Gero Miesenboeck reengineers a brain

譯者: Jonas Lau 審譯者: Adrienne Lin

I have a doppelganger.

我有一個分身

(Laughter)

(笑聲)

Dr. Gero is a brilliant

基洛(台:蓋洛/可羅)博士是一個天才

but slightly mad scientist

但也是一個有少許瘋狂的科學家

in the "Dragonball Z: Android Saga."

在《龍珠．人造人傳說》中

If you look very carefully,

如果你細心留意

you see that his skull has been replaced

你可以發現他的頭蓋骨被換掉了

with a transparent Plexiglas dome

並以一個玻璃罩蓋著

so that the workings of his brain can be observed

因此，他的腦部運作可被看見

and also controlled with light.

亦可以光學控制

That's exactly what I do --

這實在就是我所做的 --

optical mind control.

光學操控思想

(Laughter)

(笑聲)

But in contrast to my evil twin

但與我的攣生兄弟不同

who lusts after world domination,

他貪戀操控世界

my motives are not sinister.

我的動機並不邪惡

I control the brain

我控制腦部

in order to understand how it works.

是希望可以了解它的運作

Now wait a minute, you may say,

現在，你或許會說

how can you go straight to controlling the brain

你怎可以直接操控腦部的運作

without understanding it first?

而沒有先了解它的運作呢?

Isn't that putting the cart before the horse?

這不是本末倒置嗎?

Many neuroscientists agree with this view

很多腦神經科學家會同意這個懷疑

and think that understanding will come

但也相信從精細的觀察和分析中

from more detailed observation and analysis.

他們將會更了解腦部的運作

They say, "If we could record the activity of our neurons,

他們說:如果我們可以記錄腦神經的活動

we would understand the brain."

我們即可了解腦部的運作

But think for a moment what that means.

但是，請試想他們的理據

Even if we could measure

即使我們可以量度

what every cell is doing at all times,

每一個細胞、每一刻的活動

we would still have to make sense

我們也需要解釋

of the recorded activity patterns,

所記錄的神經細胞活動規律

and that's so difficult,

這是很困難的

chances are we'll understand these patterns

我們了解這些規律的機會不大

just as little as the brains that produce them.

就像我們不知道為何腦部會製造它們

Take a look at what brain activity might look like.

看一看這腦部的活動

In this simulation, each black dot

在這個模擬中，每一個黑點

is one nerve cell.

是一個神經細胞

The dot is visible

那些點是可見的

whenever a cell fires an electrical impulse.

每當一個細胞發出一個電子脈衝

There's 10,000 neurons here.

這裏有一萬個神經細胞

So you're looking at roughly one percent

你現在看到的是

of the brain of a cockroach.

蟑螂腦部的百分之一

Your brains are about 100 million times

你們的腦部有大概有一億倍

more complicated.

的複雜

Somewhere, in a pattern like this,

在這個的圖案中，有一部分

is you,

代表你

your perceptions,

你的感知

your emotions, your memories,

你的情緒，你的記億

your plans for the future.

你對將來的計劃

But we don't know where,

但是我們無法得知哪裏

since we don't know how to read the pattern.

因為我們不懂得去為這些圖案解碼

We don't understand the code used by the brain.

我們不了解大腦所用的編碼

To make progress,

要有進展

we need to break the code.

我們需要解碼

But how?

但怎樣解碼呢?

An experienced code-breaker will tell you

一個富有經驗的密碼破譯員會告訴你

that in order to figure out what the symbols in a code mean,

要解開符號的真正意義

it's essential to be able to play with them,

我們必須能夠使用它們

to rearrange them at will.

以我們的意願重新組合它們

So in this situation too,

所以，在這個情況下

to decode the information

要獲取蘊含在這個圖案

contained in patterns like this,

當中的信息

watching alone won't do.

光是觀察是不能實現的

We need to rearrange the pattern.

我們需要重新組合這些圖案

In other words,

換句話說

instead of recording the activity of neurons,

單單記錄神經細胞的活動並不可取

we need to control it.

我們需要控制這些圖案

It's not essential that we can control

我們無須控制

the activity of all neurons in the brain, just some.

腦中所有神經細胞的活動，一些就足夠

The more targeted our interventions, the better.

對神經細胞的活動干預愈多，效果愈佳

And I'll show you in a moment

我將在往後的時間為你展示

how we can achieve the necessary precision.

我們怎樣達到所需的精確度

And since I'm realistic, rather than grandiose,

因為我個人比較現實，而非華而不實

I don't claim that the ability to control the function of the nervous system

我不會宣稱能夠操控神經細胞的功能

will at once unravel all its mysteries.

會一次揭開所有關於神經細胞的奧秘

But we'll certainly learn a lot.

但是我們的確會從中學到很多

Now, I'm by no means

現在，我絕不是

the first person to realize

世上第一個發現

how powerful a tool intervention is.

干預神經細胞運作的後果多麼強大的人

The history of attempts

歷史上，嘗試

to tinker with the function of the nervous system

去改變神經系統的機能

is long and illustrious.

有長久且卓越的效果

It dates back at least 200 years,

在至少二百年前就有這樣的例子

to Galvani's famous experiments

從伽伐尼(Galvani)著名的實驗

in the late 18th century and beyond.

十八世紀開始，一直就出現

Galvani showed that a frog's legs twitched

伽伐尼證明，只要他把青蛙的腰神經

when he connected the lumbar nerve

接上電流

to a source of electrical current.

青蛙的腳會抽搐

This experiment revealed the first, and perhaps most fundamental,

這個實驗首次，並從根本顯示

nugget of the neural code:

一個神經訊號的事實:

that information is written in the form

這些訊號是以

of electrical impulses.

電子脈衝的方式編寫的

Galvani's approach

伽伐尼嘗試

of probing the nervous system with electrodes

以電極探究神經系統

has remained state-of-the-art until today,

即使以今天的科技來說，都是最先進領前的

despite a number of drawbacks.

雖然當中有相當的缺陷

Sticking wires into the brain is obviously rather crude.

將電線接到腦部上，顯然是相當殘忍的

It's hard to do in animals that run around,

這樣的設計也難實踐於走動的動物上

and there is a physical limit

當中亦有物理上的限制

to the number of wires

只有少量的電線

that can be inserted simultaneously.

能夠同時安插在腦部

So around the turn of the last century,

因此，在上世紀末

I started to think,

我開始思考

"Wouldn't it be wonderful if one could take this logic

如果這樣的邏輯能得到認同，並反過來思考

and turn it upside down?"

那就好了

So instead of inserting a wire

我們沒有把電線

into one spot of the brain,

接到腦部的某一點

re-engineer the brain itself

反而是以生物工程改造腦部

so that some of its neural elements

令某些神經系統的組件

become responsive to diffusely broadcast signals

能夠感應擴散的廣播訊號

such as a flash of light.

好像一束的閃光

Such an approach would literally, in a flash of light,

這樣的方式會確實地，很迅速地

overcome many of the obstacles to discovery.

解決很多科學發現的障礙

First, it's clearly a non-invasive,

第一，明顯地這是無創傷性的、

wireless form of communication.

無線的傳輸方法

And second, just as in a radio broadcast,

第二，就像無線電廣播

you can communicate with many receivers at once.

你可以跟很多訊號接收者同時溝通

You don't need to know where these receivers are,

但是你並不需要知道那些接收器所在的地點

and it doesn't matter if these receivers move --

再者，訊號接收者的活動也不會妨礙接收

just think of the stereo in your car.

情況就像車子中的收音機

It gets even better,

我們的情況更理想

for it turns out that we can fabricate the receivers

我們可以用 DNA 編碼的物料

out of materials that are encoded in DNA.

裝配這些接收器

So each nerve cell

以致每一個神經細胞

with the right genetic makeup

都有正確的基因構造

will spontaneously produce a receiver

它們會自然產生出一個接收器

that allows us to control its function.

讓我們能夠控制這些功能

I hope you'll appreciate

我希望你會欣賞

the beautiful simplicity

這概念的

of this concept.

美麗樸實

There's no high-tech gizmos here,

這裏沒有高科技的小玩意

just biology revealed through biology.

只有生物理論推展出的生物理論

Now let's take a look at these miraculous receivers up close.

現在，我們不妨一看這些不可思議的接收器

As we zoom in on one of these purple neurons,

我們把鏡頭拉近到一個紫色的神經細胞

we see that its outer membrane

我們可以看到它的細胞外膜

is studded with microscopic pores.

佈滿著微細的氣孔

Pores like these conduct electrical current

這些氣孔能夠讓電流通過

and are responsible

以及負責

for all the communication in the nervous system.

為神經系統傳遞信息

But these pores here are special.

但是你看到的是一些特別的氣孔

They are coupled to light receptors

他們結合光感應受體

similar to the ones in your eyes.

這些光感應受體跟你眼裏的很相似

Whenever a flash of light hits the receptor,

只要一束閃光射在這些光感應受體

the pore opens, an electrical current is switched on,

那些氣孔便會打開，電流亦會隨之而開啟

and the neuron fires electrical impulses.

那神經細胞便會發出電子脈衝

Because the light-activated pore is encoded in DNA,

因為那些光驅動氣孔是以編寫在 DNA 裏

we can achieve incredible precision.

我們可以達到無比的精確性

This is because,

這是因為

although each cell in our bodies

雖然我們身體裏的每一個細胞

contains the same set of genes,

都藏有同樣的基因

different mixes of genes get turned on and off

在不同細胞裡，不同組合的基因

in different cells.

能被開啟或關掉

You can exploit this to make sure

你可以利用這個原理去令

that only some neurons

只有部分的神經細胞

contain our light-activated pore and others don't.

藏有我們設計的光驅動氣孔，而其他沒有

So in this cartoon, the bluish white cell

在這個卡通中，藍白色的細胞

in the upper-left corner

在左上角的那些

does not respond to light

並不會對光有反應

because it lacks the light-activated pore.

因為它們缺少了光驅動氣孔

The approach works so well

這個方法運作得非常好

that we can write purely artificial messages

我們可以用光把純淨的人工訊息

directly to the brain.

直接編寫到腦部

In this example, each electrical impulse,

在這個例子中，每一個電子脈衝

each deflection on the trace,

每一個痕跡的偏差

is caused by a brief pulse of light.

都是起源於一束短暫的光脈衝

And the approach, of course, also works

同時，這個方法也

in moving, behaving animals.

適用於行走的動物身上

This is the first ever such experiment,

這是同類實驗中的第一個

sort of the optical equivalent of Galvani's.

可說是光學版本的伽伐尼實驗

It was done six or seven years ago

這是六至七年前的事

by my then graduate student, Susana Lima.

我當時的研究生蘇珊娜．利馬負責這實驗

Susana had engineered the fruit fly on the left

蘇珊娜改變左邊那果蠅的基因

so that just two out of the 200,000 cells in its brain

令二十萬神經細胞中的其中兩個

expressed the light-activated pore.

出現光驅動氣孔

You're familiar with these cells

你相當熟悉這些神經細胞

because they are the ones that frustrate you

因為它們就是那些煩擾你的神經細胞

when you try to swat the fly.

在你嘗試拍打它的時候

They trained the escape reflex that makes the fly jump into the air

它們刺激逃跑反射作用

and fly away whenever you move your hand in position.

繼而令果蠅飛上空中和飛走

And you can see here that the flash of light has exactly the same effect.

你可以看到，一陣閃光跟拍打的動作有著同樣的效果

The animal jumps, it spreads its wings, it vibrates them,

那動物跳起，伸展翅膀，震動它們

but it can't actually take off

但它們不能飛離地面

because the fly is sandwiched between two glass plates.

因為這果蠅被夾在兩片玻璃的中間

Now to make sure that this was no reaction of the fly

要保證令果蠅展翅的

to a flash it could see,

並非因為果蠅見到那道閃光

Susana did a simple

蘇珊娜做了一個簡單

but brutally effective experiment.

但直截了當的實驗

She cut the heads off of her flies.

她把果蠅的頭切掉

These headless bodies can live for about a day,

這些無頭的身體可以生存約一天

but they don't do much.

但它們並不會有太多活動

They just stand around

它們會站著

and groom excessively.

並替自己梳理

So it seems that the only trait that survives decapitation is vanity.

因此，斷頭之後，能夠保存下來好像只有虛榮心

(Laughter)

(笑聲)

Anyway, as you'll see in a moment,

無論如何，等會你將會看到

Susana was able to turn on the flight motor

蘇珊娜能夠啟動果蠅的逃走運動神經

of what's the equivalent of the spinal cord of these flies

這相等於果蠅的脊椎

and get some of the headless bodies

以及令一些無頭的身體

to actually take off and fly away.

離地及飛走

They didn't get very far, obviously.

明顯地，它們不能走多遠

Since we took these first steps,

自我們開始嘗試後

the field of optogenetics has exploded.

光遺傳學這個領域就一觸即發

And there are now hundreds of labs

現時，數以百計的實驗室

using these approaches.

正使用這個方法

And we've come a long way

這些年來，我們取得了進展

since Galvani's and Susana's first successes

從伽伐尼及蘇珊娜第一步

in making animals twitch or jump.

令動物抽搐或跳動

We can now actually interfere with their psychology

現在我們能夠

in rather profound ways,

徹底地干擾它們的心理

as I'll show you in my last example,

在我最後的例子中，我將會為你展示

which is directed at a familiar question.

一個老生常談的問題

Life is a string of choices

生命就是一連串的決擇

creating a constant pressure to decide what to do next.

常存的壓力，迫使我們下一步的行動

We cope with this pressure by having brains,

我們以頭腦去處理這些壓力

and within our brains, decision-making centers

以及在我們頭腦中的決策中心

that I've called here the "Actor."

我會形容這個決策中心為「行者」

The Actor implements a policy that takes into account

這個行者執行一個政策

the state of the environment

政策會考慮到周遭環境的因素

and the context in which we operate.

和我們生活的背景

Our actions change the environment, or context,

我們的行為改變環境，或情景

and these changes are then fed back into the decision loop.

而這些改變會反饋到我們的決策迴路

Now to put some neurobiological meat

現在我把神經生物的物質

on this abstract model,

加插到這個模型中

we constructed a simple one-dimensional world

我們建造了一個一維的空間

for our favorite subject, fruit flies.

把我們心愛的實驗對象，果蠅，放進去

Each chamber in these two vertical stacks

兩幢玻璃管中的每一個室裏

contains one fly.

都放有一隻果蠅

The left and the right halves of the chamber

左右兩邊室中

are filled with two different odors,

瀰漫著兩種不同的氣味

and a security camera watches

監視器會一直監察著

as the flies pace up and down between them.

看著果蠅來回踱步

Here's some such CCTV footage.

這裏有一些錄到的片段

Whenever a fly reaches the midpoint of the chamber

當一隻果蠅到達室的中間

where the two odor streams meet,

兩種氣味會交錯

it has to make a decision.

果蠅必須作出決定

It has to decide whether to turn around

它要決定回頭

and stay in the same odor,

留在同一種氣味中

or whether to cross the midline

又或者跨過中線

and try something new.

嘗試新事物

These decisions are clearly a reflection

這顯然是一個

of the Actor's policy.

「行者」政策的反映

Now for an intelligent being like our fly,

以我們的果蠅，這樣有智慧的生物來說

this policy is not written in stone

這個政策並非刻在石板上永遠不變的

but rather changes as the animal learns from experience.

它會根據生物的經驗而轉變

We can incorporate such an element

我們可以將這一個

of adaptive intelligence into our model

有關適應的智能元素加進我們的模型裏

by assuming that the fly's brain

我們要假設果蠅的腦裏

contains not only an Actor,

不只有「行者」

but a different group of cells,

也有不同組合的細胞

a "Critic," that provides a running commentary

包括一個「批評家」，不斷地

on the Actor's choices.

為「行者」的決定提出意見

You can think of this nagging inner voice

你可以想像成是種嘮叨的內在聲音

as sort of the brain's equivalent

就把它當成是腦裏的

of the Catholic Church,

天主教教會吧

if you're an Austrian like me,

如果你跟我一樣是奧地利人

or the super-ego, if you're Freudian,

或可以把它當成佛洛依德所說的「超我」

or your mother, if you're Jewish.

或你是猶太人，可以把它當成「母親大人」

(Laughter)

(笑聲)

Now obviously,

現在，明顯的

the Critic is a key ingredient

「批評家」在我們的智力系統中

in what makes us intelligent.

是一個重要的組成部分

So we set out to identify

所以，我們希望可以確認

the cells in the fly's brain

這些細胞在果蠅的腦部

that played the role of the Critic.

扮演著「批評家」的角色

And the logic of our experiment was simple.

我們實驗的邏輯不太花巧

We thought if we could use our optical remote control

我們的假設是: 若我們能夠無線遙控

to activate the cells of the Critic,

驅動「批評家」的細胞

we should be able, artificially, to nag the Actor

我們應該可以，人工地，不斷煩擾「行者」

into changing its policy.

使它改變它的政策

In other words,

換句話說

the fly should learn from mistakes

那這飛蠅應該能夠從錯誤中學習

that it thought it had made

它們會認為自己做錯了決定

but, in reality, it had not made.

即使它們其實沒有

So we bred flies

我們培植了一些果蠅

whose brains were more or less randomly peppered

它們的腦部被隨機地安置了

with cells that were light addressable.

一些可以光驅動的細胞

And then we took these flies

我們拿出這些果蠅

and allowed them to make choices.

給予它們決策的機會

And whenever they made one of the two choices,

每當它們作出兩選一的決定時

chose one odor,

選到一種氣味

in this case the blue one over the orange one,

在這個情況中，它選了藍色而非橙色的那種

we switched on the lights.

我們就亮燈

If the Critic was among the optically activated cells,

如果「批評家」在光驅動細胞中

the result of this intervention

這種干擾的結果是

should be a change in policy.

果蠅會改變它的政策

The fly should learn to avoid

這果蠅會學習避免

the optically reinforced odor.

那種受光學加強的氣味

Here's what happened in two instances:

這裏有兩個不同情況

We're comparing two strains of flies,

我們比較兩個品種的果蠅

each of them having

它們的腦部分別擁有

about 100 light-addressable cells in their brains,

大概一百個可光驅動的細胞

shown here in green on the left and on the right.

在這裏以綠色來顯示

What's common among these groups of cells

兩組細胞的相同之處

is that they all produce the neurotransmitter dopamine.

在於它們都會製造神經遞質多巴胺

But the identities of the individual

但是製造多巴胺細胞

dopamine-producing neurons

的分佈

are clearly largely different on the left and on the right.

在左右兩邊的腦部中，顯然在不同的位置

Optically activating

光學驅動的

these hundred or so cells

大概一百多個細胞

into two strains of flies

在兩個不同品種的果蠅裏

has dramatically different consequences.

發揮著戲劇性的不同效果

If you look first at the behavior

如果你先看它們的行為

of the fly on the right,

右邊的果蠅

you can see that whenever it reaches the midpoint of the chamber

你可以看到，當它到達室的中心點

where the two odors meet,

兩種氣味的交匯處

it marches straight through, as it did before.

它會一直走過去，就像從前一樣

Its behavior is completely unchanged.

它的行為完全沒有受光學驅動的細胞影響

But the behavior of the fly on the left is very different.

但是另一邊廂的果蠅，情況就大不同了

Whenever it comes up to the midpoint,

每當它來到中心點

it pauses,

它會停下

it carefully scans the odor interface

謹慎地審視氣味的接合點

as if it was sniffing out its environment,

就好像要打探周遭的環境

and then it turns around.

然後它會回頭

This means that the policy that the Actor implements

這證明「行者」實施的那種政策

now includes an instruction to avoid the odor

包括躲開另一端的氣味

that's in the right half of the chamber.

該種氣味是從右邊室散發過來的

This means that the Critic

這說明「批評家」

must have spoken in that animal,

對果蠅說: 不要跨過去

and that the Critic must be contained

這說明在左邊的果蠅中，「批評家」

among the dopamine-producing neurons on the left,

藏身在那些能夠製造多巴胺的細胞裏

but not among the dopamine producing neurons on the right.

但不存在於(能製造多巴胺的細胞)右邊的果蠅中

Through many such experiments,

透過很多這樣的實驗

we were able to narrow down

我們能夠縮窄

the identity of the Critic

「批評家」的位置及身分

to just 12 cells.

到只有十二個細胞

These 12 cells, as shown here in green,

這十二個細胞，綠色部分

send the output to a brain structure

它們對一個腦結構發出訊號

called the "mushroom body,"

它叫做「蘑菇體」

which is shown here in gray.

在這裏我以灰色呈現出來

We know from our formal model

我們從模型中知道

that the brain structure

那個在「批評家」末端

at the receiving end of the Critic's commentary is the Actor.

接收著批評的腦結構，就是「行者」

So this anatomy suggests

這個結構提出

that the mushroom bodies have something to do

蘑菇體對於「行者」的決策

with action choice.

起著一定的作用

Based on everything we know about the mushroom bodies,

對於我們對蘑菇體的了解

this makes perfect sense.

這是完全能夠想像的

In fact, it makes so much sense

事實上，這非常合理

that we can construct an electronic toy circuit

令我們能夠建構一個電子玩具線路

that simulates the behavior of the fly.

用以模擬果蠅的行為

In this electronic toy circuit,

這個電子玩具線路中

the mushroom body neurons are symbolized

蘑菇體的細胞以

by the vertical bank of blue LEDs

排成直線的藍色LED(發光二極體)來表示

in the center of the board.

於線路的正中心

These LED's are wired to sensors

這些LED有接上感應器

that detect the presence of odorous molecules in the air.

用以探測空氣中的氣味分子

Each odor activates a different combination of sensors,

不同的氣味都會驅動不同組合的感應器

which in turn activates

再驅動

a different odor detector in the mushroom body.

蘑菇體中不同的氣味檢測器

So the pilot in the cockpit of the fly,

所以在果蠅駕駛室中的飛行員

the Actor,

「行者」

can tell which odor is present

可以知道哪一種氣味存在

simply by looking at which of the blue LEDs lights up.

只要看看哪顆藍色LED燈亮起來就行了

What the Actor does with this information

「行者」得到這個訊息後

depends on its policy,

視乎它的政策

which is stored in the strengths of the connection,

這些政策都以關聯的強度來儲存

between the odor detectors

於氣味檢測器

and the motors

與運動神經之間

that power the fly's evasive actions.

這驅動了果蠅的逃亡行為

If the connection is weak, the motors will stay off

如果關聯性弱，運動神經會保持關上

and the fly will continue straight on its course.

那果蠅會繼續往那氣味進發

If the connection is strong, the motors will turn on

如果關聯性強，運動神經會啟動

and the fly will initiate a turn.

那果蠅會轉身

Now consider a situation

現在有一個情況

in which the motors stay off,

就是當運動神經保持關上

the fly continues on its path

那果蠅繼續前行

and it suffers some painful consequence

接著，它遭受一些痛苦的後果

such as getting zapped.

例如遭電擊

In a situation like this,

在這樣的情況下

we would expect the Critic to speak up

我們可以預期「批評家」會發聲

and to tell the Actor

並告訴「行者」

to change its policy.

要改變它的政策

We have created such a situation, artificially,

我們人工地製造這樣的一個情境

by turning on the critic with a flash of light.

以一束光啟動「批評家」

That caused a strengthening of the connections

這樣就可以加強

between the currently active odor detector

正在起作用的氣味檢測細胞

and the motors.

與運動神經之間的關聯

So the next time

所以，下一次

the fly finds itself facing the same odor again,

當果蠅再面對同樣的氣味時

the connection is strong enough to turn on the motors

關聯性將會有足夠的強度去啟動運動神經

and to trigger an evasive maneuver.

以及引發一個迴避策略

I don't know about you,

不知道各位覺得如何

but I find it exhilarating to see

但我覺得這樣的實驗很令人興奮

how vague psychological notions

虛無的心理學概念

evaporate and give rise

揮發並引出

to a physical, mechanistic understanding of the mind,

一個對思維方式在物理學上、機能上的理解

even if it's the mind of the fly.

雖然這只是發生在果蠅的腦部

This is one piece of good news.

這是一個好消息

The other piece of good news,

另一個好消息

for a scientist at least,

至少是對於一個科學家來說

is that much remains to be discovered.

就是世界上還有很多尚待發掘的東西

In the experiments I told you about,

在我告訴你的實驗裏

we have lifted the identity of the Critic,

我們發掘出「批評家」的真正身分

but we still have no idea

但是我們還不知道

how the Critic does its job.

「批評家」怎樣完成它的工作

Come to think of it, knowing when you're wrong

試想，在沒有老師或母親告訴你的情況下

without a teacher, or your mother, telling you,

要知道你自己犯錯

is a very hard problem.

是一件不容易的事

There are some ideas in computer science

電腦科學以及

and in artificial intelligence

人工智能的領域上有一些想法

as to how this might be done,

就是要想出這件事怎樣可以發生

but we still haven't solved

但是我們還沒有解決

a single example

任何這樣的一個難題

of how intelligent behavior

為甚麼在生物中

springs from the physical interactions

智慧會在物理層面的

in living matter.

互動中形成

I think we'll get there in the not too distant future.

我想，在不久的將來我們會找到答案

Thank you.

謝謝

(Applause)

(掌聲)