Gero Miesenboeck reengineers a brain

52,092 views ใƒป 2010-11-05

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Yubal Masalker ืžื‘ืงืจ: Sigal Tifferet
00:15
I have a doppelganger.
0
15260
3000
ื™ืฉ ืœื™ ื›ืคื™ืœ.
00:18
(Laughter)
1
18260
3000
(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
00:21
Dr. Gero is a brilliant
2
21260
3000
ื“"ืจ ื’'ื™ืจื• ื”ื•ื ืžื“ืขืŸ ืžื‘ืจื™ืง
00:24
but slightly mad scientist
3
24260
2000
ืื‘ืœ ืงืฆืช ืžื˜ื•ืจืฃ,
00:26
in the "Dragonball Z: Android Saga."
4
26260
3000
ื‘ื“ืจืงื•ืŸ ื‘ื•ืœ Z "ืกืื’ื” ืื ื“ืจืื•ื“ื™ืช".
00:29
If you look very carefully,
5
29260
2000
ืื ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ื‘ืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘,
00:31
you see that his skull has been replaced
6
31260
3000
ืจื•ืื™ื ืฉื”ื’ื•ืœื’ื•ืœืช ืฉืœื• ื”ื•ื—ืœืคื”
00:34
with a transparent Plexiglas dome
7
34260
2000
ื‘ื›ื™ืคื” ืฉืงื•ืคื” ืžื–ื›ื•ื›ื™ืช ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืช
00:36
so that the workings of his brain can be observed
8
36260
3000
ื›ืš ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžื•ื— ืฉืœื• ืขื•ื‘ื“
00:39
and also controlled with light.
9
39260
3000
ื•ื’ื ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ืขืœื™ื• ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืื•ืจ.
00:42
That's exactly what I do --
10
42260
2000
ื–ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืขื•ืฉื” --
00:44
optical mind control.
11
44260
2000
ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืขืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืื•ืจ.
00:46
(Laughter)
12
46260
2000
(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
00:48
But in contrast to my evil twin
13
48260
2000
ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืชืื•ืžื™ ื”ืžืจื•ืฉืข,
00:50
who lusts after world domination,
14
50260
3000
ืืฉืจ ืฉื•ืืฃ ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ืขืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื,
00:53
my motives are not sinister.
15
53260
3000
ื”ืžื ื™ืขื™ื ืฉืœื™ ืื™ื ื ืžืจื•ืฉืขื™ื.
00:56
I control the brain
16
56260
2000
ืื ื™ ืฉื•ืœื˜ ืขืœ ื”ืžื•ื—
00:58
in order to understand how it works.
17
58260
2000
ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ื•ื ืคื•ืขืœ.
01:00
Now wait a minute, you may say,
18
60260
2000
ืื‘ืœ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืชื’ื™ื“ื•, ืจืง ืจื’ืข,
01:02
how can you go straight to controlling the brain
19
62260
3000
ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืืชื” ื™ืฉืจ ืžื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื‘ืžื•ื—
01:05
without understanding it first?
20
65260
2000
ืžื‘ืœื™ ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื•?
01:07
Isn't that putting the cart before the horse?
21
67260
3000
ื”ืื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืœืจืชื•ื ืืช ื”ืขื’ืœื” ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืกื•ืกื™ื?
01:11
Many neuroscientists agree with this view
22
71260
3000
ื”ืจื‘ื” ื—ื•ืงืจื™ ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืขืฆื‘ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื›ื™ืžื™ื ืขื ื”ืฉืงืคื” ื–ื•
01:14
and think that understanding will come
23
74260
3000
ื•ืกื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื”ื‘ื ื” ืชื’ื™ืข
01:17
from more detailed observation and analysis.
24
77260
3000
ืžื”ืชื‘ื•ื ื ื•ืช ื•ื ื™ืชื•ื— ื™ื•ืชืจ ืคืจื˜ื ื™ื™ื.
01:20
They say, "If we could record the activity of our neurons,
25
80260
4000
ื”ื ื˜ื•ืขื ื™ื, "ืื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืงืœื™ื˜ ืืช ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื ื™ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•,
01:24
we would understand the brain."
26
84260
3000
ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื•ื—."
01:27
But think for a moment what that means.
27
87260
3000
ืื‘ืœ ืชื—ืฉื‘ื• ืจื’ืข ืžื” ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ.
01:30
Even if we could measure
28
90260
2000
ื’ื ืื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืžื“ื•ื“
01:32
what every cell is doing at all times,
29
92260
2000
ืžื” ื›ืœ ืชื ืขื•ืฉื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื’ืข,
01:34
we would still have to make sense
30
94260
2000
ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืกื“ืจ
01:36
of the recorded activity patterns,
31
96260
2000
ื‘ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืงืœื˜ื•ืช,
01:38
and that's so difficult,
32
98260
2000
ื•ื–ื” ื›ืœ-ื›ืš ืงืฉื”,
01:40
chances are we'll understand these patterns
33
100260
2000
ืฉื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•
01:42
just as little as the brains that produce them.
34
102260
3000
ื”ื•ื ื ืžื•ืš ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ืžื•ื— ืฉืžื™ื™ืฆืจ ืื•ืชืŸ ื™ื‘ื™ืŸ.
01:45
Take a look at what brain activity might look like.
35
105260
3000
ืชืกืชื›ืœื• ืื™ืš ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื•ื— ืขืฉื•ื™ื” ืœื”ื™ืจืื•ืช.
01:48
In this simulation, each black dot
36
108260
2000
ื‘ื”ื“ืžื™ื” ื–ื•, ื›ืœ ื ืงื•ื“ื” ืฉื—ื•ืจื”
01:50
is one nerve cell.
37
110260
2000
ื”ื™ื ืชื-ืขืฆื‘ ืื—ื“.
01:52
The dot is visible
38
112260
2000
ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื” ืžืชื’ืœื” ืœืขื™ืŸ
01:54
whenever a cell fires an electrical impulse.
39
114260
2000
ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉืชื ืžืฉื’ืจ ืื•ืช ื—ืฉืžืœื™.
01:56
There's 10,000 neurons here.
40
116260
2000
ื™ืฉื ื ื›ืืŸ 10,000 ืชืื™-ืขืฆื‘.
01:58
So you're looking at roughly one percent
41
118260
2000
ื›ืš ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืงื™ืจื•ื‘
02:00
of the brain of a cockroach.
42
120260
3000
ืื—ื•ื– ืื—ื“ ืžืžื•ื—ื• ืฉืœ ื’'ื•ืง.
02:04
Your brains are about 100 million times
43
124260
3000
ื”ืžื•ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• 100 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืคืขื
02:07
more complicated.
44
127260
2000
ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื.
02:09
Somewhere, in a pattern like this,
45
129260
2000
ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื, ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ื›ื–ื•,
02:11
is you,
46
131260
2000
ื”ื™ื ืืชื --
02:13
your perceptions,
47
133260
2000
ื”ื”ืฉืงืคื•ืช ืฉืœื›ื,
02:15
your emotions, your memories,
48
135260
3000
ื”ืจื’ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœื›ื, ื”ื–ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื›ื,
02:18
your plans for the future.
49
138260
2000
ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื›ื ืœืขืชื™ื“.
02:20
But we don't know where,
50
140260
2000
ืื‘ืœ ืื™ื ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื”ื™ื›ืŸ,
02:22
since we don't know how to read the pattern.
51
142260
3000
ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืื ื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืœืงืจื•ื ืืช ื”ืชื‘ื ื™ืช.
02:25
We don't understand the code used by the brain.
52
145260
3000
ืื™ื ื ื• ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืืช ื”ืงื•ื“ ืฉื”ืžื•ื— ืžืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื•.
02:28
To make progress,
53
148260
2000
ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชืงื“ื,
02:30
we need to break the code.
54
150260
2000
ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœืคืฆื— ืืช ื”ืงื•ื“.
02:32
But how?
55
152260
2000
ืื‘ืœ ื›ื™ืฆื“?
02:35
An experienced code-breaker will tell you
56
155260
2000
ืžืคืชื— ืงื•ื“ื™ื ืžื ื•ืกื” ื™ืืžืจ ืœื›ื
02:37
that in order to figure out what the symbols in a code mean,
57
157260
3000
ืฉื›ื“ื™ ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืžื” ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ ื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื“,
02:40
it's essential to be able to play with them,
58
160260
3000
ื ื—ื•ืฅ ืฉืชื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœืฉื—ืง ืื™ืชื,
02:43
to rearrange them at will.
59
163260
2000
ืœืืจื’ืŸ ืื•ืชื ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื›ืจืฆื•ื ื ื•.
02:45
So in this situation too,
60
165260
2000
ืื– ื’ื ื‘ืžืฆื‘ ืฉืœืคื ื™ื ื•,
02:47
to decode the information
61
167260
2000
ื›ื“ื™ ืœืคืขื ื— ืืช ื”ืžื™ื“ืข
02:49
contained in patterns like this,
62
169260
2000
ื”ื›ืœื•ืœ ื‘ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ื›ืžื• ื–ื•,
02:51
watching alone won't do.
63
171260
2000
ืฆืคื™ื” ืœื‘ื“ื” ืœื ืชืกืคื™ืง;
02:53
We need to rearrange the pattern.
64
173260
2000
ืื ื• ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœืืจื’ื•ืŸ ืžื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืฉืœ ื”ืชื‘ื ื™ืช.
02:55
In other words,
65
175260
2000
ื‘ืžื™ืœื™ื ืื—ืจื•ืช,
02:57
instead of recording the activity of neurons,
66
177260
2000
ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื”ืงืœื˜ืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื ื™ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื,
02:59
we need to control it.
67
179260
2000
ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ืขืœื™ื”.
03:01
It's not essential that we can control
68
181260
2000
ืื™ืŸ ื–ื” ื ื—ื•ืฅ ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉืœื•ื˜
03:03
the activity of all neurons in the brain, just some.
69
183260
3000
ืขืœ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ื”ื ื™ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื—, ืืœื ืจืง ืฉืœ ื—ืœืงื.
03:06
The more targeted our interventions, the better.
70
186260
2000
ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ื”ืชืขืจื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื•ืงื“ืช, ื›ืš ื™ื•ืชืจ ื˜ื•ื‘.
03:08
And I'll show you in a moment
71
188260
2000
ื•ืืจืื” ืœื›ื ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืจื’ืข
03:10
how we can achieve the necessary precision.
72
190260
3000
ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืืช ื”ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ื ื—ื•ืฅ.
03:13
And since I'm realistic, rather than grandiose,
73
193260
3000
ื•ืžืื—ืจ ื•ืื ื™ ืžืฆื™ืื•ืชื™ ื•ืœื ื—ื™ ื‘ืืฉืœื™ื•ืช,
03:16
I don't claim that the ability to control the function of the nervous system
74
196260
3000
ืื™ื ื™ ื˜ื•ืขืŸ ืฉื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ื‘ืคืขื•ืœืช ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืขืฆื‘ื™ื
03:19
will at once unravel all its mysteries.
75
199260
3000
ืชืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืžืกืชื•ืจื™ืŸ ืฉืœื”.
03:22
But we'll certainly learn a lot.
76
202260
3000
ืื‘ืœ ืœื‘ื˜ื— ื ืœืžื“ ื”ืžื•ืŸ.
03:27
Now, I'm by no means
77
207260
2000
ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื‘ืฉื•ื ืื•ืคืŸ
03:29
the first person to realize
78
209260
2000
ืื ื™ ืœื ื”ืื“ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืžื’ืœื”
03:31
how powerful a tool intervention is.
79
211260
3000
ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ื—ื–ืงื” ื”ื™ื ื”ืชืขืจื‘ื•ืช ืคื™ื–ื™ืช.
03:34
The history of attempts
80
214260
2000
ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื ื™ืกื™ื•ื ื•ืช
03:36
to tinker with the function of the nervous system
81
216260
2000
ืœื”ืชืขืกืง ืขื ืคืขื•ืœืช ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืขืฆื‘ื™ืช
03:38
is long and illustrious.
82
218260
2000
ื”ื•ื ืืจื•ืš ื•ื™ื“ื•ืข.
03:40
It dates back at least 200 years,
83
220260
3000
ื”ื™ื ื”ื•ืœื›ืช ืื—ื•ืจื” ืœืคื—ื•ืช 200 ืฉื ื”,
03:43
to Galvani's famous experiments
84
223260
2000
ืœื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกืžื™ื ืฉืœ ื’ืœื•ื•ืื ื™
03:45
in the late 18th century and beyond.
85
225260
3000
ืœืงืจืืช ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžืื” ื”-18 ื•ืื™ืœืš.
03:49
Galvani showed that a frog's legs twitched
86
229260
3000
ื’ืœื•ื•ืื ื™ ื”ืจืื” ืฉืจื’ืœื™ ืฆืคืจื“ืข ืงื•ืคืฆื•ืช
03:52
when he connected the lumbar nerve
87
232260
2000
ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื•ื ื—ื™ื‘ืจ ืืช ื”ืขืฆื‘ ื”ืžื•ืชื ื™
03:54
to a source of electrical current.
88
234260
3000
ืœืžืงื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื–ืจื ื—ืฉืžืœื™.
03:57
This experiment revealed the first, and perhaps most fundamental,
89
237260
3000
ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ื–ื” ื’ื™ืœื” ืืช ื”ืกื•ื“ ื”ื›ืžื•ืก ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื›ื™ ื‘ืกื™ืกื™
04:00
nugget of the neural code:
90
240260
2000
ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื•ืคืŸ ื”ืขืฆื‘ื™:
04:02
that information is written in the form
91
242260
2000
ืฉืžื™ื“ืข ื ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ืฆื•ืจื”
04:04
of electrical impulses.
92
244260
3000
ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื•ืช ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื™ื.
04:08
Galvani's approach
93
248260
2000
ื’ื™ืฉืชื• ืฉืœ ื’ืœื•ื•ืื ื™ ืœื—ืงื™ืจืช
04:10
of probing the nervous system with electrodes
94
250260
2000
ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืขืฆื‘ื™ืช ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื“ื•ืช
04:12
has remained state-of-the-art until today,
95
252260
3000
ื ืฉืืจื” ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉื™ืช ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื,
04:15
despite a number of drawbacks.
96
255260
3000
ืœืžืจื•ืช ื›ืžื” ื—ืกืจื•ื ื•ืช.
04:18
Sticking wires into the brain is obviously rather crude.
97
258260
3000
ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืฉืชืงื™ืขืช ื—ื•ื˜ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื— ื–ื” ืื›ื–ืจื™.
04:21
It's hard to do in animals that run around,
98
261260
2000
ื–ื” ืงืฉื” ืœื‘ื™ืฆื•ืข ืขื ื—ื™ื•ืช ืฉืžืชืจื•ืฆืฆื•ืช,
04:23
and there is a physical limit
99
263260
2000
ื•ื™ืฉ ืžื’ื‘ืœื” ืคื™ื–ื™ืช
04:25
to the number of wires
100
265260
2000
ืœืžืกืคืจ ื”ื—ื•ื˜ื™ื
04:27
that can be inserted simultaneously.
101
267260
3000
ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื—ื“ื™ืจ ื‘ื•-ื–ืžื ื™ืช.
04:30
So around the turn of the last century,
102
270260
2000
ื›ืš ืฉื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช ืกื™ื•ื ื”ืžืื” ื”ืงื•ื“ืžืช,
04:32
I started to think,
103
272260
2000
ื”ืชื—ืœืชื™ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘,
04:34
"Wouldn't it be wonderful if one could take this logic
104
274260
3000
ืฉื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื ื”ื“ืจ ืื ื ื™ืชืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ืคื•ืš
04:37
and turn it upside down?"
105
277260
2000
ืขืœ ืคื ื™ื• ืืช ื”ื”ื™ื’ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื”.
04:39
So instead of inserting a wire
106
279260
2000
ื›ืš ืฉื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ื—ื“ื™ืจ ื—ื•ื˜
04:41
into one spot of the brain,
107
281260
3000
ืืœ ืชื•ืš ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ื‘ืžื•ื—,
04:44
re-engineer the brain itself
108
284260
2000
ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืืจื’ืŸ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ื”ืžื•ื— ืขืฆืžื•
04:46
so that some of its neural elements
109
286260
3000
ื›ืš ืฉื›ืžื” ืžื”ืืœืžื ื˜ื™ื ื”ืขืฆื‘ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื•
04:49
become responsive to diffusely broadcast signals
110
289260
3000
ื™ื’ื™ื‘ื• ืœืฉื™ื“ื•ืจื™ ืื•ืชื•ืช ืžืคื•ื–ืจื™ื,
04:52
such as a flash of light.
111
292260
3000
ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ื–ืงื™ ืื•ืจ.
04:55
Such an approach would literally, in a flash of light,
112
295260
3000
ื’ื™ืฉื” ื›ื–ื•, ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ื‘ื–ืง ืฉืœ ืื•ืจ ืคืฉื•ื˜ื• ื›ืžืฉืžืขื•,
04:58
overcome many of the obstacles to discovery.
113
298260
3000
ืชืชื’ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ืžื›ืฉื•ืœื™ื ื”ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ื‘ื“ืจืš ืœืชื’ืœื™ื•ืช.
05:01
First, it's clearly a non-invasive,
114
301260
3000
ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ, ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ืจื•ืจ ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช
05:04
wireless form of communication.
115
304260
3000
ืืœื—ื•ื˜ื™ืช ืœื ืคื•ืœืฉื ื™ืช.
05:07
And second, just as in a radio broadcast,
116
307260
2000
ื•ืฉื ื™ืช, ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื›ืžื• ืฉื™ื“ื•ืจ ืจื“ื™ื•,
05:09
you can communicate with many receivers at once.
117
309260
3000
ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืชืงืฉืจ ืขื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืงื•ืœื˜ื™ื ื‘ื•-ื–ืžื ื™ืช.
05:12
You don't need to know where these receivers are,
118
312260
3000
ืื™ืŸ ืฆื•ืจืš ืœื“ืขืช ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ื ืžืฆืื™ื ืงื•ืœื˜ื™ื ื”ืœืœื•.
05:15
and it doesn't matter if these receivers move --
119
315260
2000
ื•ืื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืžืฉื ื” ืื ืงื•ืœื˜ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ื ืขื™ื --
05:17
just think of the stereo in your car.
120
317260
3000
ืชื—ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ื”ืจื“ื™ื• ื‘ืื•ื˜ื• ืฉืœื›ื.
05:20
It gets even better,
121
320260
3000
ื•ื–ื” ืขื•ื“ ืžืฉืชืคืจ,
05:23
for it turns out that we can fabricate the receivers
122
323260
3000
ืžืื—ืจ ื•ืžืชื‘ืจืจ ืฉืื ื• ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืืช ื”ืงื•ืœื˜ื™ื
05:26
out of materials that are encoded in DNA.
123
326260
3000
ืžื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉืžืงื•ื“ื“ื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืš DNA.
05:29
So each nerve cell
124
329260
2000
ื›ืš ื›ืœ ืชื ืขืฆื‘ื™
05:31
with the right genetic makeup
125
331260
2000
ืขื ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ ื”ื ื›ื•ืŸ
05:33
will spontaneously produce a receiver
126
333260
3000
ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืกืคื•ื ื˜ื ื™ ืžืงืœื˜
05:36
that allows us to control its function.
127
336260
3000
ื”ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ืขืœ ืคืขื•ืœืชื•.
05:39
I hope you'll appreciate
128
339260
2000
ืื ื™ ืžืงื•ื” ืฉืืชื ืžืขืจื™ื›ื™ื
05:41
the beautiful simplicity
129
341260
2000
ืืช ื”ื™ื•ืคื™ ืฉื‘ืคืฉื˜ื•ืช
05:43
of this concept.
130
343260
2000
ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื”ื–ื•.
05:45
There's no high-tech gizmos here,
131
345260
2000
ืื™ืŸ ื›ืืŸ ื’ื™ืžื™ืงื™ ื”ื™ื™-ื˜ืง,
05:47
just biology revealed through biology.
132
347260
3000
ืืœื ืจืง ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ื ื’ืœื™ืช ื“ืจืš ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”.
05:51
Now let's take a look at these miraculous receivers up close.
133
351260
3000
ื›ืขืช ื”ื‘ื” ื ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื‘ืžืงืœื˜ื™ื ื”ืžื•ืคืœืื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืžืงืจื•ื‘.
05:54
As we zoom in on one of these purple neurons,
134
354260
3000
ื›ื›ืœ ืฉืื ื• ืžืชืงืจื‘ื™ื ื•ืžืชืžืงื“ื™ื ื‘ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ื™ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื ื”ืกื’ื•ืœื™ื ื”ืœืœื•,
05:57
we see that its outer membrane
135
357260
2000
ืื ื• ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื™ื ืฉื”ืงืจื•ื ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ืฉืœื•
05:59
is studded with microscopic pores.
136
359260
2000
ืžืฉื•ื‘ืฅ ื‘ื—ืจื™ืจื™ื ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื™ื.
06:01
Pores like these conduct electrical current
137
361260
2000
ื—ืจื™ืจื™ื ื›ืืœื” ืžื•ืœื™ื›ื™ื ื–ืจื ื—ืฉืžืœื™
06:03
and are responsible
138
363260
2000
ื•ื”ื ืื—ืจืื™ื
06:05
for all the communication in the nervous system.
139
365260
2000
ืœื›ืœ ื”ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืขืฆื‘ื™ืช.
06:07
But these pores here are special.
140
367260
2000
ืื‘ืœ ื—ืจื™ืจื™ื ืืœื” ื”ื ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ื™ื.
06:09
They are coupled to light receptors
141
369260
2000
ื”ื ืฆืžื•ื“ื™ื ืœืงื•ืœื˜ื ื™ ืื•ืจ
06:11
similar to the ones in your eyes.
142
371260
3000
ื”ื“ื•ืžื™ื ืœืืœื” ืฉื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื ื•.
06:14
Whenever a flash of light hits the receptor,
143
374260
2000
ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉื”ื‘ื–ืง ืื•ืจ ืคื•ื’ืข ื‘ืงื•ืœื˜ืŸ,
06:16
the pore opens, an electrical current is switched on,
144
376260
3000
ื”ื—ืจื™ืจ ื ืคืชื— ื•ืžื•ืคื™ืข ื–ืจื ื—ืฉืžืœื™,
06:19
and the neuron fires electrical impulses.
145
379260
3000
ื•ื”ื ื™ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื•ืช ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื™ื.
06:22
Because the light-activated pore is encoded in DNA,
146
382260
3000
ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื—ืจื™ืจ ืฉืžื•ืคืขืœ ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืื•ืจ ืžืงื•ื“ื“ ื‘-DNA,
06:25
we can achieve incredible precision.
147
385260
3000
ืื ื• ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื“ื™ื•ืง ืžื“ื”ื™ื.
06:28
This is because,
148
388260
2000
ื–ื” ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืืฃ ืขืœ-ืคื™
06:30
although each cell in our bodies
149
390260
2000
ืฉื›ืœ ืชื ื‘ื’ื•ืคื ื•
06:32
contains the same set of genes,
150
392260
2000
ืžื›ื™ืœ ืืช ืื•ืชื• ืžืขืจืš ืฉืœ ื’ื ื™ื,
06:34
different mixes of genes get turned on and off
151
394260
2000
ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ื ื™ื ื ื“ืœืงื•ืช ื•ื ื›ื‘ื•ืช
06:36
in different cells.
152
396260
2000
ื‘ืชืื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื.
06:38
You can exploit this to make sure
153
398260
2000
ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื ืฆืœ ื–ืืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื—
06:40
that only some neurons
154
400260
2000
ืฉืจืง ื›ืžื” ื ื™ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื
06:42
contain our light-activated pore and others don't.
155
402260
3000
ืžื›ื™ืœื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ืจื™ืจ ืžื•ืคืขืœ ื”ืื•ืจ ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉืื—ืจื™ื ืœื.
06:45
So in this cartoon, the bluish white cell
156
405260
2000
ื‘ืื ื™ืžืฆื™ื” ื–ื•, ื”ืชื ื‘ืฆื‘ืข ืชื›ืœืช
06:47
in the upper-left corner
157
407260
2000
ื‘ืคื™ื ื” ื”ืฉืžืืœื™ืช ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื”
06:49
does not respond to light
158
409260
2000
ืœื ืžื’ื™ื‘ ืœืื•ืจ
06:51
because it lacks the light-activated pore.
159
411260
3000
ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื ื—ืกืจ ืืช ื”ื—ืจื™ืจ ืžื•ืคืขืœ ื”ืื•ืจ.
06:54
The approach works so well
160
414260
2000
ื’ื™ืฉื” ื–ื• ื”ื™ื ื›ื” ื™ืขื™ืœื”
06:56
that we can write purely artificial messages
161
416260
2000
ืฉืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ื”ื•ื“ืขื•ืช ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ื•ืช ืœื’ืžืจื™
06:58
directly to the brain.
162
418260
2000
ื™ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืืœ ื”ืžื•ื—.
07:00
In this example, each electrical impulse,
163
420260
2000
ื‘ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื–ื•, ื›ืœ ืื•ืช ื—ืฉืžืœื™,
07:02
each deflection on the trace,
164
422260
3000
ื›ืœ ืกื˜ื™ื” ืžื”ืžืกืœื•ืœ,
07:05
is caused by a brief pulse of light.
165
425260
3000
ื ื’ืจืžื™ื ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ืคื•ืœืก ืงื˜ืŸ ืฉืœ ืื•ืจ.
07:08
And the approach, of course, also works
166
428260
2000
ื•ื”ื’ื™ืฉื” ื’ื ืขื•ื‘ื“ืช
07:10
in moving, behaving animals.
167
430260
3000
ืขื ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื•ื”ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื•ืช.
07:13
This is the first ever such experiment,
168
433260
2000
ื–ื”ื• ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืžืกื•ื’ื•,
07:15
sort of the optical equivalent of Galvani's.
169
435260
3000
ืžื™ืŸ ืชืื•ื ืื•ืคื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื’ืœื•ื•ืื ื™.
07:18
It was done six or seven years ago
170
438260
2000
ื”ื•ื ื‘ื•ืฆืข ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืฉ ืื• ืฉื‘ืข ืฉื ื™ื
07:20
by my then graduate student, Susana Lima.
171
440260
3000
ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ืชืœืžื™ื“ื” ืœืชื•ืืจ ืฉื ื™ ื“ืื–, ืกื•ื–ืื ื” ืœื™ืžื”.
07:23
Susana had engineered the fruit fly on the left
172
443260
3000
ืกื•ื–ืื ื” ืฉื™ื ืชื” ืืช ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ื”ืคื™ืจื•ืช ืžืฉืžืืœ
07:26
so that just two out of the 200,000 cells in its brain
173
446260
4000
ื›ืš ืฉืจืง ืฉื ื™ื™ื ืž-200,000 ืชืื™ ื”ืžื•ื— ืฉืœื•
07:30
expressed the light-activated pore.
174
450260
3000
ื”ื›ื™ืœื• ืืช ื”ื—ืจื™ืจ ืžื•ืคืขืœ ื”ืื•ืจ.
07:33
You're familiar with these cells
175
453260
2000
ืืชื ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืœืœื•
07:35
because they are the ones that frustrate you
176
455260
2000
ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื ืืœื” ืฉืžืชืกื›ืœื™ื ืื•ืชื ื•
07:37
when you try to swat the fly.
177
457260
2000
ื›ืืฉืจ ืื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื”ืฆืœื™ืฃ ื‘ื–ื‘ื•ื‘.
07:39
They trained the escape reflex that makes the fly jump into the air
178
459260
3000
ื”ื ืื™ืœืคื• ืืช ืจืคืœืงืก ื”ื‘ืจื™ื—ื” ืืฉืจ ื’ื•ืจื ืœื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ืœื”ืชืขื•ืคืฃ
07:42
and fly away whenever you move your hand in position.
179
462260
3000
ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉืืชื ืžื–ื™ื–ื™ื ืืช ื”ื™ื“ื™ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฆืœื™ืฃ ื‘ื•.
07:46
And you can see here that the flash of light has exactly the same effect.
180
466260
3000
ื•ื›ืืŸ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ืื™ืš ืœื”ื‘ื–ืง ืฉืœ ืื•ืจ ื”ืฉืคืขื” ื–ื”ื”.
07:49
The animal jumps, it spreads its wings, it vibrates them,
181
469260
3000
ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ืงื•ืคืฅ, ื”ื•ื ืคื•ืจืฉ ืืช ื›ื ืคื™ื•, ืžื ืคื ืฃ ืื•ืชื,
07:52
but it can't actually take off
182
472260
2000
ืื‘ืœ ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืชืขื•ืคืฃ,
07:54
because the fly is sandwiched between two glass plates.
183
474260
3000
ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื›ืœื•ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืชื™ ืœื•ื—ื™ื•ืช ื–ื›ื•ื›ื™ืช.
07:58
Now to make sure that this was no reaction of the fly
184
478260
2000
ื›ื“ื™ ืœื•ื•ื“ื ืฉื–ื• ืœื ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘
08:00
to a flash it could see,
185
480260
3000
ืœื”ื‘ื–ืง ืฉื”ื•ื ืจื•ืื”,
08:03
Susana did a simple
186
483260
2000
ืกื•ื–ืื ื” ืขืฉืชื” ื ื™ืกื•ื™
08:05
but brutally effective experiment.
187
485260
2000
ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืื‘ืœ ืื›ื–ืจื™ ื‘ื™ืขื™ืœื•ืชื•.
08:07
She cut the heads off of her flies.
188
487260
3000
ื”ื™ื ื—ืชื›ื” ืืช ืจืืฉื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ื.
08:11
These headless bodies can live for about a day,
189
491260
3000
ื’ื•ืคื•ืช ื—ืกืจื•ืช ื”ืจืืฉ ื”ืœืœื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ืฉืืจ ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื ืœื™ืžืžื”,
08:14
but they don't do much.
190
494260
2000
ืื‘ืœ ื”ืŸ ืœื ืขื•ืฉื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื”.
08:16
They just stand around
191
496260
3000
ื”ืŸ ืจืง ืขื•ืžื“ื•ืช
08:19
and groom excessively.
192
499260
3000
ื•ืžื˜ืคื—ื•ืช ืืช ืขืฆืžืŸ.
08:22
So it seems that the only trait that survives decapitation is vanity.
193
502260
3000
ื ืจืื” ื›ืื™ืœื• ืฉื”ืชื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืฉื ืฉืืจืช ืœืื—ืจ ืขืจื™ืคืช ืจืืฉ ื”ื™ื ื’ื ื“ืจื ื•ืช.
08:25
(Laughter)
194
505260
3000
(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
08:30
Anyway, as you'll see in a moment,
195
510260
2000
ื‘ื›ืœ ืื•ืคืŸ, ื›ืคื™ ืฉืชืจืื• ืžื™ื“,
08:32
Susana was able to turn on the flight motor
196
512260
3000
ืกื•ื–ืื ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœืช ืœื”ื“ืœื™ืง ืืช ื”ื“ื—ืฃ ืœืขื•ืฃ
08:35
of what's the equivalent of the spinal cord of these flies
197
515260
3000
ื‘ืžื” ืฉื ื—ืฉื‘ ืืฆืœ ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ื ื›ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืฉื™ื“ืจื”
08:38
and get some of the headless bodies
198
518260
2000
ื•ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื—ืœืง ืžื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ื ื—ืกืจื™ ื”ืจืืฉ
08:40
to actually take off and fly away.
199
520260
3000
ืœื”ืชืขื•ืคืฃ ืžืžืฉ ืจื—ื•ืง.
08:47
They didn't get very far, obviously.
200
527260
2000
ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืฉื”ื ืœื ื”ืชืจื—ืงื• ื”ืจื‘ื”.
08:50
Since we took these first steps,
201
530260
2000
ืžืื– ื”ืฆืขื“ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ืฉืœื ื•,
08:52
the field of optogenetics has exploded.
202
532260
3000
ื”ืชื—ื•ื ืฉืœ ืื•ืคื˜ื•-ื’ื ื˜ื™ืงื” ืคืจืฅ ื•ืขืœื”.
08:55
And there are now hundreds of labs
203
535260
2000
ื›ื™ื•ื ื™ืฉ ืžืื•ืช ืžืขื‘ื“ื•ืช
08:57
using these approaches.
204
537260
2000
ื”ืขื•ืฉื•ืช ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืืœื•.
08:59
And we've come a long way
205
539260
2000
ื•ืขืฉื™ื ื• ื“ืจืš ืืจื•ื›ื”
09:01
since Galvani's and Susana's first successes
206
541260
3000
ืžืื– ื”ื”ืฆืœื—ื•ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ืœื•ื•ืื ื™ ื•ืกื•ื–ืื ื”
09:04
in making animals twitch or jump.
207
544260
2000
ื‘ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ืœื ื•ืข ืื• ืœืงืคื•ืฅ.
09:06
We can now actually interfere with their psychology
208
546260
3000
ื”ื™ื•ื ืื ื—ื ื• ืœืžืขืฉื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชืขืจื‘ ื‘ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉืœื”ื
09:09
in rather profound ways,
209
549260
2000
ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื“ื™ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™
09:11
as I'll show you in my last example,
210
551260
2000
ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืจืื” ื‘ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื” ืฉืœื™,
09:13
which is directed at a familiar question.
211
553260
3000
ื”ืžื›ื•ื•ื ืช ืœืฉืืœื” ืžื•ื›ืจืช.
09:16
Life is a string of choices
212
556260
3000
ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื ืฉืจืฉืจืช ืฉืœ ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช
09:19
creating a constant pressure to decide what to do next.
213
559260
3000
ื”ื™ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืœื—ืฅ ืžืชืžื™ื“ ืœื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืžื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื›ืขืช.
09:23
We cope with this pressure by having brains,
214
563260
3000
ืื ื• ืžืชืžื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืขื ืœื—ืฅ ื–ื” ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืžื•ื—,
09:26
and within our brains, decision-making centers
215
566260
3000
ื•ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืžื•ื— ื™ืฉ ืžืจื›ื– ืงื‘ืœืช ื”ื—ืœื˜ื•ืช
09:29
that I've called here the "Actor."
216
569260
3000
ืฉืื•ืชื• ื›ื™ื ื™ืชื™ ื›ืืŸ ื”"ืžื‘ืฆืข".
09:33
The Actor implements a policy that takes into account
217
573260
3000
ื”"ืžื‘ืฆืข" ืžื™ื™ืฉื ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืืฉืจ ืœื•ืงื—ืช ื‘ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ
09:36
the state of the environment
218
576260
2000
ืืช ืžืฆื‘ ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”
09:38
and the context in which we operate.
219
578260
3000
ื•ืืช ื”ื”ืงืฉืจ ื‘ื• ืื ื• ืคื•ืขืœื™ื.
09:41
Our actions change the environment, or context,
220
581260
3000
ืคืขื•ืœื•ืชื™ื ื• ืžืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”, ืื• ื”ื”ืงืฉืจ,
09:44
and these changes are then fed back into the decision loop.
221
584260
3000
ื•ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืืœื” ืžื•ื–ื ื™ื ื‘ื—ื–ืจื” ืืœ ืชื•ืš ืœื•ืœืืช ื”ื”ื—ืœื˜ื•ืช.
09:48
Now to put some neurobiological meat
222
588260
3000
ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืงืฆืช ืชื•ื›ืŸ ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™
09:51
on this abstract model,
223
591260
2000
ื‘ืชื•ืš ืžื•ื“ืœ ืžื•ืคืฉื˜ ื–ื”,
09:53
we constructed a simple one-dimensional world
224
593260
2000
ื‘ื ื™ื ื• ืขื•ืœื ื—ื“-ืžื™ืžื“ื™ ืคืฉื•ื˜
09:55
for our favorite subject, fruit flies.
225
595260
3000
ืœืžืขืŸ ื”ื ื•ืฉื ื”ื—ื‘ื™ื‘ ืขืœื™ื ื•, ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ ืคื™ืจื•ืช.
09:58
Each chamber in these two vertical stacks
226
598260
2000
ื›ืœ ืชื ื‘ืชื•ืš ืฉืชื™ ื”ืžื—ื™ืฆื•ืช ื”ืื ื›ื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•
10:00
contains one fly.
227
600260
2000
ืžื›ื™ืœ ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ืื—ื“.
10:02
The left and the right halves of the chamber
228
602260
3000
ื”ื—ืฆืื™ื ื”ื™ืžื ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ืฉืžืืœื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืชื
10:05
are filled with two different odors,
229
605260
2000
ืžืœืื™ื ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืจื™ื—ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
10:07
and a security camera watches
230
607260
2000
ื•ืžืฆืœืžืช ืื‘ื˜ื—ื” ืขื•ืงื‘ืช
10:09
as the flies pace up and down between them.
231
609260
3000
ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ื ืขื•ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื.
10:12
Here's some such CCTV footage.
232
612260
2000
ื”ื ื” ื›ืืŸ ืงื˜ืข ืžืฆื™ืœื•ื ื‘ืžืขื’ืœ ืกื’ื•ืจ.
10:14
Whenever a fly reaches the midpoint of the chamber
233
614260
3000
ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ืžื’ื™ืข ืœื ืงื•ื“ืช ืืžืฆืข ืฉืœ ื”ืชื,
10:17
where the two odor streams meet,
234
617260
2000
ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืฉืฉื ื™ ื–ืจืžื™ ื”ืจื™ื—ื•ืช ื ืคื’ืฉื™ื,
10:19
it has to make a decision.
235
619260
2000
ืขืœื™ื• ืœืงื‘ืœ ื”ื—ืœื˜ื”.
10:21
It has to decide whether to turn around
236
621260
2000
ืขืœื™ื• ืœื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืื ืœืคื ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื–ืจื”
10:23
and stay in the same odor,
237
623260
2000
ื•ืœื”ื™ืฉืืจ ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืจื™ื—,
10:25
or whether to cross the midline
238
625260
2000
ืื• ืื ืœื—ืฆื•ืช ืืช ืงื• ื”ืืžืฆืข
10:27
and try something new.
239
627260
2000
ื•ืœื ืกื•ืช ืžืฉื”ื• ื—ื“ืฉ.
10:29
These decisions are clearly a reflection
240
629260
3000
ื”ื—ืœื˜ื•ืช ืืœื• ื”ืŸ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ืžื•ื‘ื”ืง
10:32
of the Actor's policy.
241
632260
3000
ืœืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”"ืžื‘ืฆืข".
10:36
Now for an intelligent being like our fly,
242
636260
3000
ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืชื‘ื•ื ื™ ื›ืžื• ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ืฉืœื ื•,
10:39
this policy is not written in stone
243
639260
3000
ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ื–ื• ืื™ื ื” ื—ืงื•ืงื” ื‘ืกืœืข,
10:42
but rather changes as the animal learns from experience.
244
642260
3000
ืืœื ื”ื™ื ืžืฉืชื ื” ื›ืฉื”ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืœื•ืžื“ ืžื”ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ.
10:45
We can incorporate such an element
245
645260
2000
ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉืœื‘ ืืœืžื ื˜ ื›ื–ื”
10:47
of adaptive intelligence into our model
246
647260
3000
ืฉืœ ืื™ื ื˜ืœื™ื’ื ืฆื™ื™ืช ื”ืกืชื’ืœื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืžื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœื ื•
10:50
by assuming that the fly's brain
247
650260
2000
ื‘ื”ื ื—ื” ืฉืžื•ื— ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘
10:52
contains not only an Actor,
248
652260
2000
ืžื›ื™ืœ ืœื ืจืง "ืžื‘ืฆืข",
10:54
but a different group of cells,
249
654260
2000
ืืœื ื’ื ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืื—ืจืช ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื,
10:56
a "Critic," that provides a running commentary
250
656260
3000
ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ื‘ืงืจื”, ื”ืžืกืคืงืช ืคืจืฉื ื•ืช ื—ื™ื”
10:59
on the Actor's choices.
251
659260
2000
ืขืœ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื”"ืžื‘ืฆืข" ืขื•ืฉื”.
11:01
You can think of this nagging inner voice
252
661260
3000
ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื–ื” ื›ืงื•ืœ ื ื•ื“ื ื™ืง ืคื ื™ืžื™,
11:04
as sort of the brain's equivalent
253
664260
2000
ื›ื”ืงื‘ืœื” ืžื•ื—ื™ืช
11:06
of the Catholic Church,
254
666260
2000
ืœื›ื ืกื™ื” ื”ืงืชื•ืœื™ืช,
11:08
if you're an Austrian like me,
255
668260
3000
ืื ืืชื” ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ ื›ืžื•ื ื™,
11:11
or the super-ego, if you're Freudian,
256
671260
3000
ืื• ืœืื ื™ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ, ืื ืืชื” ืคืจื•ื™ื“ื™ืื ื™,
11:14
or your mother, if you're Jewish.
257
674260
2000
ืื• ืœืืžื ืฉืœืš, ืื ืืชื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™.
11:16
(Laughter)
258
676260
4000
(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
11:20
Now obviously,
259
680260
2000
ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื‘ืจื•ืจ
11:22
the Critic is a key ingredient
260
682260
3000
ืฉื”ืžื‘ืงืจ ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ ื”ื•ื ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ ืงืจื™ื˜ื™
11:25
in what makes us intelligent.
261
685260
2000
ื‘ื”ืคื™ื›ืชื ื• ืœืื™ื ื˜ืœื™ื’ื ื˜ื™ื™ื.
11:27
So we set out to identify
262
687260
2000
ืœื›ืŸ ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœื–ื”ื•ืช
11:29
the cells in the fly's brain
263
689260
2000
ืืช ื”ืชืื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื— ืฉืœ ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘
11:31
that played the role of the Critic.
264
691260
2000
ืืฉืจ ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ืืช ืชืคืงื™ื“ ื”ืžื‘ืงืจ.
11:33
And the logic of our experiment was simple.
265
693260
3000
ื•ื”ื”ื™ื’ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื• ื”ื™ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜.
11:36
We thought if we could use our optical remote control
266
696260
3000
ื—ืฉื‘ื ื• ืฉืื ื™ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืฉืœื˜ ื”ืจื—ื•ืง ื”ืื•ืคื˜ื™ ืฉืœื ื•
11:39
to activate the cells of the Critic,
267
699260
3000
ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื•ืจืจ ืืช ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืžื‘ืงืจื™ื,
11:42
we should be able, artificially, to nag the Actor
268
702260
3000
ืื– ื’ื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื ื“ื ื“ ืœ"ืžื‘ืฆืข" ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™
11:45
into changing its policy.
269
705260
2000
ื•ื›ืš ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื• ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืชื•.
11:47
In other words,
270
707260
2000
ื‘ืžื™ืœื™ื ืื—ืจื•ืช,
11:49
the fly should learn from mistakes
271
709260
2000
ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ืืžื•ืจ ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืžืฉื’ื™ืื•ืช
11:51
that it thought it had made
272
711260
2000
ืฉื ื“ืžื” ืœื• ืฉื”ื•ื ืขืฉื”,
11:53
but, in reality, it had not made.
273
713260
3000
ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืขืฉื” ื”ื•ื ืœื ืขืฉื” ืื•ืชืŸ.
11:56
So we bred flies
274
716260
2000
ืื– ื’ื™ื“ืœื ื• ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ื
11:58
whose brains were more or less randomly peppered
275
718260
3000
ืฉืžื•ื—ื•ืชื™ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื–ืจื•ืขื™ื ืืงืจืื™ืช ืคื—ื•ืช ืื• ื™ื•ืชืจ
12:01
with cells that were light addressable.
276
721260
2000
ื‘ืชืื™ื ืฉืžื’ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืจ.
12:03
And then we took these flies
277
723260
2000
ืœืงื—ื ื• ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ื ืืœื”
12:05
and allowed them to make choices.
278
725260
2000
ื•ืืคืฉืจื ื• ืœื”ื ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ.
12:07
And whenever they made one of the two choices,
279
727260
2000
ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉื”ื ืขืฉื• ืื—ืช ืžืฉืชื™ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช,
12:09
chose one odor,
280
729260
2000
ื‘ื—ืจื• ืจื™ื— ืžืกื•ื™ื™ื,
12:11
in this case the blue one over the orange one,
281
731260
2000
ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื” ื›ื—ื•ืœ ืขืœ-ืคื ื™ ื”ื›ืชื•ื,
12:13
we switched on the lights.
282
733260
2000
ื”ื“ืœืงื ื• ืืช ื”ืื•ืจ.
12:15
If the Critic was among the optically activated cells,
283
735260
3000
ืื ื”ืžื‘ืงืจ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ืชืื™ื ื”ืžื•ืคืขืœื™ื ืื•ืคื˜ื™ืช,
12:18
the result of this intervention
284
738260
2000
ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ืฉืœ ื”ืชืขืจื‘ื•ืช ื–ื•
12:20
should be a change in policy.
285
740260
3000
ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช.
12:23
The fly should learn to avoid
286
743260
2000
ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืœื”ื™ืžื ืข
12:25
the optically reinforced odor.
287
745260
2000
ืžื”ืจื™ื— ื”ืžืœื•ื•ื” ื‘ืื•ืจ.
12:27
Here's what happened in two instances:
288
747260
3000
ื”ื ื” ืžื” ืฉืงืจื” ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืžืงืจื™ื.
12:30
We're comparing two strains of flies,
289
750260
3000
ืื ื• ืžืฉื•ื•ื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื™ ื–ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ื,
12:33
each of them having
290
753260
2000
ืืฆืœ ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื—
12:35
about 100 light-addressable cells in their brains,
291
755260
2000
ื›-100 ืชืื™ื ื”ืžื’ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืจ,
12:37
shown here in green on the left and on the right.
292
757260
3000
ื”ื ืจืื™ื ื›ืืŸ ื‘ืฆื‘ืข ื™ืจื•ืง ืžืฉืžืืœ ื•ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ.
12:40
What's common among these groups of cells
293
760260
3000
ื”ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ืœืฉืชื™ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื•
12:43
is that they all produce the neurotransmitter dopamine.
294
763260
3000
ืฉื”ื ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื ื“ื•ืคืืžื™ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืขื‘ื™ืจ ืขืฆื‘ื™.
12:46
But the identities of the individual
295
766260
2000
ืื‘ืœ ื”ื–ื”ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื ื™ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื
12:48
dopamine-producing neurons
296
768260
2000
ื”ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื ื“ื•ืคืืžื™ืŸ
12:50
are clearly largely different on the left and on the right.
297
770260
3000
ื”ืŸ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืฆื“ ื”ืฉืžืืœื™ ืœืขื•ืžืช ื”ื™ืžื ื™.
12:53
Optically activating
298
773260
2000
ื’ื™ืจื•ื™ ืื•ืคื˜ื™
12:55
these hundred or so cells
299
775260
2000
ืฉืœ ืžืื•ืช ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืœืœื•
12:57
into two strains of flies
300
777260
2000
ื‘ืชื•ืš ืฉื ื™ ื–ื ื™ ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ื,
12:59
has dramatically different consequences.
301
779260
2000
ื ื•ืชืŸ ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื“ืจืžื˜ื™.
13:01
If you look first at the behavior
302
781260
2000
ืื ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืชื—ื™ืœื” ืขืœ ื”ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช
13:03
of the fly on the right,
303
783260
2000
ืฉืœ ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ,
13:05
you can see that whenever it reaches the midpoint of the chamber
304
785260
3000
ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื’ื™ืข ืœื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืืžืฆืข ื‘ืชื,
13:08
where the two odors meet,
305
788260
2000
ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืฉืฉื ื™ ื”ืจื™ื—ื•ืช ืžืฆื˜ืœื‘ื™ื,
13:10
it marches straight through, as it did before.
306
790260
3000
ื”ื•ื ืžืžืฉื™ืš ื™ืฉืจ ื›ืคื™ ืฉืขืฉื” ืงื•ื“ื.
13:13
Its behavior is completely unchanged.
307
793260
2000
ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืชื• ื ืฉืืจืช ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืœืœื ืฉื™ื ื•ื™.
13:15
But the behavior of the fly on the left is very different.
308
795260
3000
ืื‘ืœ ื”ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ืžืฉืžืืœ ื”ื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ืฉื•ื ื”.
13:18
Whenever it comes up to the midpoint,
309
798260
3000
ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื’ื™ืข ืœื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืืžืฆืข,
13:21
it pauses,
310
801260
2000
ื”ื•ื ืขื•ืฆืจ,
13:23
it carefully scans the odor interface
311
803260
2000
ื”ื•ื ื‘ื•ื—ืŸ ื‘ื–ื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžืžืฉืง ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื™ ื”ืจื™ื—ื•ืช,
13:25
as if it was sniffing out its environment,
312
805260
2000
ื›ืื™ืœื• ื”ื•ื ืžืจื—ืจื— ืืช ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื•,
13:27
and then it turns around.
313
807260
2000
ื•ืื– ื”ื•ื ืžืกืชื•ื‘ื‘ ื‘ื—ื–ืจื”.
13:29
This means that the policy that the Actor implements
314
809260
3000
ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉื”"ืžื‘ืฆืข" ืžื™ื™ืฉื,
13:32
now includes an instruction to avoid the odor
315
812260
2000
ื›ื•ืœืœืช ื‘ืชื•ื›ื” ื”ื•ืจืื” ืœื”ื™ืžื ืข ืžื”ืจื™ื—
13:34
that's in the right half of the chamber.
316
814260
3000
ืฉื‘ื—ืฆื™ ื”ื™ืžื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืชื.
13:37
This means that the Critic
317
817260
2000
ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื ืฉื”"ืžื‘ืงืจ"
13:39
must have spoken in that animal,
318
819260
2000
ืืžืจ ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื• ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ื‘ื•ื‘,
13:41
and that the Critic must be contained
319
821260
2000
ื•ื”"ืžื‘ืงืจ" ื”ื™ื” ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ืœื•ืœ
13:43
among the dopamine-producing neurons on the left,
320
823260
3000
ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ื ื™ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ ื”ื“ื•ืคืืžื™ืŸ ืžืฉืžืืœ,
13:46
but not among the dopamine producing neurons on the right.
321
826260
3000
ืื‘ืœ ืœื ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ื ื™ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ ื”ื“ื•ืคืืžื™ืŸ ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ.
13:49
Through many such experiments,
322
829260
3000
ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืŸ ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื›ืืœื”,
13:52
we were able to narrow down
323
832260
2000
ื”ืฆืœื—ื ื• ืœืฆืžืฆื ืืช ื”ื–ื”ื•ื™ื•ืช
13:54
the identity of the Critic
324
834260
2000
ื”ืืคืฉืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”"ืžื‘ืงืจ"
13:56
to just 12 cells.
325
836260
2000
ืืš ื•ืจืง ืœ-12 ืชืื™ื.
13:58
These 12 cells, as shown here in green,
326
838260
3000
12 ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืœืœื•, ื”ื ืจืื™ื ื›ืืŸ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืง,
14:01
send the output to a brain structure
327
841260
2000
ืฉื•ืœื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ืื•ืช ืœืžื‘ื ื” ื‘ืžื•ื—
14:03
called the "mushroom body,"
328
843260
2000
ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ืžื‘ื ื” ืคื˜ืจื™ื”,
14:05
which is shown here in gray.
329
845260
2000
ื”ื ืจืื” ื›ืืŸ ื‘ืืคื•ืจ.
14:07
We know from our formal model
330
847260
2000
ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืžื•ื“ืœ ื”ืจืฉืžื™ ืฉืœื ื•
14:09
that the brain structure
331
849260
2000
ืฉืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ื ืžืฆื
14:11
at the receiving end of the Critic's commentary is the Actor.
332
851260
3000
ื‘ืงืฆื” ื”ืงื•ืœื˜ ืืช ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื”"ืžื‘ืงืจ" ื”ื•ื ื”"ืžื‘ืฆืข".
14:14
So this anatomy suggests
333
854260
2000
ื›ืš ืฉื ื™ืชื•ื— ื–ื” ืจื•ืžื–
14:16
that the mushroom bodies have something to do
334
856260
3000
ืฉืžื‘ื ื™ ื”ืคื˜ืจื™ื” ืงืฉื•ืจื™ื ืื™ื›ืฉื”ื•
14:19
with action choice.
335
859260
2000
ืœื‘ื—ื™ืจืช ื”ืคืขื•ืœื”.
14:21
Based on everything we know about the mushroom bodies,
336
861260
2000
ื‘ื”ืชื‘ืกืก ืขืœ ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืขืœ ืžื‘ื ื™ ื”ืคื˜ืจื™ื”,
14:23
this makes perfect sense.
337
863260
2000
ื–ื” ื ืจืื” ืžืื•ื“ ื”ื’ื™ื•ื ื™.
14:25
In fact, it makes so much sense
338
865260
2000
ื‘ืขืฆื, ื–ื” ื›ืœ-ื›ืš ื”ื’ื™ื•ื ื™,
14:27
that we can construct an electronic toy circuit
339
867260
3000
ืฉืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžืขื’ืœ ืฆืขืฆื•ืข ื—ืฉืžืœื™
14:30
that simulates the behavior of the fly.
340
870260
3000
ืืฉืจ ืžื“ืžื” ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘.
14:33
In this electronic toy circuit,
341
873260
3000
ื‘ืžืขื’ืœ ื—ืฉืžืœื™ ื–ื”,
14:36
the mushroom body neurons are symbolized
342
876260
2000
ื”ื ื™ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืคื˜ืจื™ื” ืžื™ื•ืฆื’ื™ื
14:38
by the vertical bank of blue LEDs
343
878260
3000
ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ื ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื”-LED ื”ื›ื—ื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืื ื›ื™ืช
14:41
in the center of the board.
344
881260
3000
ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ื”ืœื•ื—.
14:44
These LED's are wired to sensors
345
884260
2000
ื ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืืœื• ืžื—ื•ื‘ืจื•ืช ืœื—ื™ื™ืฉื ื™ื
14:46
that detect the presence of odorous molecules in the air.
346
886260
3000
ื”ืžืืชืจื™ื ื ื•ื›ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ืจื™ื— ื‘ืื•ื™ืจ.
14:50
Each odor activates a different combination of sensors,
347
890260
3000
ื›ืœ ืจื™ื— ืžืคืขื™ืœ ืฆื™ืจื•ืฃ ืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ืฉื ื™ื,
14:53
which in turn activates
348
893260
2000
ืืฉืจ ื‘ืชื•ืจื• ืžืคืขื™ืœ
14:55
a different odor detector in the mushroom body.
349
895260
3000
ื’ืœืื™ ืจื™ื— ืื—ืจ ื‘ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืคื˜ืจื™ื”.
14:58
So the pilot in the cockpit of the fly,
350
898260
2000
ื›ืš ืฉื”ื˜ื™ื™ืก ื‘ืงื•ืงืคื™ื˜ ืฉืœ ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘,
15:00
the Actor,
351
900260
2000
ื”"ืžื‘ืฆืข",
15:02
can tell which odor is present
352
902260
2000
ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื“ืขืช ืื™ื–ื” ืจื™ื— ืงื™ื™ื
15:04
simply by looking at which of the blue LEDs lights up.
353
904260
4000
ืจืง ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืกืชื›ืœื•ืช ื•ื‘ื“ื™ืงื” ืื™ื–ื• ื ื•ืจื™ืช ื›ื—ื•ืœื” ื ื“ืœืงืช.
15:09
What the Actor does with this information
354
909260
2000
ืžื” ืฉื”"ืžื‘ืฆืข" ืขื•ืฉื” ืขื ืžื™ื“ืข ื–ื”
15:11
depends on its policy,
355
911260
2000
ืชืœื•ื™ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื•,
15:13
which is stored in the strengths of the connection,
356
913260
2000
ื”ืฉืžื•ืจื” ื‘ืขื•ืฆืžืชื ืฉืœ ื”ืงืฉืจื™ื
15:15
between the odor detectors
357
915260
2000
ื‘ื™ืŸ ื’ืœืื™ ื”ืจื™ื—
15:17
and the motors
358
917260
2000
ืœืžื ื•ืขื™ื ืืฉืจ ืžืคืขื™ืœื™ื
15:19
that power the fly's evasive actions.
359
919260
2000
ืืช ืคืขื•ืœืช ื”ื”ื™ืžื ืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘.
15:22
If the connection is weak, the motors will stay off
360
922260
2000
ืื ื”ืงืฉืจ ื—ืœืฉ, ื”ืžื ื•ืข ื™ื™ืฉืืจ ื“ื•ืžื
15:24
and the fly will continue straight on its course.
361
924260
3000
ื•ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ื™ืžืฉื™ืš ื™ืฉืจ ื‘ืžืกืœื•ืœื•.
15:27
If the connection is strong, the motors will turn on
362
927260
3000
ืื ื”ืงืฉืจ ื—ื–ืง, ื”ืžื ื•ืข ื™ื™ื“ืœืง
15:30
and the fly will initiate a turn.
363
930260
3000
ื•ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ื™ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœืคื ื•ืช.
15:33
Now consider a situation
364
933260
2000
ื›ืขืช ืชื—ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ืžืฆื‘
15:35
in which the motors stay off,
365
935260
2000
ื‘ื• ื”ืžื ื•ืข ื ืฉืืจ ื“ื•ืžื,
15:37
the fly continues on its path
366
937260
3000
ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ืžืžืฉื™ืš ื‘ืžืกืœื•ืœื•
15:40
and it suffers some painful consequence
367
940260
2000
ื•ื”ื•ื ืกื•ื‘ืœ ืžืชื•ืฆืื” ื›ื•ืื‘ืช
15:42
such as getting zapped.
368
942260
2000
ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืชืงืฃ.
15:44
In a situation like this,
369
944260
2000
ื‘ืžืฆื‘ ื›ื–ื”,
15:46
we would expect the Critic to speak up
370
946260
2000
ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืฆืคื™ื ืฉื”"ืžื‘ืงืจ" ื™ืฉืžื™ืข ืืช ืงื•ืœื•
15:48
and to tell the Actor
371
948260
2000
ื•ื™ื’ื™ื“ ืœ"ืžื‘ืฆืข"
15:50
to change its policy.
372
950260
2000
ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืชื•.
15:52
We have created such a situation, artificially,
373
952260
3000
ื™ืฆืจื ื• ืžืฆื‘ ื–ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™
15:55
by turning on the critic with a flash of light.
374
955260
3000
ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”"ืžื‘ืงืจ" ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ื‘ื–ืง ืื•ืจ.
15:58
That caused a strengthening of the connections
375
958260
3000
ื–ื” ื’ืจื ืœื—ื™ื–ื•ืง ื”ืงืฉืจื™ื
16:01
between the currently active odor detector
376
961260
3000
ื‘ื™ืŸ ื’ืœืื™-ื”ืจื™ื— ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ ื”ืคืขื™ืœ
16:04
and the motors.
377
964260
2000
ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื ื•ืขื™ื.
16:06
So the next time
378
966260
2000
ื›ืš ืฉื‘ืคืขื ื”ื‘ืื”
16:08
the fly finds itself facing the same odor again,
379
968260
3000
ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื–ื‘ื•ื‘ ื™ืžืฆื ืืช ืขืฆืžื• ืขื ืื•ืชื• ืจื™ื— ืฉื•ื‘,
16:11
the connection is strong enough to turn on the motors
380
971260
3000
ื”ืงืฉืจ ื”ื•ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ื—ื–ืง ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืžื ื•ืขื™ื
16:14
and to trigger an evasive maneuver.
381
974260
3000
ื•ื™ืขื•ืจืจ ืืช ืชืžืจื•ืŸ ื”ื”ืชื—ืžืงื•ืช.
16:19
I don't know about you,
382
979260
3000
ืื™ื ื™ ื™ื•ื“ืข ืžื” ืื™ืชื›ื,
16:22
but I find it exhilarating to see
383
982260
3000
ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ืžื•ืฆื ื–ืืช ื›ืžืจื•ืžื ื ืคืฉ ืœืจืื•ืช
16:25
how vague psychological notions
384
985260
3000
ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ืžืขื•ืจืคืœื™ื
16:28
evaporate and give rise
385
988260
2000
ืžืชืื“ื™ื ื•ื ืขืœืžื™ื ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื ืฆื•ืžื—ืช
16:30
to a physical, mechanistic understanding of the mind,
386
990260
3000
ื”ื‘ื ื” ืคื™ื–ื™ืช ื•ืžื›ื ื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช,
16:33
even if it's the mind of the fly.
387
993260
3000
ืืฃ ืขืœ-ืคื™ ืฉืืœื• ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื–ื‘ื•ื‘.
16:36
This is one piece of good news.
388
996260
3000
ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื‘ืฉื•ืจื” ืื—ืช ืžืขื•ื“ื“ืช.
16:39
The other piece of good news,
389
999260
2000
ื”ื‘ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื” ื”ืžืขื•ื“ื“ืช,
16:41
for a scientist at least,
390
1001260
2000
ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืœืคื—ื•ืช,
16:43
is that much remains to be discovered.
391
1003260
3000
ื”ื™ื ืฉืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื ืฉืืจ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื” ืœื’ืœื•ืช.
16:46
In the experiments I told you about,
392
1006260
2000
ื‘ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืกื™ืคืจืชื™ ืœื›ื ืขืœื™ื”ื,
16:48
we have lifted the identity of the Critic,
393
1008260
3000
ื”ืขืœื ื• ืืช ื–ื”ื•ืช ื”"ืžื‘ืงืจ",
16:51
but we still have no idea
394
1011260
2000
ืื‘ืœ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ืžื•ืฉื’
16:53
how the Critic does its job.
395
1013260
2000
ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”"ืžื‘ืงืจ" ืžื‘ืฆืข ืืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื•.
16:55
Come to think of it, knowing when you're wrong
396
1015260
2000
ื‘ืขืฆื, ืœื“ืขืช ืžืชื™ ืื ื—ื ื• ื˜ื•ืขื™ื,
16:57
without a teacher, or your mother, telling you,
397
1017260
3000
ืœืœื ืžื•ืจื” ืื• ืืžื ืฉื™ื’ื™ื“ื• ืœื ื•,
17:00
is a very hard problem.
398
1020260
2000
ื”ื™ื ื‘ืขื™ื” ืงืฉื” ืžืื•ื“.
17:02
There are some ideas in computer science
399
1022260
2000
ื™ืฉื ื ื›ืžื” ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืžื“ืขื™ ืžื—ืฉื‘
17:04
and in artificial intelligence
400
1024260
2000
ื•ื‘ืื™ื ื˜ืœื™ื’ื ืฆื™ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช
17:06
as to how this might be done,
401
1026260
2000
ื‘ืงืฉืจ ืœื›ื™ืฆื“ ื–ื” ืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ืชืจื—ืฉ,
17:08
but we still haven't solved
402
1028260
2000
ืื‘ืœ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ืคืชืจื ื•
17:10
a single example
403
1030260
2000
ืืคื™ืœื• ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืื—ืช
17:12
of how intelligent behavior
404
1032260
3000
ืฉืœ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืชื‘ื•ื ื™ืช
17:15
springs from the physical interactions
405
1035260
2000
ืฆืฆื” ืžืื™ื ื˜ืจืืงืฆื™ื•ืช ืคื™ื–ื™ื•ืช
17:17
in living matter.
406
1037260
2000
ื‘ื—ื•ืžืจ ื—ื™.
17:19
I think we'll get there in the not too distant future.
407
1039260
3000
ืื ื™ ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื ื’ื™ืข ื’ื ืœื–ื” ื‘ืขืชื™ื“ ื”ืœื ืจื—ื•ืง ืžื“ื™.
17:22
Thank you.
408
1042260
2000
ืชื•ื“ื” ืœื›ื.
17:24
(Applause)
409
1044260
4000
(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

https://forms.gle/WvT1wiN1qDtmnspy7