the next time
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๊ทธ๋ž˜์„œ ๊ทธ ๋‹ค์Œ์—
16:08
the fly finds itself facing the same odor again,
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ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๋‹ค์‹œ ๊ฐ™์€ ๋ƒ„์ƒˆ์™€ ๋งˆ์ฃผ์น˜๊ฒŒ ๋˜๊ณ 
16:11
the connection is strong enough to turn on the motors
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์—ฐ๊ฒฐ์ด ๊ฐ•ํ™”๋˜๋ฉด ์šด๋™ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์ด ์ž‘๋™๋˜๊ณ 
16:14
and to trigger an evasive maneuver.
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ํšŒํ”ผ ๋™์ž‘์ด ์‹คํ–‰๋˜๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
16:19
I don't know about you,
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์ €๋Š” ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์ž˜ ์•Œ์ง€ ๋ชปํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค๋งŒ
16:22
but I find it exhilarating to see
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์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ๋ชจํ˜ธํ•œ ์‹ฌ๋ฆฌํ•™์  ๊ฐœ๋…์ด
16:25
how vague psychological notions
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๋งˆ์Œ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋ฌผ๋ฆฌ์ ์ด๊ณ  ๊ธฐ๊ณ„์ ์ธ ์ดํ•ด๋ฅผ
16:28
evaporate and give rise
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์œ ๋ฐœ์‹œํ‚ค๋Š”๊ฐ€๋ฅผ
16:30
to a physical, mechanistic understanding of the mind,
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๋ณด๋Š” ๊ฒŒ ๋งค์šฐ ํฅ๋ฏธ๋กญ๋‹ค๊ณ  ๋ด…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค..
16:33
even if it's the mind of the fly.
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๊ทธ๊ฒŒ ์•„๋ฌด๋ฆฌ ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋งˆ์Œ์ด๋ผ๊ณ  ํ• ์ง€๋ผ๋„์š”.
16:36
This is one piece of good news.
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์ด๊ฑด ์ •๋ง ์ข‹์€ ์†Œ์‹์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
16:39
The other piece of good news,
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๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์ ์–ด๋„ ๊ณผํ•™์ž์—๊ฒŒ
16:41
for a scientist at least,
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์ข‹์€ ๋˜ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์†Œ์‹์€
16:43
is that much remains to be discovered.
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๋ฐœ๊ฒฌ๋˜์–ด์•ผ ํ•  ๊ฒƒ์ด ์•„์ง ๋งŽ์ด ๋‚จ์•„ ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
16:46
In the experiments I told you about,
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์ œ๊ฐ€ ๋ง์”€๋“œ๋ฆฐ ์‹คํ—˜์—์„œ
16:48
we have lifted the identity of the Critic,
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์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๋น„ํ‰๊ฐ€ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์˜ ์‹ค์ฒด๋ฅผ ๋“œ๋Ÿฌ๋ƒˆ์ง€๋งŒ,
16:51
but we still have no idea
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๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์•„์ง
16:53
how the Critic does its job.
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๋น„ํ‰๊ฐ€ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์ด ์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ๊ทธ ์ผ์„ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ•˜๋Š”์ง€ ์•Œ์ง€ ๋ชปํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
16:55
Come to think of it, knowing when you're wrong
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์ƒ๊ฐํ•ด ๋ณด์„ธ์š”. ์„ ์ƒ๋‹˜์ด๋‚˜ ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ๊ฐ€
16:57
without a teacher, or your mother, telling you,
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๋ญ๊ฐ€ ์ž˜๋ชป ๋˜์—ˆ๋Š”์ง€ ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๋ถ„์—๊ฒŒ ๋งํ•ด์ฃผ์ง€ ์•Š๋Š”๋‹ค๋ฉด
17:00
is a very hard problem.
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๊ทธ๊ฑธ ์ธ์‹ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฑด ์•„์ฃผ ์–ด๋ ค์šด ๋ฌธ์ œ์ผ ๊ฒ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
17:02
There are some ideas in computer science
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์ปดํ“จํ„ฐ ์‚ฌ์ด์–ธ์Šค์™€ ์ธ๊ณต ์ง€๋Šฅ ๋ถ„์•ผ์—๋„
17:04
and in artificial intelligence
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์ด๋Ÿฐ ์ผ์ด ์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ์ด๋ค„์ง€๋Š” ์ง€์— ๊ด€ํ•ด์„œ
17:06
as to how this might be done,
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์•ฝ๊ฐ„์˜ ๊ฐœ๋…์ด ์žˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
17:08
but we still haven't solved
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ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์ง€์  ํ–‰๋™์ด
17:10
a single example
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์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ์‚ด์•„ ์žˆ๋Š” ๋ฌผ์งˆ์˜
17:12
of how intelligent behavior
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๋ฌผ๋ฆฌ์  ์ž‘์šฉ์œผ๋กœ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ
17:15
springs from the physical interactions
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ํŒŒ์ƒ๋˜๋Š”์ง€์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ํ•˜๋‚˜์˜ ์˜ˆ๋„
17:17
in living matter.
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ํ’€์–ด๋‚ด์ง€ ๋ชปํ–ˆ์Šต๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
17:19
I think we'll get there in the not too distant future.
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๋ฉ€์ง€ ์•Š์€ ๋ฏธ๋ž˜์— ํ’€๋ฆด ๊ฒƒ์ด๋ผ๊ณ  ์ €๋Š” ์ƒ๊ฐํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
17:22
Thank you.
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๊ฐ์‚ฌํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.
17:24
(Applause)
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(๋ฐ•์ˆ˜)
์ด ์›น์‚ฌ์ดํŠธ ์ •๋ณด

์ด ์‚ฌ์ดํŠธ๋Š” ์˜์–ด ํ•™์Šต์— ์œ ์šฉํ•œ YouTube ๋™์˜์ƒ์„ ์†Œ๊ฐœํ•ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์ „ ์„ธ๊ณ„ ์ตœ๊ณ ์˜ ์„ ์ƒ๋‹˜๋“ค์ด ๊ฐ€๋ฅด์น˜๋Š” ์˜์–ด ์ˆ˜์—…์„ ๋ณด๊ฒŒ ๋  ๊ฒƒ์ž…๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ๊ฐ ๋™์˜์ƒ ํŽ˜์ด์ง€์— ํ‘œ์‹œ๋˜๋Š” ์˜์–ด ์ž๋ง‰์„ ๋”๋ธ” ํด๋ฆญํ•˜๋ฉด ๊ทธ๊ณณ์—์„œ ๋™์˜์ƒ์ด ์žฌ์ƒ๋ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ๋น„๋””์˜ค ์žฌ์ƒ์— ๋งž์ถฐ ์ž๋ง‰์ด ์Šคํฌ๋กค๋ฉ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค. ์˜๊ฒฌ์ด๋‚˜ ์š”์ฒญ์ด ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ์ด ๋ฌธ์˜ ์–‘์‹์„ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ๋ฌธ์˜ํ•˜์‹ญ์‹œ์˜ค.

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