Gero Miesenboeck reengineers a brain

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I have a doppelganger.

Imam dvojnika.

(Laughter)

(Smijeh)

Dr. Gero is a brilliant

Dr. Gero je briljantan,

but slightly mad scientist

ali pomalo lud znanstvenik

in the "Dragonball Z: Android Saga."

iz "Dragonball Z: Android Saga."

If you look very carefully,

Ako pozorno promotrite,

you see that his skull has been replaced

vidjet ćete da je njegova lubanja zamijenjena

with a transparent Plexiglas dome

kupolom od prozirnog pleksiglasa

so that the workings of his brain can be observed

kako bi se rad njegovog mozga mogao promatrati

and also controlled with light.

i kontrolirati pomoću svjetlosti.

That's exactly what I do --

To je upravo ono što i ja radim --

optical mind control.

vizualna kontrola uma.

(Laughter)

(Smijeh)

But in contrast to my evil twin

Ali, za razliku od mog zlog blizanca

who lusts after world domination,

koji žudi za dominacijom nad svijetom,

my motives are not sinister.

ja nemam tako zlokobne motive.

I control the brain

Kontroliram mozak

in order to understand how it works.

da bih shvatio kako radi.

Now wait a minute, you may say,

"Čekaj malo", mogli biste reći,

how can you go straight to controlling the brain

"kako odmah možeš prijeći na kontrolu mozga

without understanding it first?

prije nego što si ga razumio u potpunosti?

Isn't that putting the cart before the horse?

Nije li to trčanje pred rudo?"

Many neuroscientists agree with this view

Mnogi neuroznanstvenici se slažu s ovim

and think that understanding will come

i smatraju da će razumijevanje proizaći

from more detailed observation and analysis.

iz detaljnog promatranja i analiza.

They say, "If we could record the activity of our neurons,

Kažu: " Kada bismo mogli snimiti aktivnost neurona,

we would understand the brain."

razumjeli bismo mozak."

But think for a moment what that means.

Ali, razmislite na trenutak što to znači.

Even if we could measure

Čak kada bismo mogli mjeriti

what every cell is doing at all times,

što svaka stanica radi

we would still have to make sense

i dalje bismo morali dokučiti koji je smisao

of the recorded activity patterns,

snimljenih uzoraka aktivnosti,

and that's so difficult,

a to je veoma teško

chances are we'll understand these patterns

i vjerojatnost da bismo to razumjeli

just as little as the brains that produce them.

je jednako malena kao i mozak koji proizvodi tu aktivnost.

Take a look at what brain activity might look like.

Pogledajte kako izgleda aktivnost mozga.

In this simulation, each black dot

U ovoj simulaciji, svaka crna točkica

is one nerve cell.

je jedna živčana stanica.

The dot is visible

Točkica je vidljiva

whenever a cell fires an electrical impulse.

u trenutku kada stanica proizvodi električni impuls.

There's 10,000 neurons here.

Ovdje imamo 10.000 neurona.

So you're looking at roughly one percent

Pred vama je, ugrubo, jedan posto

of the brain of a cockroach.

mozga žohara.

Your brains are about 100 million times

Vaši mozgovi su otprilike 100 milijuna puta

more complicated.

kompleksniji.

Somewhere, in a pattern like this,

Negdje, u uzorcima poput ovih,

is you,

ste vi,

your perceptions,

vaše percepcije,

your emotions, your memories,

vaše emocije, vaša sjećanja,

your plans for the future.

vaši planovi za budućnost.

But we don't know where,

Ali, ne znamo gdje točno

since we don't know how to read the pattern.

jer još uvijek nismo dešifrirali uzorke.

We don't understand the code used by the brain.

Ne znamo koji kod mozak koristi.

To make progress,

Da bismo napredovali,

we need to break the code.

moramo probiti kod.

But how?

Ali kako?

An experienced code-breaker will tell you

Svaki iskusan haker će vam reći

that in order to figure out what the symbols in a code mean,

da mora biti u mogućnosti igrati se sa simbolima koda,

it's essential to be able to play with them,

ispremještati ih po svojoj volji kako bi

to rearrange them at will.

mogao shvatiti što koji simbol znači.

So in this situation too,

U situaciji u kojoj se mi nalazimo,

to decode the information

ako želimo dekodirati informacije

contained in patterns like this,

sadržane u uzorcima poput ovih,

watching alone won't do.

pukim promatranjem nećemo puno postići.

We need to rearrange the pattern.

Moramo ispremještati uzorke.

In other words,

Drugim riječima,

instead of recording the activity of neurons,

umjesto snimanja aktivnosti neurona,

we need to control it.

tu aktivnost moramo kontrolirati.

It's not essential that we can control

Nije nužno kontrolirati

the activity of all neurons in the brain, just some.

aktivnost svih neurona u mozgu, nekoliko će biti dovoljno.

The more targeted our interventions, the better.

Što su točnije usmjerene naše intervencije, to bolje.

And I'll show you in a moment

Za trenutak ću vam pokazati

how we can achieve the necessary precision.

kako možemo postići tu potrebnu preciznost.

And since I'm realistic, rather than grandiose,

Budući da sam više realističan, nego veličanstven,

I don't claim that the ability to control the function of the nervous system

ne tvrdim da će nam mogućnost kontrole funkcije živčanog sustava

will at once unravel all its mysteries.

razmrsiti sve misterije,

But we'll certainly learn a lot.

ali sigurno ćemo puno naučiti.

Now, I'm by no means

Dakle, ja osobno nikako nisam

the first person to realize

prva osoba koja je shvatila

how powerful a tool intervention is.

kako je intervencija na mozgu moćno oružje.

The history of attempts

Povijest pokušaja

to tinker with the function of the nervous system

kopkanja po funkcijama živčanog sustava

is long and illustrious.

je veoma duga i slikovita.

It dates back at least 200 years,

Stvar je stara najmanje 200 godina,

to Galvani's famous experiments

Galvani je radio dobro poznate eksperimente

in the late 18th century and beyond.

krajem 18. stoljeća i poslije.

Galvani showed that a frog's legs twitched

Pokazao je kako noga žabe trza

when he connected the lumbar nerve

kada se slabinski živac spoji

to a source of electrical current.

na izvor električnog napona.

This experiment revealed the first, and perhaps most fundamental,

Ovaj eksperiment nam je otkrio prvu i, možda, najosnovniju

nugget of the neural code:

tajnu koda živčanog sustava:

that information is written in the form

da je informacija zapisana u obliku

of electrical impulses.

električnog impulsa.

Galvani's approach

Galvanijev pristup ispitivanja

of probing the nervous system with electrodes

živčanog sustava pomoću elektroda

has remained state-of-the-art until today,

ostao je na snazi do danas,

despite a number of drawbacks.

unatoč nekim nedostacima.

Sticking wires into the brain is obviously rather crude.

Prikopčavanje žica na mozak je očigledno pomalo primitivno.

It's hard to do in animals that run around,

Tako nešto je teško primijeniti na životinjama koje trče uokolo,

and there is a physical limit

a postoji i fizička granica

to the number of wires

broja žica

that can be inserted simultaneously.

koje mogu biti prikopčane istovremeno.

So around the turn of the last century,

Na prijelazu u novo stoljeće,

I started to think,

počeo sam razmišljati:

"Wouldn't it be wonderful if one could take this logic

"Ne bi li bilo prekrasno kada bi netko naglavačke

and turn it upside down?"

preokrenuo vladajuću logiku?"

So instead of inserting a wire

Tako da umjesto umetanja žice

into one spot of the brain,

u neku točku na mozgu,

re-engineer the brain itself

preuredimo sam mozak

so that some of its neural elements

pa da neki od njegovih živčanih elemenata

become responsive to diffusely broadcast signals

postanu osjetljivi na difuzno odaslane signale

such as a flash of light.

poput bljeska ili svjetla.

Such an approach would literally, in a flash of light,

Takav pristup bi, doslovno brzinom munje,

overcome many of the obstacles to discovery.

savladao mnoge prepreke koje su se prepriječile na putu ka otkriću.

First, it's clearly a non-invasive,

Prvo, to je očigledno neinvazivan

wireless form of communication.

i bežičan način komunikacije.

And second, just as in a radio broadcast,

I drugo, baš kao kod radio emitiranja,

you can communicate with many receivers at once.

možeš komunicirati s mnogo slušatelja u isto vrijeme --

You don't need to know where these receivers are,

ne moraš znati gdje se oni nalaze

and it doesn't matter if these receivers move --

i nije bitno kreću li se --

just think of the stereo in your car.

samo pomislite na radio u svojem automobilu.

It gets even better,

Ali ni to nije sve,

for it turns out that we can fabricate the receivers

mogli bismo proizvoditi receptore

out of materials that are encoded in DNA.

iz materijala koji su kodirani u DNK.

So each nerve cell

Svaka živčana stanica

with the right genetic makeup

s pravim genetičkim make up-om

will spontaneously produce a receiver

bi spontano proizvela receptor

that allows us to control its function.

koji bi nam dozvoljavao da kontroliramo njenu funkciju.

I hope you'll appreciate

Nadam se da cijenite

the beautiful simplicity

prekrasnu jednostavnost

of this concept.

ovog koncepta.

There's no high-tech gizmos here,

Tu nema high-tech uređaja,

just biology revealed through biology.

samo čista biologija.

Now let's take a look at these miraculous receivers up close.

Bacimo sada pogled na te čudesne receptore izbliza.

As we zoom in on one of these purple neurons,

Ako zumiramo jedan od ovih ljubičastih neurona,

we see that its outer membrane

možemo vidjeti da je njihova vanjska membrana

is studded with microscopic pores.

okružena mikroskopskim porama.

Pores like these conduct electrical current

Te pore provode električni napon

and are responsible

i odgovorne su za

for all the communication in the nervous system.

komunikaciju u živčanom sustavu.

But these pores here are special.

No, te pore su posebne

They are coupled to light receptors

jer su povezane sa svjetlosnim receptorima

similar to the ones in your eyes.

koji sliče onima u našim očima.

Whenever a flash of light hits the receptor,

Kada bljesak ili svjetlost pogodi receptor,

the pore opens, an electrical current is switched on,

pore se otvaraju, električni napon se uključi

and the neuron fires electrical impulses.

i neuron šalje električni signal.

Because the light-activated pore is encoded in DNA,

Činjenica da su svjetlošću aktivirane pore kodirane u DNK,

we can achieve incredible precision.

omogućuje nam veliku preciznost.

This is because,

Iako svaka

although each cell in our bodies

stanica našeg tijela

contains the same set of genes,

sadrži isti set gena,

different mixes of genes get turned on and off

drukčije mješavine gena se aktiviraju i deaktiviraju

in different cells.

u različitim stanicama.

You can exploit this to make sure

Ovo možemo koristiti kako bismo bili sigurni

that only some neurons

da samo neki od neurona

contain our light-activated pore and others don't.

sadrže naše svjetlošću aktivirane pore.

So in this cartoon, the bluish white cell

U ovoj animaciji, modro bijela stanica

in the upper-left corner

u gornjem lijevom kutu

does not respond to light

ne odgovara na svjetlost

because it lacks the light-activated pore.

jer joj nedostaje svjetlošću aktivirana pora.

The approach works so well

Ovaj koncept djeluje tako dobro

that we can write purely artificial messages

da čak možemo mozgu direktno

directly to the brain.

slati umjetne naredbe.

In this example, each electrical impulse,

U ovom primjeru, svaki električni impuls,

each deflection on the trace,

svaki otklon od putanje,

is caused by a brief pulse of light.

uzrokovan je kratkotrajnim pulsirajućim svjetlom,

And the approach, of course, also works

a pristup djeluje

in moving, behaving animals.

i kod životinja koje se kreću.

This is the first ever such experiment,

Ovo je prvi eksperiment te vrste

sort of the optical equivalent of Galvani's.

i na neki je način optički ekvivalent Galvanijevog.

It was done six or seven years ago

Izvela ga je moja nekadašnja studentica

by my then graduate student, Susana Lima.

Susana Lima, prije šest ili sedam godina.

Susana had engineered the fruit fly on the left

Susana je projektirala voćnu mušicu slijeva

so that just two out of the 200,000 cells in its brain

tako da samo dvije od 200.000 stanica u njenom mozgu

expressed the light-activated pore.

imaju ekspresiju pora aktiviranih svjetlošću.

You're familiar with these cells

Upoznati ste s tim stanicama

because they are the ones that frustrate you

jer su to one koje vas frustriraju

when you try to swat the fly.

kad pokušavate zgnječiti mušicu.

They trained the escape reflex that makes the fly jump into the air

One su istrenirale refleks bijega koji djeluje tako da mušica skoči u zrak

and fly away whenever you move your hand in position.

i odleti kad god vi pomičete ruku.

And you can see here that the flash of light has exactly the same effect.

Ovdje možete vidjeti da bljesak ima identičan učinak.

The animal jumps, it spreads its wings, it vibrates them,

Životinja poskoči, raširi krila, vibrira krilima,

but it can't actually take off

ali ne može poletjeti

because the fly is sandwiched between two glass plates.

jer je zaglavljena između dvije staklene ploče.

Now to make sure that this was no reaction of the fly

Sada, kako bi bila sigurna da ovo nije bila reakcija

to a flash it could see,

na svjetlost koju mušica vidi,

Susana did a simple

Susana je izvela jednostavan,

but brutally effective experiment.

ali pomalo brutalan pokus.

She cut the heads off of her flies.

Odrubila je glave svojim mušicama.

These headless bodies can live for about a day,

Dekapitirane mušice mogu živjeti otprilike jedan dan,

but they don't do much.

ali ne mogu raditi puno toga,

They just stand around

samo stoje

and groom excessively.

i pretjerano se dotjeruju.

So it seems that the only trait that survives decapitation is vanity.

Dakle, čini se da je taština jedina osobina koja uspijeva preživjeti odrubljivanje glave.

(Laughter)

(Smijeh)

Anyway, as you'll see in a moment,

Kako god, za trenutak ćete vidjeti

Susana was able to turn on the flight motor

da je Susana uspjela uključiti motor za letenje

of what's the equivalent of the spinal cord of these flies

u tzv. ekvivalentu kralješnične moždine ovih mušica

and get some of the headless bodies

i izazvati da neka od ovih bezglavih tijela

to actually take off and fly away.

mušica polete.

They didn't get very far, obviously.

Očito, nisu daleko stigle.

Since we took these first steps,

Od kada smo mi poduzeli prve korake,

the field of optogenetics has exploded.

optogenetika se strahovito razvila

And there are now hundreds of labs

i sada postoje na stotine laboratorija

using these approaches.

koji primjenjuju ovaj pristup.

And we've come a long way

Mnogo smo napredovali

since Galvani's and Susana's first successes

od Galvanija i Susane koji su uspjeli postići

in making animals twitch or jump.

da životinje trzaju ili polete.

We can now actually interfere with their psychology

Sada možemo inteferirati sa njihovom psihologijom

in rather profound ways,

na mnogo korisnih načina,

as I'll show you in my last example,

što ću vam i pokazati u svom posljednjem primjeru,

which is directed at a familiar question.

koji je povezan sa poznatim pitanjima.

Life is a string of choices

Život je niz izbora

creating a constant pressure to decide what to do next.

koji stvaraju stalan pritisak na sljedeću odluku koju ćemo donijeti.

We cope with this pressure by having brains,

Nosimo se s tim pritiskom tako što imamo mozak

and within our brains, decision-making centers

koji je centar našeg odlučivanja

that I've called here the "Actor."

i koji ja zovem "Glumac".

The Actor implements a policy that takes into account

Glumac provodi politiku koja uzima u obzir

the state of the environment

stanje okoliša

and the context in which we operate.

i kontekst u kojem djelujemo.

Our actions change the environment, or context,

Naše djelovanje radi promjene u okolišu i kontekstu,

and these changes are then fed back into the decision loop.

a ove promjene su onda vraćaju u petlju odluke.

Now to put some neurobiological meat

Sada moramo dodati malo neurobiološkog mesa

on this abstract model,

na ovaj kostur apstraktnog modela.

we constructed a simple one-dimensional world

Konstruirali smo jednostavni jednodimenzionalni svijet

for our favorite subject, fruit flies.

za naš omiljeni subjekt, voćne mušice.

Each chamber in these two vertical stacks

Svaka komora između dvije vertikalne pregrade

contains one fly.

sadrži jednu mušicu.

The left and the right halves of the chamber

Lijeva i desna polovica komore

are filled with two different odors,

su ispunjene s dva različita mirisa.

and a security camera watches

Sigurnosna kamera nam omogućuje da promatramo

as the flies pace up and down between them.

kako mušice hodaju amo-tamo po komori.

Here's some such CCTV footage.

Ovdje imamo jednu takvu CCTV snimku.

Whenever a fly reaches the midpoint of the chamber

Kada mušica dođe do sredine komore

where the two odor streams meet,

gdje se miješaju dva mirisa,

it has to make a decision.

mora odlučiti.

It has to decide whether to turn around

Mora odlučiti hoće li se okrenuti

and stay in the same odor,

i ostati u istoj polovici

or whether to cross the midline

ili prijeći sredinu

and try something new.

i probati nešto novo.

These decisions are clearly a reflection

Ove odluke su refleksija

of the Actor's policy.

Glumčeve politike.

Now for an intelligent being like our fly,

Za pametno biće poput naše mušice,

this policy is not written in stone

ova politika nije trajno zapisana u kamenu,

but rather changes as the animal learns from experience.

već se mijenja kako životinja uči iz novih iskustava.

We can incorporate such an element

Možemo ujediniti taj element

of adaptive intelligence into our model

prilagodljive inteligencije u naš model

by assuming that the fly's brain

pretpostavljajući da mozak mušice

contains not only an Actor,

ne sadrži samo Glumca,

but a different group of cells,

već i drukčiju skupinu stanica --

a "Critic," that provides a running commentary

Kritičara koji osigurava komentar

on the Actor's choices.

na Glumčeve odluke.

You can think of this nagging inner voice

Ovaj gunđajući unutarnji glas možete zamisliti

as sort of the brain's equivalent

kao neku vrstu ekvivalenta

of the Catholic Church,

Katoličke Crkve,

if you're an Austrian like me,

ako ste Austrijanci poput mene,

or the super-ego, if you're Freudian,

super-ega ako ste frojdovac

or your mother, if you're Jewish.

ili kao vašu majku ako ste Židov.

(Laughter)

(Smijeh)

Now obviously,

Dakle očito da je

the Critic is a key ingredient

Kritičar glavni sastojak

in what makes us intelligent.

koji nas čini inteligentnima.

So we set out to identify

Odlučili smo identificirati

the cells in the fly's brain

stanice koje igraju ulogu

that played the role of the Critic.

Kritičara u mozgu mušice.

And the logic of our experiment was simple.

Logika našeg eksperimenta je bila poprilično jednostavna --

We thought if we could use our optical remote control

kada bismo rabili optički daljinski prekidač za kontrolu

to activate the cells of the Critic,

aktivnosti stanica Kritičara,

we should be able, artificially, to nag the Actor

trebali bismo moći natjerati Glumca

into changing its policy.

da promijeni svoju politiku.

In other words,

Drugim riječima,

the fly should learn from mistakes

mušica treba učiti iz grešaka

that it thought it had made

koje misli da je učinila,

but, in reality, it had not made.

ali ih zapravo nije učinila.

So we bred flies

Parili smo mušice

whose brains were more or less randomly peppered

čiji mozak je bio manje ili više nasumično obasut

with cells that were light addressable.

stanicama koje su odgovarale na svjetlost,

And then we took these flies

a onda smo tim mušicama

and allowed them to make choices.

dali da donose odluke.

And whenever they made one of the two choices,

Kad god su one izabrale jedan

chose one odor,

od dva mirisa,

in this case the blue one over the orange one,

u ovom slučaju plavi umjesto narančastog,

we switched on the lights.

mi bismo upalili svjetlo.

If the Critic was among the optically activated cells,

Ako je Kritičar bio među optički podražljivim stanicama,

the result of this intervention

rezultat ove intervencije

should be a change in policy.

bi trebalo biti mijenjanje politike --

The fly should learn to avoid

mušica bi trebala naučiti izbjegavati

the optically reinforced odor.

optički pojačan miris.

Here's what happened in two instances:

Evo što se dogodilo u dva slučaja:

We're comparing two strains of flies,

uspoređivali smo dva soja mušica,

each of them having

a svaka od njih je imala

about 100 light-addressable cells in their brains,

otprilike 100 svjetlošću podražljivih stanica u mozgu --

shown here in green on the left and on the right.

to je ovo zeleno, na lijevoj i desnoj strani.

What's common among these groups of cells

Ove dvije grupe stanica imaju zajedničko svojstvo

is that they all produce the neurotransmitter dopamine.

da proizvode neurotransmiter dopamin.

But the identities of the individual

Ali identitet zasebnih neurona

dopamine-producing neurons

koji luče dopamin

are clearly largely different on the left and on the right.

je očigledno različit na lijevoj i desnoj strani.

Optically activating

Svjetlosna aktivacija

these hundred or so cells

tih stotinu stanica

into two strains of flies

u dva soja mušice

has dramatically different consequences.

ima dramatično različite posljedice.

If you look first at the behavior

Ako prvo promotrimo ponašanje

of the fly on the right,

desne mušice,

you can see that whenever it reaches the midpoint of the chamber

možemo vidjeti da uvijek kada dođe na sredinu komore

where the two odors meet,

gdje se dva mirisa spajaju,

it marches straight through, as it did before.

maršira ravno kroz komoru, baš kao što je činila i prije.

Its behavior is completely unchanged.

Njezino ponašanje je ostalo nepromijenjeno.

But the behavior of the fly on the left is very different.

Ponašanje lijeve mušice je sasvim različito.

Whenever it comes up to the midpoint,

Kada dođe na sredinu komore,

it pauses,

ona stane

it carefully scans the odor interface

i pažljivo promotri granicu

as if it was sniffing out its environment,

kao da njuši okolinu

and then it turns around.

i onda se okrene.

This means that the policy that the Actor implements

Ovo znači da politika koju Glumac primjenjuje

now includes an instruction to avoid the odor

sada uključuje i uputu da se izbjegava miris

that's in the right half of the chamber.

na desnoj polovini komore.

This means that the Critic

To znači da je u toj životinji

must have spoken in that animal,

progovorio Kritičar

and that the Critic must be contained

koji mora biti sadržan

among the dopamine-producing neurons on the left,

među neuronima koji proizvode dopamin na lijevoj,

but not among the dopamine producing neurons on the right.

ali ne i među neuronima koji proizvode dopamin na desnoj strani.

Through many such experiments,

Nakon mnogo ovakvih eksperimenata,

we were able to narrow down

suzili smo

the identity of the Critic

identitet Kritičara

to just 12 cells.

na samo 12 stanica.

These 12 cells, as shown here in green,

Tih 12 stanica, kao što možete vidjeti ovo zeleno,

send the output to a brain structure

šalju izlazne informacije strukturi u mozgu

called the "mushroom body,"

koja se naziva "gljivasto tijelo" (Corpora pedunculata)

which is shown here in gray.

koja je prikazana sivo.

We know from our formal model

Iz prethodnog modela znamo

that the brain structure

da je Glumac izvršna struktura

at the receiving end of the Critic's commentary is the Actor.

mozga nakon primanja Kritičarovog komentara.

So this anatomy suggests

Anatomija nalaže

that the mushroom bodies have something to do

da gljivasta tijela imaju neku ulogu

with action choice.

u izboru pokreta.

Based on everything we know about the mushroom bodies,

Ako uzmemo u obzir sve što znamo o gljivastim tijelima,

this makes perfect sense.

ovo ima smisla.

In fact, it makes so much sense

Zapravo, ovo toliko ima smisla

that we can construct an electronic toy circuit

da čak možemo izraditi električnu igračku

that simulates the behavior of the fly.

koja simulira ponašanje mušice.

In this electronic toy circuit,

Neuroni gljivastog tijela

the mushroom body neurons are symbolized

su simbolizirani

by the vertical bank of blue LEDs

okomitim nizom plavih LED dioda

in the center of the board.

na sredini ploče.

These LED's are wired to sensors

Te LED diode su prikopčane na senzore

that detect the presence of odorous molecules in the air.

koji detektiraju prisutnost molekula mirisa u zraku.

Each odor activates a different combination of sensors,

Svaki miris aktivira drugu kombinaciju senzora,

which in turn activates

a koja zauzvrat aktivira

a different odor detector in the mushroom body.

drugi detektor mirisa u gljivastom tijelu.

So the pilot in the cockpit of the fly,

Tako nam pilot u kokpitu mušice,

the Actor,

Glumac,

can tell which odor is present

može reći koji je miris prisutan

simply by looking at which of the blue LEDs lights up.

jednostavno gledajući koja od plavih LED dioda je upaljena.

What the Actor does with this information

Što će Glumac učiniti s tim informacijama

depends on its policy,

ovisi o njegovoj politici

which is stored in the strengths of the connection,

koja je pohranjena u jačini veze

between the odor detectors

između detektora mirisa

and the motors

i motora

that power the fly's evasive actions.

koji mušici omogućuje kretanje.

If the connection is weak, the motors will stay off

Ako je veza slaba, motor će ostati isključen

and the fly will continue straight on its course.

i mušica će nastaviti svoju putanju ravno po komori.

If the connection is strong, the motors will turn on

Ako je veza jaka, motor će se upaliti

and the fly will initiate a turn.

i mušica će se okrenuti na suprotnu stranu.

Now consider a situation

Sada uzmimo u obzir situaciju

in which the motors stay off,

kada motor ostaje isključen,

the fly continues on its path

mušica nastavlja ići svojim putem

and it suffers some painful consequence

i doživljava neke bolne posljedice,

such as getting zapped.

na primjer smrt.

In a situation like this,

U situaciji poput ove,

we would expect the Critic to speak up

očekujemo da će Kritičar progovoriti

and to tell the Actor

i reći Glumcu

to change its policy.

da promijeni politiku.

We have created such a situation, artificially,

Mi smo umjetno kreirali ovu situaciju,

by turning on the critic with a flash of light.

uključujući Kritičara pomoću bljeska svjetla.

That caused a strengthening of the connections

To je prouzrokovalo pojačavanje veze

between the currently active odor detector

između trenutno aktivnog detektora mirisa

and the motors.

i motora.

So the next time

Sljedeći put

the fly finds itself facing the same odor again,

kada mušica bude u dodiru s istim mirisom,

the connection is strong enough to turn on the motors

veza će biti dovoljno jaka da pokrene motor

and to trigger an evasive maneuver.

pomoću kojega će mušica izvesti manevar odstupanja.

I don't know about you,

Ne znam za vas,

but I find it exhilarating to see

ali meni je prilično uzbudljivo gledati

how vague psychological notions

kako nejasni psihološki pojmovi

evaporate and give rise

isparavaju i predaju primat

to a physical, mechanistic understanding of the mind,

fizičkom, mehaničkom razumijevanju uma

even if it's the mind of the fly.

pa makar to bio i um mušice.

This is one piece of good news.

Ovo je samo prva dobra vijest.

The other piece of good news,

Druga je,

for a scientist at least,

barem za znanstvenike,

is that much remains to be discovered.

da ostaje još mnogo toga što treba biti otkriveno.

In the experiments I told you about,

U eksperimentima o kojima sam vam pričao,

we have lifted the identity of the Critic,

formirali smo identitet Kritičara,

but we still have no idea

ali i dalje nemamo pojma

how the Critic does its job.

kako on radi svoj posao.

Come to think of it, knowing when you're wrong

Razmislite malo o tome, dosta je teško znati da si u krivu,

without a teacher, or your mother, telling you,

ako ti to netko, učiteljica

is a very hard problem.

ili majka, ne kaže.

There are some ideas in computer science

Postoje neke ideje u informatičkoj znanosti

and in artificial intelligence

i umjetnoj inteligenciji

as to how this might be done,

kako je sve to moguće,

but we still haven't solved

ali zasad nismo riješili

a single example

niti jedan primjer

of how intelligent behavior

kako se inteligentno ponašanje

springs from the physical interactions

aktivira iz fizičkih interakcija

in living matter.

u živoj materiji.

I think we'll get there in the not too distant future.

Mislim da ćemo do toga doći u bliskoj budućnosti.

Thank you.

Hvala.

(Applause)

(Pljesak)