What if cracks in concrete could fix themselves? - Congrui Jin

1,453,161 views ใƒป 2018-10-16

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Allon Sasson
00:07
Concrete is the most widely used
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ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื”
00:08
construction material in the world.
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ืฉื ืžืฆื ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื”ื›ื™ ื ืจื—ื‘ ื‘ืขื•ืœื.
00:10
It can be found in swathes of city pavements,
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ื”ื•ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืžืฆื ื‘ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืžื“ืจื›ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืขืจื™ื,
00:13
bridges that span vast rivers,
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ื‘ื’ืฉืจื™ื ืฉื ืžืชื—ื™ื ืžืขืœ ื ื”ืจื•ืช ืจื—ื‘ื™ื,
00:15
and the tallest skyscrapers on earth.
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ื•ื‘ื’ื•ืจื“ื™ ื”ืฉื—ืงื™ื ื”ื›ื™ ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื ื‘ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
00:18
But this sturdy substance
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืขืžื™ื“ ื”ื–ื”
00:19
does have a weakness:
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ื™ืฉ ื—ื•ืœืฉื”:
00:21
itโ€™s prone to catastrophic cracking
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ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืขื“ ืœืกื“ื™ืงื” ืงื˜ืกื˜ืจื•ืคืœื™ืช
00:22
that costs tens of billions of dollars
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ืฉืขื•ืœื” ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ ื“ื•ืœืจื™ื
00:24
to repair each year.
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ืœืชื™ืงื•ืŸ ื›ืœ ืฉื ื”.
00:26
But what if we could avoid that problem,
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื” ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืžื ืข ืžื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื–ื•,
00:28
by creating concrete that heals itself?
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ ืฉืžืื—ื” ืืช ืขืฆืžื•?
00:31
This idea isnโ€™t as far-fetched
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ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืœื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืžื•ืคืจืš
00:32
as it may seem.
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ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ื•ื ื ืจืื”.
00:33
It boils down to an understanding
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ื”ื•ื ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืžืชืžืงื“ ื‘ื”ื‘ื ื”
00:35
of how concrete forms,
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ืฉืœ ืื™ืš ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ ื ื•ืฆืจ,
00:37
and how to exploit that process
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ื•ืื™ืš ืœื ืฆืœ ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš
00:39
to our benefit.
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ืœืชื•ืขืœืชื ื•.
00:40
Concrete is a combination of coarse stone
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ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ืื‘ืŸ ื’ืกื”
00:42
and sand particles, called aggregates,
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ื•ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ ื—ื•ืœ, ืฉื ืงืจืื™ื ืื’ืจื’ื˜,
00:45
that mix with cement, a powdered blend
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ืฉืžืขื•ืจื‘ื‘ื™ื ืขื ืžืœื˜, ืชืขืจื•ื‘ืช ืื‘ืงืชื™ืช
00:47
of clay and limestone.
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ืฉืœ ื—ื™ืžืจ ื•ื’ื™ืจ.
00:49
When water gets added to this mix,
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ื›ืฉืžื™ื ืžื•ืกืคื™ื ืœืชืขืจื•ื‘ืช,
00:51
the cement forms a paste and
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ื”ืžืœื˜ ื™ื•ืฆืจ ืžืฉื—ื”
00:52
coats the aggregates, quickly hardening
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ื•ืžืฆืคื” ืืช ื”ืื’ืจื˜, ืžืชืงืฉื” ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช
00:55
through a chemical reaction
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ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื›ื™ืžื™ืช
00:56
called hydration.
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ืฉื ืงืจืืช ื”ื™ื“ืจืฆื™ื”.
00:58
Eventually, the resulting material
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ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ืฉื ื•ืฆืจ
00:59
grows strong enough to prop up buildings
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ืžืชื—ื–ืง ืžืกืคื™ืง ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืง ื‘ื ื™ื™ื ื™ื
01:02
that climb hundreds of meters
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ืฉืžืชื ืฉืื™ื ืžืื•ืช ืžื˜ืจื™ื
01:03
into the sky.
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ืœืฉืžื™ื™ื.
01:05
While people have been using
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื•
01:06
a variety of recipes to produce cement
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ื‘ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืžืชื›ื•ื ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžืœื˜
01:08
for over 4,000 years,
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž 4000 ืฉื ื”,
01:10
concrete itself
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ืœื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ ืขืฆืžื•
01:11
has a surprisingly short lifespan.
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ื™ืฉ ืชื•ื—ืœืช ื—ื™ื™ื ืงืฆืจื” ื‘ืžืคืชื™ืข.
01:13
After 20 to 30 years,
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ืื—ืจื™ 20 ืขื“ 30 ืฉื ื”,
01:15
natural processes like concrete shrinkage,
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ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื™ื ื›ืžื• ื”ืชื›ื•ื•ืฆื•ืช ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ,
01:18
excessive freezing and thawing,
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ืงืคื™ืื” ื•ื”ืคืฉืจื” ืžื•ื’ื–ืžื™ื,
01:20
and heavy loads can trigger cracking.
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ื•ืขื•ืžืกื™ื ื›ื‘ื“ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื’ืจื•ื ืกื“ื™ืงื”.
01:23
And itโ€™s not just big breaks that count:
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ื•ืœื ืจืง ืฉื‘ืจื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืžืฉื ื™ื:
01:25
tiny cracks can be just as dangerous.
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ืกื“ืงื™ื ื–ืขื™ืจื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื›ื ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืžื™ื“ื”.
01:28
Concrete is often used
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ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคืขืžื™ื ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ
01:30
as a secondary support
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ื›ืชืžื™ื›ื” ืžืฉื ื™ืช
01:31
around steel reinforcements.
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ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื—ื™ื–ื•ืงื™ื ืžืคืœื“ื”.
01:33
In this concrete, even small cracks
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ื‘ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื”, ืืคื™ืœื• ืกื“ืงื™ื ื–ืขื™ืจื™ื
01:35
can channel water, oxygen,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืชืขืœ ืžื™ื, ื—ืžืฆืŸ,
01:37
and carbon dioxide that corrode the steel
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ื•ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืฉืžื—ืœื™ื“ื™ื ืืช ื”ืคืœื“ื”
01:40
and lead to disastrous collapse.
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ื•ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชืžื•ื˜ื˜ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืจืกื ื™ื•ืช.
01:43
On structures like bridges and highways
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ื‘ืžื‘ื ื™ื ื›ืžื• ื’ืฉืจื™ื ื•ื›ื‘ื™ืฉื™ื ืžื”ื™ืจื™ื
01:45
that are constantly in use,
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ืฉื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืงื‘ื•ืข,
01:46
detecting these problems
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ื–ื™ื”ื•ื™ ื”ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•
01:48
before they lead to catastrophe
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ืŸ ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœื•ืช ืœืงื˜ืกื˜ืจื•ืคื”
01:50
becomes a huge and costly challenge.
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ื”ื•ืคืš ืœืืชื’ืจ ืขืฆื•ื ื•ื™ืงืจ.
01:52
But not doing so
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช
01:53
would also endanger thousands of lives.
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ื™ืกื›ืŸ ื’ื ื”ื•ื ืืœืคื™ ื—ื™ื™ื.
01:56
Fortunately, weโ€™re already experimenting
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ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืžื–ืœ, ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ื‘ืจ ืžืชื ืกื™ื
01:59
with ways this material
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ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืฉื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ื–ื”
02:00
could start fixing itself.
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ื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœืชืงืŸ ืืช ืขืฆืžื•.
02:02
And some of these solutions
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ื•ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืคืชืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•
02:03
are inspired by concreteโ€™s
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ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ื”ืฉืจืื”
02:04
natural self-healing mechanism.
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ืžืžื›ื ื™ื–ื ื”ืจื™ืคื•ื™ ื”ืขืฆืžื™ ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ืฉืœ ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ.
02:06
When water enters these tiny cracks,
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ื›ืฉืžื™ื ื ื›ื ืกื™ื ืœืกื“ืงื™ื ื”ื–ืขื™ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
02:09
it hydrates the concreteโ€™s calcium oxide.
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ื”ื ืžืจื•ื•ื™ื ืืช ืชื—ืžื•ืฆื•ืช ื”ืกื™ื“ืŸ ื‘ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ.
02:12
The resulting calcium hydroxide
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ื”ืกื™ื“ืŸ ื”ื”ื™ื“ืจื•ืงืกื™ื“ื™ ืฉื ื•ืฆืจ ื›ืชื•ืฆืื”
02:13
reacts with carbon dioxide in the air,
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ืžื’ื™ื‘ ืขื ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ื‘ืื•ื™ืจ,
02:16
starting a process called
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ื•ืžืชื—ื™ืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืฉื ืงืจื
02:17
autogenous healing, where
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ืจื™ืคื•ื™ ืื•ื˜ื•ื’ื ื™,
02:19
microscopic calcium carbonate crystals
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ื‘ื• ืงืจื™ืกื˜ืœื™ื ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืกื™ื“ืŸ ืคื—ืžื ื™
02:21
form and gradually fill the gap.
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ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื•ื‘ื”ื“ืจื’ื” ืžืžืœืื™ื ืืช ื”ืคืขืจ.
02:24
Unfortunately, these crystals
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ืœืฆืขืจื ื•, ื”ืงืจื™ืกื˜ืœื™ื ื”ืืœื”
02:26
can only do so much, healing cracks
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ืขื•ื–ืจื™ื ืจืง ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช, ืžืจืคืื™ื ืืช ื”ืกื“ืงื™ื
02:28
that are less than 0.3mm wide.
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ื‘ืจื•ื—ื‘ ืฉืœ ืคื—ื•ืช ืž 0.3 ืž"ืž.
02:31
Material scientists have figured out how
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ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื”ื‘ื™ื ื• ืื™ืš
02:33
to heal cracks up to twice that size by
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ืœืจืคื ืกื“ืงื™ื ืขื“ ืขื•ื‘ื™ ื›ืคื•ืœ
02:35
adding hidden glue into the concrete mix.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื•ืกืคืช ื“ื‘ืง ืกืžื•ื™ ืœืชืขืจื•ื‘ืช ื”ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ.
02:38
If we put adhesive-filled fibers
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ืื ื ืฉื™ื ืกื™ื‘ื™ื ืžืœืื™ ื“ื‘ืง
02:40
and tubes into the mixture,
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ื•ืฆื™ื ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืชืขืจื•ื‘ืช,
02:41
theyโ€™ll snap open when a crack forms,
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ื”ื ื™ืคืชื—ื• ื›ืฉื”ืกื“ืง ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจ,
02:44
releasing their sticky contents
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ื™ืฉื—ืจืจื• ืืช ื”ืชื•ื›ืŸ ื”ื“ื‘ื™ืง ืฉืœื”ื
02:45
and sealing the gap.
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ื•ื™ืื˜ืžื• ืืช ื”ืคืขืจ.
02:47
But adhesive chemicals often behave
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ื™ืžื™ืงืœื™ื ื“ื‘ื™ืงื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคืขืžื™ื ืžืชื ื”ื’ื™ื
02:49
very differently from concrete,
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ืฉื•ื ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžื”ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ,
02:50
and over time, these adhesives
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ื•ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ื–ืžืŸ, ื”ื“ื‘ืงื™ื ื”ืืœื”
02:52
can lead to even worse cracks.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืกื“ืงื™ื ืืคื™ืœื• ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ.
02:55
So perhaps the best way to heal
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ืื– ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืจืคื
02:56
large cracks is to give concrete
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ืกื“ืงื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื”ื™ื ืœืชืช ืœื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ
02:59
the tools to help itself.
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ืืช ื”ื›ืœื™ื ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœืขืฆืžื•.
03:01
Scientists have discovered that
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ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื’ื™ืœื•
03:02
some bacteria and fungi
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ืฉื›ืžื” ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ื•ืคื˜ืจื™ื•ืช
03:03
can produce minerals,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืžื™ื ืจืœื™ื,
03:05
including the calcium carbonate
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ืกื™ื“ืŸ ืคื—ืžืชื™
03:07
found in autogenous healing.
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ืฉื ืžืฆื ื‘ืจื™ืคื•ื™ ืื•ื˜ื•ื’ื ื™.
03:09
Experimental blends of concrete
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ืชืขืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ื ืกื™ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ
03:11
include these bacterial or fungal spores
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ื›ื•ืœืœื•ืช ืืช ื”ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ืื• ื ื‘ื’ื™ ื”ืคื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•
03:13
alongside nutrients in their concrete mix,
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ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืชืขืจื•ื‘ืช ื”ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ,
03:15
where they could lie dormant
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ืฉื ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืืจ ืจื“ื•ืžื™ื
03:17
for hundreds of years.
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื.
03:18
When cracks finally appear
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ื›ืฉืกื“ืงื™ื ืžื•ืคื™ืขื™ื ื‘ืกื•ืฃ
03:20
and water trickles into the concrete,
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ื•ืžื™ื ืžื—ืœื—ืœื™ื ืœืชื•ืš ื”ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ,
03:22
the spores germinate, grow, and consume
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ื”ื ื‘ื’ื™ื ื‘ื•ืงืขื™ื, ื’ื“ืœื™ื, ื•ืฆื•ืจื›ื™ื
03:25
the nutrient soup that surrounds them,
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ืืช ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื”ืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ืฉืžืงื™ืคื™ื ืื•ืชื,
03:27
modifying their local environment
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ืžืฉื ื™ื ืืช ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ืช ืฉืœื”ื
03:29
to create the perfect conditions
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืชื ืื™ื ื”ืžื•ืฉืœืžื™ื
03:30
for calcium carbonate to grow.
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ืœืกื™ื“ืŸ ืคื—ืžืชื™ ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ.
03:33
These crystals gradually fill the gaps,
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ื”ื’ื‘ื™ืฉื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืžืžืœืื™ื ื‘ื”ื“ืจื’ื” ืืช ื”ืคืขืจื™ื,
03:35
and after roughly three weeks,
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ื•ืื—ืจื™ ื‘ืขืจืš ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช,
03:36
the hard-working microbes
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ื”ืžื™ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื
03:38
can completely repair cracks
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืชืงืŸ ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืกื“ืงื™ื
03:39
up to almost 1mm wide.
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ืขื“ ืœืจื•ื—ื‘ ืฉืœ ื›ืžืขื˜ ืžื™ืœื™ืžื˜ืจ ืื—ื“.
03:42
When the cracks seal,
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ื›ืฉื”ืกื“ืงื™ื ื ืื˜ืžื™ื,
03:43
the bacteria or fungi will make spores
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ื”ื‘ืงื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ืื• ื”ืคื˜ืจื™ื•ืช ื™ืฆืจื• ื ื‘ื’ื™ื
03:46
and go dormant once moreโ€”
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ื•ื™ืจื“ืžื• ืฉื•ื‘ --
03:47
ready to start a new cycle of self-healing
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ืžื•ื›ื ื™ื ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืžื—ื–ื•ืจ ื—ื“ืฉ ืฉืœ ืจื™ืคื•ื™ ืขืฆืžื™
03:49
when cracks form again.
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ื›ืฉื”ืกื“ืงื™ื ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจื• ืฉื•ื‘.
03:51
Although this technique
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื”ื–ื•
03:52
has been studied extensively,
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ื ื—ืงืจื” ื‘ื”ืงืฃ ื ืจื—ื‘,
03:54
we still have a ways to go
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื“ืจืš ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ
03:55
before incorporating it
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื ืฉืœื‘ ืื•ืชื”
03:56
in the global production of concrete.
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ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ ืฉืœ ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ.
03:58
But, these spores have huge potential
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ืื‘ืœ, ืœื ื‘ื’ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ืฉ ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœ ืื“ื™ืจ
04:01
to make concrete
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ืœื”ืคื•ืš ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ
04:02
more resilient and long-lastingโ€”
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ืœื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืžื™ื“ ื•ืžื—ื–ื™ืง ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ --
04:04
which could drastically reduce
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ืžื” ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืคื—ื™ืช ื“ืจืกื˜ื™ืช
04:06
the financial and environmental cost
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ืืช ื”ืขืœื•ืช ื”ื›ืกืคื™ืช ื•ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื™ืช
04:08
of concrete production.
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ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ.
04:10
Eventually, these microorganisms
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ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ื”ืžื™ืงืจื• ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ืืœื”
04:12
may force us to reconsider
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื ื• ืœืฉืงื•ืœ ืžื—ื“ืฉ
04:14
the way we think about our cities,
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ืืช ื”ื“ืจืš ื‘ื” ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืขืจื™ื ืฉืœื ื•,
04:16
bringing our inanimate concrete jungles
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ืžื‘ื™ืื™ื ืืช ื™ืขืจื•ืช ื”ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื“ื•ืžืžื™ื
04:18
to life.
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ืœื—ื™ื™ื.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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