Paul Ewald: Can we domesticate germs?

25,482 views ใƒป 2008-05-12

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Yubal Masalker ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:18
What I'd like to do is just drag us all down into the gutter,
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ืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ื” ืœื’ืจื•ืจ ืื•ืชื ื• ืœืžื˜ื” ืœื‘ื™ื‘ื™ื,
00:21
and actually all the way down into the sewer
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ื•ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžืžืฉ ืขื“ ืœืชื—ืชื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื™ื•ื‘
00:23
because I want to talk about diarrhea.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื™ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืฉืœืฉื•ืœื™ื.
00:25
And in particular, I want to talk about
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ื•ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื™ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ
00:29
the design of diarrhea.
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ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืœืฉื•ืœ.
00:31
And when evolutionary biologists talk about design,
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ื•ื›ืืฉืจ ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื”
00:33
they really mean design by natural selection.
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ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ืžื‘ื ื”, ื”ื ืžืชื›ื•ื•ื ื™ื ืœืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื ื•ืฆืจ ื‘ื“ืจืš ืฉืœ ื‘ืจื™ืจื” ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช.
00:37
And that brings me to the title of the talk,
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ื•ื–ื” ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืื•ืชื™ ืœื›ื•ืชืจืช ื”ื”ืจืฆืื”,
00:39
"Using Evolution to Design Disease Organisms Intelligently."
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"ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืฆื‘ ื‘ืชื‘ื•ื ื” ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื—ืœื”".
00:43
And I also have a little bit of a sort of smartass subtitle to this.
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื™ ืœื–ื” ื’ื ื›ื•ืชืจืช-ืžืฉื ื” ืžืชื—ื›ืžืช ื›ื–ื•.
00:47
But I'm not just doing this to be cute.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ืœื ืขื•ืฉื” ื–ืืช ืจืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื—ืŸ.
00:49
I really think that this subtitle explains
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ืื ื™ ื‘ืืžืช ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื›ื•ืชืจืช-ืžืฉื ื” ื–ื• ืžืกื‘ื™ืจื”
00:52
what somebody like me, who's sort of a Darwin wannabe,
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ืžื” ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื›ืžื•ื ื™, ืื—ื“ ืฉืฉื•ืืฃ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืŸ ื“ืืจื•ื•ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™,
00:55
how they actually look at one's role in
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ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ื•ื ืจื•ืื” ืืช ืชืคืงื™ื“ื•
00:58
sort of coming into this field of health sciences and medicine.
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ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืžื“ืขื™ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื•ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช.
01:02
It's really not a very friendly field for evolutionary biologists.
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ื–ื” ืชื—ื•ื ืœื ื›ืœ-ื›ืš ื™ื“ื™ื“ื•ืชื™ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื.
01:05
You actually see a great potential,
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ืจื•ืื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช,
01:07
but you see a lot of people who are sort of defending their turf,
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ืื‘ืœ ื’ื ืจื•ืื™ื ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืžื’ื™ื ื™ื ืขืœ ื—ืœืงืช ืื“ืžืชื,
01:10
and may actually be very resistant, when one tries
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ื•ื”ื ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ื ื—ืจื™ืคื™ื ืœืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื”ืžื ืกื”
01:14
to introduce ideas.
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ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื™ื.
01:16
So, all of the talk today is going to deal with two general questions.
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ื›ืš ืฉื›ืœ ื”ื”ืจืฆืื” ื”ื–ืืช ื”ื•ืœื›ืช ืœื”ืชืขืกืง ืขื ืฉืชื™ ืฉืืœื•ืช ื›ืœืœื™ื•ืช.
01:21
One is that, why are some disease organisms more harmful?
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ื”ืื—ืช ื”ื™ื, ืžื“ื•ืข ื—ืœืง ืžืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื™ืงื™ื,
01:24
And a very closely related question, which is,
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ื•ืฉืืœื” ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืœื–ื• ื”ื™ื,
01:26
how can we take control of this situation once we understand
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ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ืขืœ ืžืฆื‘ ื–ื” ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื ื“ืข ืืช ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”
01:30
the answer to the first question?
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ืœืฉืืœื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”?
01:31
How can we make the harmful organisms more mild?
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ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืžื–ื™ืงื™ื ืœื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื“ื™ื ื™ื?
01:34
And I'm going to be talking, to begin with, as I said,
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ื•ื‘ืชื•ืจ ื”ืชื—ืœื”, ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืžืจืชื™, ืื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ
01:36
about diarrheal disease organisms.
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ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื—ืœืช ื”ืฉืœืฉื•ืœ.
01:38
And the focus when I'm talking about the diarrheal organisms,
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ื•ื”ื”ืชืžืงื“ื•ืช ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืื ื™ ืžื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ ื”ืฉืœืฉื•ืœ,
01:41
as well as the focus when I'm talking about any organisms
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ื›ืžื• ื’ื ื”ื”ืชืžืงื“ื•ืช ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืื ื™ ืžื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื›ืœืฉื”ื•
01:44
that cause acute infectious disease,
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ื”ื’ื•ืจื ืœืžื—ืœื” ืžื“ื‘ืงืช ื—ืžื•ืจื”,
01:46
is to think about the problem from a germ's point of view,
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ืชื”ื™ื” ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ืžื ืงื•ื“ืช ืžื‘ื˜ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืง.
01:49
germ's-eye view.
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ืžื‘ื˜ ื“ืจืš ืขื™ื ื™ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืง.
01:51
And in particular, to think about a fundamental idea
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ื•ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ืื—ื“
01:55
which I think makes sense out of a tremendous amount of variation
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ืืฉืจ ืœื“ืขืชื™ ืขื•ืฉื” ืกื“ืจ ื‘ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืขืฆื•ื
01:58
in the harmfulness of disease organisms.
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ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื’ืจื™ืžืช ื ื–ืง ืฉืœ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืช.
02:01
And that idea is that from the germ's-eye point of view,
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ื•ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืฉืžื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืžื‘ื˜ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืง, ื”ื, ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ ื”ืžื—ืœื”,
02:05
disease organisms have to get from one host to another,
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ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžืคื•ื ื“ืงืื™ ืื—ื“ ืœืฉื ื™,
02:08
and often they have to rely on the well-being of the host
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ื•ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ืขืœื™ื”ื ืœืกืžื•ืš ืขืœ ืฉืœื•ืžื• ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ื”ืคื•ื ื“ืงืื™
02:12
to move them to another host.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืื•ืชื ืœืคื•ื ื“ืงืื™ ืื—ืจ.
02:14
But not always.
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื ืชืžื™ื“.
02:16
Sometimes, you get disease organisms
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ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื ืชืงืœื™ื ื‘ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ ืžื—ืœื”
02:18
that don't rely on host mobility at all for transmission.
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ืืฉืจ ืื™ื ื ืชืœื•ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื ื™ื™ื“ื•ืช ื”ืคื•ื ื“ืงืื™ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ืขื‘ืจื”.
02:20
And when you have that, then evolutionary theory tells us
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ื•ื›ืืฉืจ ื™ืฉ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื›ื–ื”, ื”ืชืื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืžืกืคืจืช ืœื ื•
02:23
that natural selection will favor the more exploitative,
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ืฉื”ื‘ืจื™ืจื” ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช ืชืขื“ื™ืฃ ืืช ื”ื™ื•ืชืจ ื ืฆืœืŸ,
02:27
more predator-like organisms.
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ื–ื” ื”ื™ื•ืชืจ ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื-ื˜ื•ืจืฃ.
02:29
So, natural selection will favor organisms
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ืื– ื”ื‘ืจื™ืจื” ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช ืชืขื“ื™ืฃ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื
02:31
that are more likely to cause damage.
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ืฉื™ืฉ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ืฉื™ื’ืจืžื• ืœื ื–ืง.
02:33
If instead transmission to another host requires host mobility,
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ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ื”, ืื ื”ื”ืขื‘ืจื” ืœืคื•ื ื“ืงืื™ ืื—ืจ ื“ื•ืจืฉืช ืคื•ื ื“ืงืื™ ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื ื•ืข,
02:37
then we expect that the winners of the competition
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ืื– ืื ื• ืžืฆืคื™ื ืฉืžื ืฆื—ื™ ื”ืชื—ืจื•ืช ื™ื”ื™ื•
02:40
will be the milder organisms.
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ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืขื“ื™ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ.
02:42
So, if the pathogen doesn't need the host to be healthy and active,
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ื›ืš ืฉืื ื’ื•ืจื ื”ืžื—ืœื” ืื™ื ื• ื–ืงื•ืง ืฉื”ืคื•ื ื“ืงืื™ ื™ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืจื™ื ื•ื ื™ื™ื™ื“,
02:45
and actual selection favors pathogens
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ื”ื‘ืจื™ืจื” ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช ืžืขื“ื™ืคื” ื’ื•ืจืžื™-ืžื—ืœื”
02:48
that take advantage of those hosts,
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ื”ืžื ืฆืœื™ื ืืช ื”ืคื•ื ื“ืงืื™ื.
02:50
the winners in the competition are those that exploit the hosts
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ื”ืžื ืฆื—ื™ื ื‘ืชื—ืจื•ืช ื”ื ืืœื” ื”ืžื ืฆืœื™ื ืืช ื”ืคื•ื ื“ืงืื™ื
02:52
for their own reproductive success.
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ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ืฆืœื—ืช ื”ืจื‘ื™ื™ื” ื”ืคืจื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
02:54
But if the host needs to be mobile in order to transmit the pathogen,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื”ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืฉื”ืคื•ื ื“ืงืื™ ื™ื”ื™ื” ื ื™ื™ื“ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื’ื•ืจื-ื”ืžื—ืœื”,
02:59
then it's the benign ones that tend to be the winners.
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ืื– ื”ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื“ื™ื ื™ื ื ื•ื˜ื™ื ืœื ืฆื—.
03:01
So, I'm going to begin by applying this idea to diarrheal diseases.
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ืื ื›ืš ืืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ื™ื™ืฉื•ื ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื” ืขืœ ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืฉืœืฉื•ืœ.
03:05
Diarrheal disease organisms get transmitted in basically three ways.
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ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ ืžื—ืœืช ืฉืœืฉื•ืœ ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืฉืœื•ืฉ ื“ืจื›ื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื•ืช.
03:08
They can be transmitted from person-to-person contact,
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ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื’ืข ืื“ื-ืื“ื,
03:11
person-to-food-then-to-person contact,
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ืžื’ืข ืื“ื-ืžื–ื•ืŸ-ืื“ื
03:13
when somebody eats contaminated food,
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ื›ืืฉืจ ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืื•ื›ืœ ืžื–ื•ืŸ ื ื’ื•ืข.
03:15
or they can be transmitted through the water.
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ืื• ืฉื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ื“ืจืš ืžื™ื.
03:17
And when they're transmitted through the water,
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ื•ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื™ื,
03:19
unlike the first two modes of transmission,
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ืฉืœื ื›ืžื• ื‘ืฉืชื™ ื”ื“ืจื›ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ืช,
03:21
these pathogens don't rely on a healthy host for transmission.
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ื’ื•ืจืžื™ ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ืื™ื ื ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœืคื•ื ื“ืงืื™ ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ.
03:25
A person can be sick in bed and still infect tens, even hundreds
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ืื“ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื—ื•ืœื” ื‘ืžื™ื˜ื” ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื”ื“ื‘ื™ืง ืขืฉืจื•ืช,
03:27
of other individuals.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ืžืื•ืช ืื ืฉื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
03:29
To sort of illustrate that, this diagram emphasizes that
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ื‘ืžื™ืŸ ื”ืžื—ืฉื” ื›ื–ื•, ืชืจืฉื™ื ื–ื” ืžื“ื’ื™ืฉ
03:32
if you've got a sick person in bed,
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ืฉืื ื™ืฉ ืื“ื ื—ื•ืœื” ื‘ืžื™ื˜ื”,
03:34
somebody's going to be taking out the contaminated materials.
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ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื”ื•ืœืš ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื ื’ื•ืขื™ื.
03:37
They're going to wash those contaminated materials,
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ื”ื ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื ืœืฉื˜ื•ืฃ ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื ื’ื•ืขื™ื ืืœื•,
03:38
and then the water may move into sources of drinking water.
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ื•ืื– ื”ืžื™ื ืขืœื•ืœื™ื ืœื–ืจื•ื ืœืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื™-ืฉืชื™ื”.
03:42
People will come in to those places where you've got
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ืื ืฉื™ื ื™ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืื•ืชื ื”ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืฉื
03:45
contaminated drinking water,
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ืžื™-ืฉืชื™ื” ื ื’ื•ืขื™ื,
03:46
bring things back to the family,
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ื™ื‘ื™ืื• ืื•ืชื ืœืžืฉืคื—ื•ืชื™ื”ื,
03:47
may drink right at that point.
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ืื• ืฉื™ืฉืชื• ืื•ืชื ื‘ืžืงื•ื.
03:48
The whole point is that a person who can't move
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ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืื“ื ืฉืื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื ื•ืข,
03:51
can still infect many other individuals.
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ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื“ื‘ื™ืง ืื—ืจื™ื.
03:53
And so, the theory tells us that
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ื•ืื– ื”ืชืื•ืจื™ื” ืื•ืžืจืช ืœื ื•
03:56
when diarrheal disease organisms are transported by water,
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ืฉื›ืืฉืจ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื—ืœืช ื”ืฉืœืฉื•ืœื™ื ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื™ื,
04:01
we expect them to be more predator-like, more harmful.
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ื™ืฉ ืœืฆืคื•ืช ืฉื”ื ื™ื”ื™ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื™ืงื™ื.
04:03
And you can test these ideas.
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ื•ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื‘ื“ื•ืง ืชืื•ืจื™ื” ื–ื•.
04:05
So, one way you can test is just look at all diarrheal bacteria,
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ืื—ืช ื”ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืœื‘ื“ื•ืง ื”ื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืœืฆืคื•ืช ื‘ื”ื,
04:07
and see whether or not the ones that tend to be
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ื•ืœืจืื•ืช ืื ืืœื” ื”ื ื•ื˜ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื
04:09
more transmitted by water, tend to be more harmful.
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ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื™ื, ื ื•ื˜ื™ื ื’ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื™ืงื™ื.
04:11
And the answer is -- yep, they are.
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ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื -- ื›ืŸ, ื”ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื™ืงื™ื.
04:13
Now I put those names in there just for the bacteria buffs,
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ืื ื™ ืฉืžืชื™ ืฉืžื•ืช ืจืง ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืืœื” ื”ืžืชืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื,
04:16
but the main point here is that --
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื --
04:19
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
04:20
there's a lot of them here, I can tell --
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ื™ืฉ ื›ืืŸ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื” ืœืกืคืจ --
04:21
the main point here is that those data points
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ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืื•ืชืŸ ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ื•ืช ื ืชื•ื ื™ื
04:25
all show a very strong, positive association between
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ืžืจืื•ืช ื›ื•ืœืŸ ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืจื•ืจ ื•ื™ืฉื™ืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ
04:27
the degree to which a disease organism is transmitted by water,
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ื”ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืขื‘ืจืช ื”ืžื—ืœื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื™ื,
04:31
and how harmful they are,
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ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื™ื“ืช ื”ืกื›ื ื” ืžื”ื,
04:32
how much death they cause per untreated infection.
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ื›ืžื” ืžื™ืชื•ืช ื”ื ื’ืจืžื• ืœื›ืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืงื” ืฉืœื ื˜ื•ืคืœื”.
04:35
So this suggests we're on the right track.
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ืœื›ืŸ ื–ื” ืžืขื™ื“ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ื“ืจืš ื”ื ื›ื•ื ื”.
04:37
But this, to me, suggests that we really need
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื™ ื–ื” ื’ื ืื•ืžืจ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ืืžืช ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืฉืื•ืœ
04:42
to ask some additional questions.
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ืฉืืœื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช.
04:43
Remember the second question that I raised at the outset was,
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ื–ื™ื›ืจื• ืฉื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื” ืฉื”ืขืœืชื™ ื‘ืคืชื™ื—ื” ื”ื™ืชื”,
04:46
how can we use this knowledge
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ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื™ื“ืข ื–ื”
04:48
to make disease organisms evolve to be mild?
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ ื”ืžื—ืœื” ืœื”ืชืคืชื— ืœืฆื•ืจื” ืขื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ?
04:51
Now, this suggests that if you could just block waterborne transmission,
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ื–ื” ืื•ืœื™ ืื•ืžืจ ืฉืื ืจืง ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื—ื•ืกืžื™ื
04:53
you could cause disease organisms to shift from
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ื”ืขื‘ืจื” ื“ืจืš ืžื™ื, ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืœืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ ื”ืžื—ืœื”
04:56
the right-hand side of that graph to the left-hand side of the graph.
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ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื”ืฆื“ ื”ื™ืžื ื™ ื‘ื’ืจืฃ ืœืฆื“ ื”ืฉืžืืœื™.
04:59
But it doesn't tell you how long.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืœื ืื•ืžืจ ืœื ื• ื‘ืžืฉืš ื›ืžื” ื–ืžืŸ.
05:01
I mean, if this would require thousands of years,
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ืื ื–ื” ื™ื“ืจื•ืฉ ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื ืื– ื–ื” ืœื ืฉื•ื•ื”
05:03
then it's worthless in terms of controlling of these pathogens.
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ื‘ืžื•ื ื—ื™ื ืฉืœ ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืขืœ ื’ื•ืจืžื™-ืžื—ืœื” ืืœื•.
05:05
But if it could occur in just a few years,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืงื•ืจื” ืชื•ืš ืฉื ื™ื ืžืขื˜ื•ืช
05:07
then it might be a very important way to control
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ืื– ื–ื• ืขืฉื•ื™ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื“ืจืš ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืœืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืขืœ ื›ืžื” ืžื”ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช
05:11
some of the nasty problems that we haven't been able to control.
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ื”ืžื˜ืจื™ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ื›ื™ื•ื ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืขืœื™ื”ืŸ.
05:14
In other words, this suggests that we could
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ื‘ืžื™ืœื™ื ืื—ืจื•ืช, ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ
05:16
domesticate these organisms.
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ืœืืœืฃ ืืช ื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ืœืœื•.
05:18
We could make them evolve to be not so harmful to us.
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ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื”ื ืœื”ืชืคืชื— ื›ืš ืฉืœื ื™ื”ื™ื• ื›ื” ืžื–ื™ืงื™ื ืœื ื•.
05:21
And so, as I was thinking about this, I focused on this organism,
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ื•ื›ืš, ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืจื”ืจืชื™ ืขืœ ื–ื” ื”ืชืžืงื“ืชื™ ื‘ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื–ื”,
05:24
which is the El Tor biotype of the organism called Vibrio cholerae.
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ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื–ืŸ ืžืกื•ื’ ืืœ-ื˜ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ืคืกื™ืงื•ืŸ ื›ื•ืœื™ืจื” (ื•ื™ื‘ืจื™ื• ื›ื•ืœืจื™).
05:28
And that is the species of organism that is responsible
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ืืฉืจ ืื—ืจืื™
05:32
for causing cholera.
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ืœื’ืจื™ืžืช ื›ื•ืœื™ืจื”.
05:34
And the reason I thought this is a really great organism to look at
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ื•ื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืฉื—ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืฉื–ื”ื• ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ืžื•ืฆืœื—
05:36
is that we understand why it's so harmful.
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ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืžืžื ื• ื”ื™ื ืฉืื ื• ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืžื“ื•ืข ื”ื•ื ื›ื” ืžื–ื™ืง.
05:39
It's harmful because it produces a toxin,
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ื”ื•ื ืžื–ื™ืง ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื™ื™ืฆืจ ืจืขืœืŸ,
05:42
and that toxin is released when the organism
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ื•ื”ืจืขืœืŸ ื”ื–ื” ืžืฉืชื—ืจืจ ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื
05:44
gets into our intestinal tract.
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ืžื’ื™ืข ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืžืขื™ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•.
05:45
It causes fluid to flow from the cells that line our intestine
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ื”ื•ื ื’ื•ืจื ืœื ื•ื–ืœ ืœื–ืจื•ื ืžื”ืชืื™ื ื”ื ืžืฆืื™ื ืœืื•ืจืš ื”ืžืขื™ื™ื
05:49
into the lumen, the internal chamber of our intestine,
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ืœืชื•ืš ื”ื—ืœืœ, ื”ืชื ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืขื™ื™ื,
05:52
and then that fluid goes the only way it can, which is out the other end.
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ื•ืื– ื”ื ื•ื–ืœ ื–ื•ืจื ื‘ื“ืจืš ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ื”ืืคืฉืจื™ืช, ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ื—ื•ืฆื” ืžื”ืงืฆื” ื”ืฉื ื™.
05:55
And it flushes out thousands of different other competitors
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ื•ื–ื” ืฉื•ื˜ืฃ ื”ื—ื•ืฆื” ืืœืคื™ ืžืชื—ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื
05:58
that would otherwise make life difficult for the Vibrios.
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ืืฉืจ ื”ื™ื• ืžืงืฉื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืœืคืกื™ืงื•ื ื™ื.
06:01
So what happens, if you've got an organism,
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ืื– ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื” ื›ืืฉืจ ื—ื•ื“ืจ ืืœื™ื ื• ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื,
06:03
it produces a lot of toxin.
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ื”ื•ื ืžื™ื™ืฆืจ ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืจืขืœืŸ.
06:04
After a few days of infection you end up having --
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ืžืกืคืจ ื™ืžื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื”ื™ื“ื‘ืงื•ืช -- ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืฆื•ืืชื™ ืื™ื ื•
06:07
the fecal material really isn't so disgusting as we might imagine.
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ื›ื” ืžื’ืขื™ืœ ื›ืคื™ ืฉืื•ืœื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘.
06:09
It's sort of cloudy water.
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ื–ื” ืžืŸ ืžื™ื ืขื›ื•ืจื™ื.
06:11
And if you took a drop of that water,
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ื•ืื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื ื•ื˜ืœื™ื ื˜ื™ืคื” ืื—ืช ืžืื•ืชื• ื ื•ื–ืœ
06:13
you might find a million diarrheal organisms.
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ื‘ื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ืฉืœืฉื•ืœ.
06:16
If the organism produced a lot of toxin,
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ืื ื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื™ื•ืฆืจ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืจืขืœืŸ,
06:18
you might find 10 million, or 100 million.
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืžืฆื•ื 10 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ, ืื• 100 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ.
06:20
If it didn't produce a lot of this toxin,
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ืื ื”ื•ื ืœื ื™ื•ืฆืจ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืจืขืœืŸ ื›ื–ื”
06:22
then you might find a smaller number.
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ืื– ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืžืฆื•ื ืžืกืคืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืงื˜ืŸ.
06:24
So the task is to try to figure out
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ืœื›ืŸ ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื” ื”ื™ื ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœืžืฆื•ื ื“ืจืš
06:28
how to determine whether or not you could get an organism like this
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื“ืขืช ืื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื›ื–ื” ืฉื™ืชืคืชื— ืœืฆื•ืจื”
06:32
to evolve towards mildness by blocking waterborne transmission,
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ืขื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ืžื ื™ืขืช ื”ืขื‘ืจื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื™ื
06:35
thereby allowing the organism only to be transmitted
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ื•ื›ืš ืœืืคืฉืจ ืืช ื”ืขื‘ืจืชื• ืจืง
06:37
by person-to-person contact,
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ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื’ืข ืื“ื-ืื“ื,
06:40
or person-food-person contact --
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ืื• ืžื’ืข ืื“ื-ืžื–ื•ืŸ-ืื“ื.
06:41
both of which would really require that people be
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ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื”ืžืงืจื™ื ื™ืฉ ืฆื•ืจืš ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ื™ื”ื™ื•
06:43
mobile and fairly healthy for transmission.
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ื ื™ื™ื“ื™ื ื•ื‘ืจื™ืื™ื ืœืžื“ื™ื™ ืœืงื™ื•ื ื”ื”ืขื‘ืจื”.
06:45
Now, I can think of some possible experiments.
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ืื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื›ืžื” ื ื™ืกื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืืคืฉืจื™ื™ื.
06:48
One would be to take a lot of different strains of this organism --
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ื‘ืื—ื“ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื™ื˜ื•ืœ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื–ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื–ื” --
06:51
some that produce a lot of toxins, some that produce a little --
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ื—ืœืงื ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื›ืžื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ืจืขืœื ื™ื, ื—ืœืงื ืžืขื˜ --
06:53
and take those strains and spew them out in different countries.
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ืœืงื—ืช ืืช ื”ื–ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื•ืœืคื–ืจ ืื•ืชื ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช. ื‘ื—ืœืงืŸ ื›ืืœื” ืฉืขืฉื•ื™ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช
06:58
Some countries that might have clean water supplies,
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ื‘ืฉื˜ื—ืŸ ืืกืคืงื” ืฉืœ ืžื™ื ื ืงื™ื™ื, ื›ืš ืฉืœื ืชื”ื™ื” ืืฆืœืŸ ื”ืขื‘ืจื”
07:01
so that you can't get waterborne transmission:
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ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื™ื.
07:02
you expect the organism to evolve to mildness there.
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืฆืคื•ืช ืฉื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื™ืชืคืชื— ืฉื ืœืฆื•ืจื” ืขื“ื™ื ื”.
07:05
Other countries, in which you've got a lot of waterborne transmission,
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ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ื‘ื”ืŸ ื™ืฉ ื”ืขื‘ืจื” ืจื‘ื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื™ื,
07:08
there you expect these organisms to evolve
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ืฉื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืฆืคื•ืช ืฉืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื
07:10
towards a high level of harmfulness, right?
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ื”ืœืœื• ื™ืชืคืชื—ื• ืœื“ืจื’ื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ืฉืœ ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื”ื–ื™ืง.
07:14
There's a little ethical problem in this experiment.
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ื™ืฉ ื‘ืขื™ื” ืืชื™ืช ืงื˜ื ื” ื‘ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ื›ื–ื”.
07:16
I was hoping to hear a few gasps at least.
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ืงื™ื•ื™ืชื™ ืœืฉืžื•ืข ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื›ืžื” ืื ื—ื•ืช.
07:19
That makes me worry a little bit.
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ื–ื” ืžืขื•ืจืจ ืืฆืœื™ ืงืฆืช ื“ืื’ื”.
07:21
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
07:22
But anyhow, the laughter makes me feel a little bit better.
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืื•ืคืŸ, ื”ืฆื—ื•ืง ื’ื•ืจื ืœื™ ืœื”ืจื’ื™ืฉ ืงืฆืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื˜ื•ื‘.
07:25
And this ethical problem's a big problem.
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ื•ื‘ืขื™ื” ืืชื™ืช ื–ื• ื”ื™ื ื‘ืขื™ื” ืจืฆื™ื ื™ืช.
07:28
Just to emphasize this, this is what we're really talking about.
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ืื“ื’ื™ืฉ ืฉื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ืขืœ ืžื” ืฉืื ื• ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœื™ื•.
07:31
Here's a girl who's almost dead.
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ื”ื ื” ื™ืœื“ื” ืฉื›ืžืขื˜ ืžืชื”.
07:33
She got rehydration therapy, she perked up,
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ื”ื™ื ืงื™ื‘ืœื” ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ื–ืจืงืช ืžื™ื ื•ื”ื™ื ื”ืชืื•ืฉืฉื”,
07:35
within a few days she was looking like a completely different person.
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ืชื•ืš ื›ืžื” ื™ืžื™ื ื”ื™ื ื ืจืืชื” ืื“ื ืฉื•ื ื” ืœื’ืžืจื™.
07:38
So, we don't want to run an experiment like that.
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ืœื›ืŸ ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืœื‘ืฆืข ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ืฉื›ื–ื”.
07:40
But interestingly, just that thing happened in 1991.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื“ื‘ืจ ื›ื–ื” ืงืจื” ื‘-1991.
07:44
In 1991, this cholera organism got into Lima, Peru,
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ื‘-1991, ื—ื™ื™ื“ืง ื›ื•ืœื™ืจื” ื–ื” ื—ื“ืจ ืœืœื™ืžื”, ืคืจื•,
07:48
and within two months it had spread to the neighboring areas.
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ื•ื‘ืชื•ืš ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื™ื ื”ื•ื ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ ืœืื–ื•ืจื™ื ืกืžื•ื›ื™ื.
07:51
Now, I don't know how that happened,
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ืื™ื ื™ ื™ื•ื“ืข ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื–ื” ืงืจื”,
07:54
and I didn't have anything to do with it, I promise you.
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ื•ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื™ ื™ื“ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ, ืื ื™ ื ืฉื‘ืข ืœื›ื.
07:58
I don't think anybody knows,
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ืื™ื ื™ ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื™ื•ื“ืข,
08:00
but I'm not averse to, once that's happened,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื–ื” ื›ื‘ืจ ืงืจื”, ืื ื™ ืœื ืžืชื ื’ื“
08:03
to see whether or not the prediction that we would make,
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ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืื ื”ื”ืฉืขืจื” ืฉืœื ื•,
08:05
that I did make before, actually holds up.
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ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ืกื‘ืจืชื™ ืื•ืชื” ืงื•ื“ื, ื”ื™ื ื ื›ื•ื ื”.
08:08
Did the organism evolve to mildness in a place like Chile,
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ื”ืื ื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื”ืชืคืชื— ืœืฆื•ืจื” ืขื“ื™ื ื” ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื›ืžื• ืฆ'ื™ืœื™,
08:11
which has some of the most well protected water supplies
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื” ื›ืžื” ืžืžืื’ืจื™ ืžื™ื ื”ืžื•ื’ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
08:14
in Latin America?
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ื‘ื“ืจื•ื-ืืžืจื™ืงื”?
08:15
And did it evolve to be more harmful in a place like Ecuador,
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ื•ื”ืื ื”ื•ื ื”ืชืคืชื— ืœืžืฉื”ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื™ืง ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื›ืžื• ืืงื•ื•ื“ื•ืจ,
08:19
which has some of the least well protected?
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื” ืžื”ืžืื’ืจื™ื ื”ื”ื›ื™ ืคื—ื•ืช ืžื•ื’ื ื™ื?
08:21
And Peru's got something sort of in between.
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ื•ื‘ืคืจื• ื™ืฉ ืžืฉื”ื• ื‘ืืžืฆืข.
08:23
And so, with funding from the Bosack-Kruger Foundation,
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ื•ื›ืš, ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ืžืงืจืŸ ื‘ื•ื–ืืง-ืงืจื•ื’ืจ,
08:27
I got a lot of strains from these different countries
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ื”ืฉื’ืชื™ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื–ื ื™ื ืžืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•
08:30
and we measured their toxin production in the lab.
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ื•ืžื“ื“ื ื• ืืช ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ืจืขืœืŸ ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ื”.
08:33
And we found that in Chile -- within two months of the invasion of Peru
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ื•ืžืฆืื ื• ืฉื‘ืฆ'ื™ืœื™ -- ื‘ืชื•ืš ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื™ื ืžื”ื—ื“ื™ืจื” ืœืคืจื•
08:37
you had strains entering Chile --
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ื”ื™ื• ื–ื ื™ื ืฉื—ื“ืจื• ืœืฆ'ื™ืœื™.
08:39
and when you look at those strains,
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ื•ื›ืืฉืจ ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื–ื ื™ื ื”ื”ื,
08:41
in the very far left-hand side of this graph,
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ื‘ืงืฆื” ื”ืฉืžืืœื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื’ืจืฃ ื”ื–ื”,
08:43
you see a lot of variation in the toxin production.
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ืจื•ืื™ื ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ืจืขืœืŸ.
08:46
Each dot corresponds to an islet from a different person --
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ื›ืœ ื ืงื•ื“ื” ืžืฆื™ื™ื ืช ืจื™ืงืžื” ืžืื“ื ืื—ืจ.
08:49
a lot of variation on which natural selection can act.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืขืœื™ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื—ื•ืœ ื‘ืจื™ืจื”-ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช.
08:51
But the interesting point is, if you look over the 1990s,
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื ืฉืื ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืฉื ื•ืช ื”-90,
08:54
within a few years the organisms evolved to be more mild.
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ืจื•ืื™ื ืฉื‘ืชื•ืš ืฉื ื™ื ืžืขื˜ื•ืช ื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ืœืฆื•ืจื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื“ื™ื ื”.
08:58
They evolved to produce less toxin.
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ื”ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืคื—ื•ืช ืจืขืœื ื™ื.
09:00
And to just give you a sense of how important this might be,
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ื•ืจืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืžื•ืฉื’ ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ื–ื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘,
09:02
if we look in 1995, we find that there's only one case of cholera,
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ืื ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืขืœ 1995, ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืจืง ืžืงืจื” ืื—ื“ ื‘ืžืžื•ืฆืข ืฉืœ ื›ื•ืœื™ืจื” ืืฉืจ ืžื“ื•ื•ื—
09:07
on average, reported from Chile every two years.
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ืžืฆ'ื™ืœื™ ื›ืœ ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื.
09:09
So, it's controlled.
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ื›ืš ืฉื–ื” ืชื—ืช ืฉืœื™ื˜ื”.
09:11
That's how much we have in America,
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ื–ื• ื”ืจืžื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื’ื ื‘ืืจื”"ื‘,
09:13
cholera that's acquired endemically,
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ื”ื“ื‘ืงื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ื•ืœื™ืจื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื‘ื“ื™ื“ื” ื•ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœืช.
09:15
and we don't think we've got a problem here.
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ื•ืื ื• ืœื ืกื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื›ืืŸ ื‘ืขื™ื”.
09:17
They didn't -- they solved the problem in Chile.
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ื”ื ืœื -- ื”ื ืคืชืจื• ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ืฆ'ื™ืœื™.
09:19
But, before we get too confident, we'd better look at some of those other countries,
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืื ื• ื˜ื•ืคื—ื™ื ืœืขืฆืžื ื• ืขืœ ื”ืฉื›ื, ืขื“ื™ืฃ ืœื‘ื“ื•ืง ืžื” ืงื•ืจื” ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช,
09:22
and make sure that this organism doesn't just always evolve toward mildness.
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ื•ืœื•ื•ื“ื ืฉืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื–ื” ืื™ื ื• ืžืชืคืชื— ืชืžื™ื“ ืœืฆื•ืจื” ื”ืขื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ.
09:25
Well, in Peru it didn't.
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืคืจื• ื”ื•ื ืœื ื”ืชืคืชื— ืœื›ื–ื”.
09:27
And in Ecuador -- remember, this is the place where it has
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ื•ื‘ืืงื•ื•ื“ื•ืจ -- ื–ื™ื›ืจื• ืฉื‘ืžืงื•ื ื”ื–ื” ื™ืฉ ืืช ื”ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœ
09:30
the highest potential waterborne transmission --
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ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื”ืขื‘ืจื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื™ื --
09:32
it looked like it got more harmful.
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ื ืจืื” ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ืคืš ืœื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื™ืง.
09:33
In every case there's a lot of variation,
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงืจื” ื™ืฉ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœ,
09:35
but something about the environment the people are living in,
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ืื‘ืœ ืžืฉื”ื• ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉื‘ื” ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื,
09:38
and I think the only realistic explanation is that it's
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ื•ืื ื™ ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื”ื”ืกื‘ืจ ื”ืืžื™ืชื™ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™
09:41
the degree of waterborne transmission,
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ื”ื•ื ืฉืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื”ื”ืขื‘ืจื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื™ื,
09:43
favored the harmful strains in one place, and mild strains in another.
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ืชืจื ืœื–ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื™ืงื™ื ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืื—ื“ ื•ืœื–ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื“ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืื—ืจ.
09:47
So, this is very encouraging,
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ื›ืš ืฉื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืขื•ื“ื“,
09:49
it suggests that something that we might want to do anyhow,
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ื›ื™ ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืฉืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงืจื”,
09:51
if we had enough money, could actually give us a much bigger bang for the buck.
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ืื ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืžืกืคื™ืง ื›ืกืฃ, ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื ื•ืชืŸ ืœื ื• ืชืžื•ืจื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœื”.
09:54
It would make these organisms evolve to mildness,
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ื–ื” ื™ื’ืจื•ื ืœืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืœื”ืชืคืชื— ืœืฆื•ืจื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื“ื™ื ื”,
09:56
so that even though people might be getting infected,
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ื›ืš ืฉื’ื ืื ืื ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื“ื‘ืงื•,
09:58
they'd be infected with mild strains.
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ื”ื ื™ื™ื“ื‘ืงื• ื‘ื–ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื“ื™ื ื™ื.
10:00
It wouldn't be causing severe disease.
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ื”ื ืœื ื™ื’ืจืžื• ืœื—ื•ืœื™ ืงืฉื”.
10:02
But there's another really interesting aspect of this,
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ื”ื™ื‘ื˜ ื‘ืืžืช ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ,
10:04
and this is that if you could control the evolution of virulence,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืฉืื ืื ื• ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ืขืœ ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื,
10:07
evolution of harmfulness,
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ืขืœ ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื’ืจื™ืžืช ื ื–ืง,
10:09
then you should be able to control antibiotic resistance.
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ืื– ื ื™ืชืŸ ืื•ืœื™ ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ืขืœ ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื”ืขืžื™ื“ื” ืžื•ืœ ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”.
10:11
And the idea is very simple.
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ื•ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ืคืฉื•ื˜.
10:12
If you've got a harmful organism,
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ืื ืงื™ื™ื ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ืžื–ื™ืง,
10:14
a high proportion of the people are going to be symptomatic,
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ืื—ื•ื– ื’ื‘ื•ื” ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ื™ืคืชื— ืชืกืžื™ื ื™ื,
10:16
a high proportion of the people are going to be going to get antibiotics.
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ืื—ื•ื– ื’ื‘ื•ื” ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ื™ืงื‘ืœ ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”.
10:18
You've got a lot of pressure favoring antibiotic resistance,
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ื ืงื‘ืœ ืกื—ืฃ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืขืžื™ื“ื•ืช ืžื•ืœ ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”,
10:21
so you get increased virulence leading to
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ื›ืš ืฉืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืœื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื ืืœื™ืžื™ื ื”ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœื™ื
10:23
the evolution of increased antibiotic resistance.
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ืœื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืขืžื™ื“ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื•ืœ ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”.
10:25
And once you get increased antibiotic resistance,
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ื•ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืœืขืžื™ื“ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื•ืœ ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”,
10:28
the antibiotics aren't knocking out the harmful strains anymore.
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ื”ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื” ื›ื‘ืจ ืื™ื ื” ืžื—ืกืœืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืช ื”ื–ื ื™ื ื”ืžื–ื™ืงื™ื.
10:30
So, you've got a higher level of virulence.
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ืœื›ืŸ ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืœืจืžืช ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื”.
10:32
So, you get this vicious cycle.
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ื›ืš ื ื›ื ืกื™ื ืœืžืขื’ืœ ืื›ื–ืจื™.
10:34
The goal is to turn this around.
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ื”ืžื˜ืจื” ื”ื™ื ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืืช ื”ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ.
10:36
If you could cause an evolutionary decrease in virulence
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ืื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื™ืจื™ื“ื” ืžื”ืคื›ื ื™ืช ื‘ืืœื™ืžื•ืชื
10:38
by cleaning up the water supply,
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ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ื ื™ืงื•ื™ ืžืื’ืจื™ ื”ืžื™ื,
10:40
you should be able to get an evolutionary decrease
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ืžื”ืคื›ื ื™ืช
10:42
in antibiotic resistance.
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ื‘ืขืžื™ื“ื•ืช ืžื•ืœ ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”.
10:44
So, we can go to the same countries and look and see.
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ืื– ื”ื‘ื” ื ื™ื’ืฉ ืœืื•ืชืŸ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื•ื ื‘ื“ื•ืง.
10:46
Did Chile avoid the problem of antibiotic resistance,
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ื”ืื ืฆ'ื™ืœื™ ื—ืžืงื” ืžื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ื”ืขืžื™ื“ื•ืช ืžื•ืœ ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”?
10:49
whereas did Ecuador actually have the beginnings of the problem?
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ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช, ื”ืื ื‘ืืงื•ื•ื“ื•ืจ ื‘ืขืฆื ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ืจืง ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื”?
10:52
If we look in the beginning of the 1990s,
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ืื ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื”ืชื—ืœื” ืฉืœ ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-90
10:54
we see, again, a lot of variation.
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ืจื•ืื™ื, ืฉื•ื‘, ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื.
10:56
In this case, on the Y-axis, we've just got a measure of antibiotic sensitivity --
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื–ื”, ืฆื™ืจ Y ืžื‘ื˜ื ืืช ืžื™ื“ืช ื”ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืœืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”.
11:00
and I won't go into that.
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ืœื ืืชืขืžืง ื‘ื–ื”.
11:02
But we've got a lot of variation in antibiotic sensitivity in Chile,
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืœืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื” ื‘ืฆ'ื™ืœื™, ืคืจื• ื•ืืงื•ื•ื“ื•ืจ,
11:05
Peru and Ecuador, and no trend across the years.
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ื•ืื™ืŸ ืžื’ืžื” ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช ืœืื•ืจืš ื”ืฉื ื™ื.
11:07
But if we look at the end of the 1990s, just half a decade later,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื ืกืชื›ืœ ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-90, ืจืง ื›ื—ืฆื™ ืขืฉื•ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื•ื—ืจ,
11:11
we see that in Ecuador they started having a resistance problem.
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ืจื•ืื™ื ืฉื‘ืืงื•ื•ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืœื”ื ื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ืขืžื™ื“ื•ืช ืžื•ืœ ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”.
11:14
Antibiotic sensitivity was going down.
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ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืœืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื” ื”ื—ืœื” ืœืจื“ืช.
11:16
And in Chile, you still had antibiotic sensitivity.
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ื•ื‘ืฆ'ื™ืœื™ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื” ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืœืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”.
11:19
So, it looks like Chile dodged two bullets.
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ื›ืš ืฉื ืจืื” ืฉืฆ'ื™ืœื™ ื—ืžืงื” ืžืฉื ื™ ื—ื™ืฆื™ื.
11:21
They got the organism to evolve to mildness,
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ื”ื ื’ืจืžื• ืœืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ืœื”ืชืคืชื— ืœืฆื•ืจื” ืขื“ื™ื ื”,
11:23
and they got no development of antibiotic resistance.
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ื•ื”ื ืœื ืกื‘ืœื• ืžืขืœื™ื” ื‘ืขืžื™ื“ื•ืช ืžื•ืœ ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”.
11:26
Now, these ideas should apply across the board,
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ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ืœื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื,
11:29
as long as you can figure out why some organisms evolved to virulence.
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ื›ืœ ืขื•ื“ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืžืฆื•ื ืžื“ื•ืข ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื–ื™ืžื™ื ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืืœื™ืžื™ื.
11:32
And I want to give you just one more example,
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ื•ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืชืช ืœื›ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืื—ืช ื ื•ืกืคืช,
11:34
because we've talked a little bit about malaria.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื“ื™ื‘ืจื ื• ืงืฆืช ืขืœ ืžืœืจื™ื”.
11:36
And the example I want to deal with is,
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ื•ื”ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืฉืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืฆื™ื’,
11:38
or the idea I want to deal with, the question is,
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ืื• ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืขืกื•ืง ื‘ื•, ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื™ื,
11:42
what can we do to try to get the malarial organism to evolve to mildness?
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ืžื” ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ืฉืœ ืžืœืจื™ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืขื“ื™ืŸ?
11:45
Now, malaria's transmitted by a mosquito,
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ืžืœืจื™ื” ืžื•ืขื‘ืจืช ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื™ืชื•ืฉ,
11:47
and normally if you're infected with malaria, and you're feeling sick,
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ื•ื‘ื“ืจืš-ื›ืœืœ ืื ื ื“ื‘ืงื™ื ื‘ืžืœืจื™ื” ื•ืžืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื ื—ื•ืœื™ื,
11:51
it makes it even easier for the mosquito to bite you.
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ื–ื” ืืคื™ืœื• ืขื•ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืงืœ ืœื™ืชื•ืฉ ืœืขืงื•ืฅ.
11:53
And you can show, just by looking at data from literature,
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ื•ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืจืง ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืกืชื›ืœื•ืช ืขืœ ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืžืกืคืจื•ืช ืžืงืฆื•ืขื™ืช,
11:56
that vector-borne diseases are more harmful
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ืฉืžื—ืœื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ืจื” ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจื™ืช ื”ืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื™ืงื•ืช
11:58
than non-vector-borne diseases.
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ืžืืฉืจ ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืฉืื™ื ืŸ ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื•ืช ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจื™ืช.
12:01
But I think there's a really fascinating example
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื™ืฉ ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื‘ืืžืช ืžืจืชืงืช
12:04
of what one can do experimentally to try to actually demonstrate this.
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ืขืœ ืžื” ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื ื™ืกื™ื•ื ื™ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ ื–ืืช.
12:08
In the case of waterborne transmission,
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขื‘ืจื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื™ื,
12:10
we'd like to clean up the water supplies,
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื ืงื•ืช ืืช ืžืื’ืจื™ ื”ืžื™ื,
12:12
see whether or not we can get those organisms to evolve towards mildness.
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ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืื•ืชื ื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืœื”ืชืคืชื— ืœืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืขื“ื™ื ื•ืช.
12:15
In the case of malaria, what we'd like to do is mosquito-proof houses.
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ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ืžืœืจื™ื”, ืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ื” ืœื”ืคื•ืš ื‘ืชื™ื ืœืžื•ื’ื ื™ื ืžืคื ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื.
12:20
And the logic's a little more subtle here.
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ื”ื”ื™ื’ื™ื•ืŸ ื›ืืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืขื•ืจืคืœ.
12:22
If you mosquito-proof houses,
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ืื ื™ืฉ ื‘ืชื™ื ืžื•ื’ื ื™ื ืžืคื ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื,
12:24
when people get sick, they're sitting in bed --
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ื›ืืฉืจ ืื ืฉื™ื ื—ื•ืœื™ื, ื”ื ื ืฉืืจื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื˜ื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช,
12:26
or in mosquito-proof hospitals, they're sitting in a hospital bed --
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ืื• ื‘ื‘ืชื™-ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืžื•ื’ื ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื,
12:28
and the mosquitoes can't get to them.
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ื•ืื– ื”ื™ืชื•ืฉ ืื™ื ื• ืžื’ื™ืข ืืœื™ื”ื.
12:30
So, if you're a harmful variant
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ื›ืš ืฉืื ืืชื” ื’ื•ืจื ืžื–ื™ืง
12:32
in a place where you've got mosquito-proof housing, then you're a loser.
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ื™ืฉ ืžื‘ื ื™ื ืžื•ื’ื ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื, ืื– ืืชื” ืžืคืกื™ื“.
12:36
The only pathogens that get transmitted
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ื’ื•ืจืžื™-ืžื—ืœื” ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ื”ื ืจืง ื›ืืœื” ืฉืžื“ื‘ื™ืงื™ื ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืžืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื
12:39
are the ones that are infecting people that feel healthy enough
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ืžืกืคื™ืง ื‘ืจื™ืื™ื ื•ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืœื›ืช ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ
12:41
to walk outside and get mosquito bites.
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ื•ืœื”ื™ืขืงืฅ ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื.
12:44
So, if you were to mosquito proof houses,
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ื›ืš ืฉืื ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ื‘ืชื™ื ืžื•ื’ื ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื, ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื
12:46
you should be able to get these organisms to evolve to mildness.
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ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืœื”ืชืคืชื— ืœืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืขื“ื™ื ื•ืช.
12:48
And there's a really wonderful experiment that was done
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ื•ื™ืฉ ื‘ืืžืช ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ื ื”ื“ืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืฆืข
12:51
that suggests that we really should go ahead and do this.
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ื”ืžืจืžื– ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืŸ ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืœื›ืช ืขืœ ื–ื”.
12:54
And that experiment was done in Northern Alabama.
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ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ื–ื” ื‘ื•ืฆืข ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ-ืืœื‘ืžื”.
12:57
Just to give you a little perspective on this,
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ืจืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืงืฆืช ืคืจืกืคืงื˜ื™ื‘ื”,
12:59
I've given you a star at the intellectual center of the United States,
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ืกื™ืžื ืชื™ ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืืช ืžืจื›ื– ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืœืงื˜ื•ืืœื™ื–ื ืฉืœ ืืจื”"ื‘,
13:03
which is right there in Louisville, Kentucky.
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ื”ื ืžืฆื ื‘ืœื•ืื™ื–ื•ื•ื™ืœ, ืงื ื˜ืงื™.
13:07
And this really cool experiment was done
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ื•ื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ื”ืžื’ื ื™ื‘ ื”ื–ื” ื ืขืจืš
13:09
about 200 miles south of there, in Northern Alabama,
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ื›-200 ืžื™ื™ืœื™ื ื“ืจื•ืžื” ืžืฉื, ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืืœื‘ืžื”,
13:12
by the Tennessee Valley Authority.
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ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืขืžืงื™ื ืฉืœ ื˜ื ืกื™.
13:13
They had dammed up the Tennessee River.
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ื”ื ืกื›ืจื• ืืช ื ื”ืจ ื”ื˜ื ืกื™.
13:16
They'd caused the water to back up,
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ื”ื ื’ืจืžื• ืœืžื™ื ืœืกื’ืช.
13:18
they needed electric, hydroelectric power.
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ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื—ืฉืžืœื™ืช, ื”ื™ื“ืจื•-ื—ืฉืžืœื™ืช.
13:21
And when you get stagnant water, you get mosquitoes.
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ื•ื›ืืฉืจ ื™ืฉ ืžื™ื ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื, ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื.
13:23
They found in the late '30s -- 10 years after they'd made these dams --
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ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-30 ื”ืžืื•ื—ืจื•ืช ื”ื ื’ื™ืœื• -- 10 ืฉื ื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื‘ื ื• ืืช ื”ืกื›ืจื™ื --
13:27
that the people in Northern Alabama were infected with malaria,
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ืฉื”ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืืœื‘ืžื” ื ื“ื‘ืงื• ื‘ืžืœืจื™ื”.
13:33
about a third to half of them were infected with malaria.
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ื›ืฉืœื™ืฉ ืขื“ ื—ืฆื™ ืžื”ื ื ื“ื‘ืงื• ื‘ืžืœืจื™ื”.
13:36
This shows you the positions of some of these dams.
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ื–ื” ืžืจืื” ืœื›ื ืืช ืžื™ืงื•ืžื ืฉืœ ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืกื›ืจื™ื.
13:39
OK, so the Tennessee Valley Authority was in a little bit of a bind.
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ืื– ืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืขืžืงื™ื ืฉืœ ื˜ื ืกื™ ื”ื™ืชื” ืขื™ื•ื•ืจืช ื‘ืžื™ื“ืช ืžื”.
13:43
There wasn't DDT, there wasn't chloroquines: what do they do?
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ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื“ื™.ื“ื™.ื˜ื™., ืœื ื›ืœื•ืจ, ืื– ืžื” ืขืฉื•?
13:47
Well, they decided to mosquito proof every house in Northern Alabama.
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ื”ื ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ื• ืœืžื’ืŸ ื›ืœ ื‘ื™ืช ืžืคื ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ืืœื‘ืžื” ืฆืคื•ื ื™ืช.
13:50
So they did. They divided Northern Alabama into 11 zones,
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ื”ื ื—ื™ืœืงื• ืืœื‘ืžื”-ืฆืคื•ื ื™ืช ืœ-11 ืื–ื•ืจื™ื,
13:53
and within three years, about 100 dollars per house,
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ื•ื‘ืชื•ืš ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืฉื ื™ื, ืชืžื•ืจืช ื›-100 ื“ื•ืœืจ ืœื‘ื™ืช,
13:55
they mosquito proofed every house.
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ื”ื ืžื™ื’ื ื• ื›ืœ ื‘ื™ืช ืžืคื ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื.
13:57
And these are the data.
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ื•ืืœื” ื”ื ื”ื ืชื•ื ื™ื.
13:59
Every row across here represents one of those 11 zones.
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ื›ืœ ืฉื•ืจื” ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ืช ื›ืืŸ ืื—ื“ ืž-11 ื”ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ื”ืœืœื•.
14:03
And the asterisks represent the time at which
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ื•ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ื•ืช ืืช ื”ื–ืžื ื™ื ื‘ื”ื
14:05
the mosquito proofing was complete.
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ื”ื•ืฉืœื ื”ืžื™ื’ื•ืŸ ืžืคื ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื.
14:07
And so what you can see is that
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ื•ื›ืš ืžื” ืฉืจื•ืื™ื ื”ื•ื
14:09
just the mosquito-proofed housing, and nothing else,
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ืฉืจืง ื”ื‘ืชื™ื ืžื•ื’ื ื™ ื”ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื ื•ืฉื•ื ื“ื‘ืจ ืื—ืจ,
14:12
caused the eradication of malaria.
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ื’ืจืžื• ืœื—ื™ืกื•ืœ ื”ืžืœืจื™ื”.
14:14
And this was, incidentally, published in 1949,
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ื•ื–ื” ืคื•ืจืกื ื›ื‘ื“ืจืš-ืื’ื‘ ื‘-1949,
14:16
in the leading textbook of malaria, called "Boyd's Malariology."
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ื‘ืกืคืจ ื”ืžืงืฆื•ืขื™ ื”ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืขืœ ืžืœืจื™ื” ื”ื ืงืจื "ืžืœืจื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื‘ื•ื™ื“".
14:19
But almost no malaria experts even know it exists.
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืžืขื˜ ืืฃ ืžื•ืžื—ื” ืœืžืœืจื™ื” ืื™ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืข ืฉื–ื” ืงื™ื™ื.
14:22
This is important,
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ื–ื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘,
14:24
because it tells us that if you have moderate biting densities,
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืฉืื ืงื™ื™ืžืช ืฆืคื™ืคื•ืช ืขืงื™ืฆื•ืช ื‘ื™ื ื•ื ื™ืช
14:26
you can eradicate malaria by mosquito proofing houses.
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ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื—ืกืœ ืžืœืจื™ื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื‘ืชื™ื ืžื•ื’ื ื™ ื™ืชื•ืฉื™ื.
14:28
Now, I would suggest that you could do this in a lot of places.
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ืื ื™ ื˜ื•ืขืŸ ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช ื‘ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช.
14:31
Like, you know, just as you get into the malaria zone,
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ื ื’ื™ื“, ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ื›ืืฉืจ ื ื›ื ืกื™ื ืœืื–ื•ืจ ื”ืžืœืจื™ื”,
14:35
sub-Saharan Africa.
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ืืคืจื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ืชืช-ืกื”ืจื”.
14:37
But as you move to really intense biting rate areas, like Nigeria,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื ืขื™ื ืœืื–ื•ืจื™ ืขืงื™ืฆื•ืช ื›ื‘ื“ื™ื, ื›ืžื• ื ื’ืจื™ื”,
14:40
you're certainly not going to eradicate.
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ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ืฉืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื—ืกืœ.
14:42
But that's when you should be favoring evolution towards mildness.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื– ื™ืฉ ืœืฉืื•ืฃ ืœืคื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืคื™ืชื•ื— ื–ื ื™ื ืขื“ื™ื ื™ื.
14:46
So to me, it's an experiment that's waiting to happen,
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ื›ืš ืฉื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื™ ื–ื” ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ืฉืžืžืชื™ืŸ ืœื‘ื™ืฆื•ืขื•,
14:49
and if it confirms the prediction, then
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ื•ืื ื”ื•ื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืชื•ืื ืœืชื—ื–ื™ืช ืื–
14:51
we should have a very powerful tool.
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ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ื›ืœื™ ืžืื•ื“ ื—ื–ืง.
14:53
In a way, much more powerful than the kind of tools we're looking at,
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ื‘ื“ืจืš ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช, ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื•ืฆืžืชื™ ืžื”ื›ืœื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื•.
14:56
because most of what's being done today is
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืจื•ื‘ ืžื” ืฉื ืขืฉื” ื”ื™ื•ื,
14:58
to rely on things like anti-malarial drugs.
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ื–ื” ืœื”ืกืชืžืš ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืžื• ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื ื’ื“ ืžืœืจื™ื”.
15:00
And we know that, although it's great to make those
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ื•ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉืืฃ ืขืœ-ืคื™ ืฉื–ื” ื ื”ื“ืจ ืœื”ืคื•ืš
15:03
anti-malarial drugs available at really low cost and high frequency,
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ืืช ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื ื’ื“ ืžืœืจื™ื” ืœื–ืžื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ืžื—ื™ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ื ืžื•ืš ื•ื‘ื”ื™ืฆืข ื’ื‘ื•ื”,
15:08
we know that when you make them highly available
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ื”ืจื™ ืื ื• ื’ื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื›ืืฉืจ ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืื•ืชืŸ ื–ืžื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช,
15:11
you're going to get resistance to those drugs.
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ืžืขื•ืจืจื™ื ื’ื ืขืžื™ื“ื•ืช ืœืื•ืชืŸ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช.
15:13
And so it's a short-term solution.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื–ื” ืคื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ืœื˜ื•ื•ื— ืงืฆืจ.
15:15
This is a long-term solution.
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ืœืขื•ืžืชื•, ื–ื”ื• ืคื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ืœื˜ื•ื•ื— ืืจื•ืš.
15:17
What I'm suggesting here is that we could get evolution
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ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืžืฆื™ืข ื›ืืŸ ื”ื•ื ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื”
15:19
working in the direction we want it to go,
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ืœืคืขื•ืœ ื‘ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื ืชืคืขืœ,
15:21
rather than always having to battle evolution as a problem
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ื™ืœื—ื ื ื’ื“ื” ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื‘ืชื•ืจ ื‘ืขื™ื”
15:24
that stymies our efforts to control the pathogen,
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ื”ืžืกื›ืœืช ืืช ืžืืžืฆื™ื ื• ืœืฉืœื•ื˜ ื‘ื’ื•ืจื-ื”ืžื—ืœื”,
15:27
for example with anti-malarial drugs.
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื, ืขื ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื ื’ื“ ืžืœืจื™ื”.
15:29
So, this table I've given just to emphasize
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ื›ืš, ื˜ื‘ืœื” ื–ื• ืฉื ืชืชื™ ื‘ืื” ืจืง ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ
15:32
that I've only talked about two examples.
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ืฉื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™ ืจืง ืขืœ ืฉืชื™ ื“ื•ื’ืžืื•ืช.
15:35
But as I said earlier, this kind of logic applies across the board
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืžืจืชื™ ืงื•ื“ื, ื”ื™ื’ื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื•ืžื” ืชืงืฃ ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื
15:38
for infectious diseases, and it ought to.
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ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืžื—ืœื•ืช ืžื“ื‘ืงื•ืช, ื•ื”ื•ื ืžื•ื›ืจื— ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ื–ื”.
15:40
Because when we're dealing with infectious diseases, we're dealing with living systems.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื›ืืฉืจ ืื ื• ืžืชืžื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืขื ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืžื“ื‘ืงื•ืช, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชืžื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืขื ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื—ื™ื•ืช.
15:44
We're dealing with living systems;
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชืžื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืขื ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื—ื™ื•ืช,
15:46
we're dealing with systems that evolve.
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ืื ื• ืžืชืžื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืขื ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืฉืžืชืคืชื—ื•ืช.
15:48
And so if you do something with those systems,
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืžื” ืฉืœื ื ืขืฉื” ืขื ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื”ืืœื”,
15:50
they're going to evolve one way or another.
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ื”ืŸ ืชืชืคืชื—ื ื” ื‘ื“ืจืš ื–ื• ืื• ืื—ืจืช.
15:52
And all I'm saying is that we need to figure out how they'll evolve,
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ื•ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ืื•ืžืจ ื”ื•ื ืฉืื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื’ืœื•ืช ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ืŸ ืชืชืคืชื—ื ื”,
15:55
so that -- we need to adjust our interventions
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ื•ืื– ื ืฆื˜ืจืš ืœื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืืช ื”ืชืขืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืชื ื•
15:57
to get the most bang for the intervention buck,
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ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื›ื–ื• ืฉื ืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ืจื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืœ ื”ืฉืงืขืชื ื•,
16:00
so that we can get these organisms to evolve in the direction we want them to go.
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ื›ืš ืฉื ื’ืจื•ื ืœืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืœื”ืชืคืชื— ื‘ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื‘ื• ืื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืฉื™ืชืคืชื—ื•.
16:03
So, I don't really have time to talk about those things,
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ืื™ืŸ ืœื™ ื–ืžืŸ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื–ื”,
16:05
but I did want to put them up there,
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ืื‘ืœ ืจืฆื™ืชื™ ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ื–ืืช ื›ืืŸ,
16:07
just to give you a sense that there really are solutions
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ืจืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœืชืช ืœื›ื ืžื•ืฉื’ ืฉื‘ืืžืช ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ืคืชืจื•ื ื•ืช
16:10
to controlling the evolution of harmfulness
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ื”ืžืืคืฉืจื™ื ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืขืœ ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื”ื–ื™ืง
16:13
of some of the nasty pathogens that we're confronted with.
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ืืฆืœ ื›ืžื” ืžื’ื•ืจืžื™-ืžื—ืœื” ื”ื”ื›ื™ ื™ื“ื•ืขื™ื ืœืฉื™ืžืฆื” ืฉื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื ื• ืื™ืชื.
16:19
And this links up with a lot of the other ideas that have been talked about.
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ื•ื–ื” ืžืชืงืฉืจ ืขื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉื ื“ื•ื ื•.
16:23
So, for example, earlier today there was discussion of,
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ื›ืš ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื, ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื•ืงื“ื ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืจืฆืื” ืขืœ
16:28
how do you really lower sexual transmission of HIV?
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ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืœืฆืžืฆื ื”ืขื‘ืจืช ืื™ื™ื“ืก ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื™ื—ืกื™-ืžื™ืŸ?
16:34
What this emphasizes is that we need to figure out how it will work.
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ืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉื” ื”ื™ื” ืฉืื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื’ืœื•ืช ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ื•ื ื™ืคืขืœ.
16:37
Will it maybe get lowered if we alter the economy of the area?
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ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื•ื ื™ืฆื•ืžืฆื ืื ื ืฉื ื” ืืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื”ืื–ื•ืจ?
16:40
It may get lowered if we intervene in ways that
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ื”ื•ื ืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ืฆื˜ืžืฆื ืื ื ืชืขืจื‘ ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื
16:42
encourage people to stay more faithful to partners, and so on.
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ื”ืžืขื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ืื ืฉื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื ืืžื ื™ื ืœื‘ื ื™-ื–ื•ื’ื ื•ื›ืš ื”ืœืื”. ืื‘ืœ ื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืžืคืชื—
16:46
But the key thing is to figure out how to lower it,
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ื”ื™ื ืœืžืฆื•ื ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืœื”ื—ืœื™ืฉ ืื•ืชื•,
16:48
because if we lower it, we'll get an evolutionary change in the virus.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืื ืžื—ืœื™ืฉื™ื ืื•ืชื•, ื ืงื‘ืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื‘ื ื’ื™ืฃ.
16:51
And the data really do support this:
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ื•ื”ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืื›ืŸ ื›ืŸ ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื‘ื–ื”:
16:53
that you actually do get the virus evolving towards mildness.
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ืฉืื›ืŸ ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ื ื’ื™ืฃ ื”ืžืชืคืชื— ืœืฆื•ืจื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื“ื™ื ื”.
16:56
And that will just add to the effectiveness of our control efforts.
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ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉืจืง ื™ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืœื™ืขื™ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžืืžืฆื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ืœืฉืœื•ื˜.
17:01
So the other thing I really like about this,
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ื›ืš ืฉื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืื—ืจ ืฉืื ื™ ื‘ืืžืช ืื•ื”ื‘ ื›ืืŸ,
17:03
besides the fact that it brings a whole new dimension
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ืžืœื‘ื“ ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉื–ื” ืžืงื ื”
17:05
into the study of control of disease,
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ืžื™ืžื“ ืฉืœื ื—ื“ืฉ ืœื—ืงืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืขืœ ืžื—ืœื•ืช,
17:09
is that often the kinds of interventions that you want,
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ื”ื•ื ืฉืกื•ื’ ื”ื”ืชืขืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื, ืื• ื›ืืœื• ืฉืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืชืŸ,
17:12
that it indicates should be done,
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ื”ืŸ ืžืกื•ื’ ื”ื”ืชืขืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ืื ืฉื™ื
17:14
are the kinds of interventions that people want anyhow.
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ื‘ืžื™ืœื ืฉื•ืืคื™ื ืืœื™ื”ืŸ.
17:16
But people just haven't been able to justify the cost.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืจืง ืœื ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื”ืฆื“ื™ืง ืืช ื”ืžื—ื™ืจ.
17:19
So, this is the kind of thing I'm talking about.
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ืื– ื–ื”ื• ืžืกื•ื’ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืื ื™ ืžื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœื™ื”ื.
17:22
If we know that we're going to get extra bang for the buck from providing clean water,
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ืื ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉืื ื• ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ืœืงื‘ืœ ื‘ื—ื–ืจื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืชืžื•ืจื” ืขืœ ื”ืฉืงืขืชื ื• ื‘ืืกืคืงืช ืžื™ื ื ืงื™ื™ื,
17:25
then I think that we can say,
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ืื– ืื ื™ ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœื•ืžืจ,
17:27
let's push the effort into that aspect of the control,
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ื”ื‘ื” ื ืจื›ื– ืืช ืžืืžืฆื™ื ื• ืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืื•ืชื• ื”ื™ื‘ื˜ ืฉืœ ืฉืœื™ื˜ื”
17:31
so that we can actually solve the problem,
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ื›ืš ืฉืœืžืขืฉื” ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื”,
17:34
even though, if you just look at the frequency of infection,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉืื ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื ืจืง ืขืœ ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื”ื“ื‘ืงื”,
17:37
you would suggest that you can't solve the problem well enough
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืฉื‘ื™ืข ืจืฆื•ืŸ
17:41
just by cleaning up water supply.
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ืจืง ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ื ื™ืงื•ื™ ืžืื’ืจื™ ืžื™ื.
17:43
Anyhow, I'll end that there, and thank you very much.
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืื•ืคืŸ, ืืกื™ื™ื ื›ืืŸ ื•ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืœื›ื.
17:45
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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