Why is rice so popular? - Carolyn Beans

838,294 views ใƒป 2024-01-11

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: zeeva livshitz ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
00:07
If you were to place all the rice consumed each year on one side of a scale,
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ืื ื”ื™ื™ืชื ืžื ื™ื—ื™ื ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืื•ืจื– ื”ื ืฆืจืš ืžื“ื™ ืฉื ื” ื‘ืฆื“ ืื—ื“ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื–ื ื™ื™ื,
00:11
and every person in the world on the other,
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ื•ื›ืœ ืื“ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื‘ืฆื“ ื”ืฉื ื™,
00:13
the scale would tip heavily towards rice's favor.
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ื”ืกื•ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื ื•ื˜ื” ื‘ื›ื‘ื“ื•ืช ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ืื•ืจื–.
00:16
This beloved crop contributes over 20% of the calories consumed by humans each year.
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ื”ื™ื‘ื•ืœ ื”ืื”ื•ื‘ ื”ื–ื” ืชื•ืจื ืœืžืขืœื” ืž -20% ืžื”ืงืœื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ื ืฆืจื›ื•ืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ืžื“ื™ ืฉื ื”.
00:21
Korean bibimbap, Nigerian jollof, Indian biryani, Spanish paella,
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ื‘ื™ื‘ื™ืžื‘ืืค ืงื•ืจื™ืื ื™, ื’'ื•ืœื•ืฃ ื ื™ื’ืจื™, ื‘ื™ืจื™ืื ื™ ื”ื•ื“ื™, ืคืื™ื™ื” ืกืคืจื“ื™ืช
00:27
and countless other culinary masterpieces all begin with rice.
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ื•ืื™ื ืกืคื•ืจ ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืช ืžื•ืคืช ืงื•ืœื™ื ืจื™ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ืžืชื—ื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืจื–.
00:32
So how did this humble grain end up in so many cuisines?
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ืื– ืื™ืš ื”ืชื‘ื•ืื” ื”ืฆื ื•ืขื” ื”ื–ื• ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ืœื›ืœ ื›ืš ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื˜ื‘ื—ื™ื?
00:35
The roots of rice go back thousands of years to when early farmers
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ืฉื•ืจืฉื™ ื”ืื•ืจื– ื—ื•ื–ืจื™ื ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื ืื—ื•ืจื”, ื›ืืฉืจ ื—ืงืœืื™ื ืžื•ืงื“ืžื™ื
00:39
in Asia, Africa, and South America each independently domesticated the crop.
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ื‘ืืกื™ื”, ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื•ื“ืจื•ื ืืžืจื™ืงื” ื‘ื™ื™ืชื• ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืืช ื”ื™ื‘ื•ืœ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืขืฆืžืื™.
00:44
First came Asian rice,
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ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื”ื’ื™ืข ื”ืื•ืจื– ื”ืืกื™ื™ืชื™,
00:46
which many plant geneticists believe originated in what's now China.
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ืฉื’ื ื˜ื™ืงืื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ืฆืžื—ื™ื ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ืฉืžืงื•ืจื• ื‘ืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื ืกื™ืŸ.
00:50
Over 10,000 years ago, nomadic hunters in the region
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ืœืคื ื™ ืœืžืขืœื” ืž -10,000 ืฉื ื” ืฆื™ื™ื“ื™ื ื ื•ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืื–ื•ืจ
00:53
began gathering and eating seeds from a weedy grass.
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ื”ื—ืœื• ืœืืกื•ืฃ ื•ืœืื›ื•ืœ ื–ืจืขื™ื ืžืฆืžื—ื™ื ืขืฉื‘ื™ื™ื.
00:56
Then, around 9,000 years ago, they started planting these seeds,
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ื•ืื–, ืœืคื ื™ ื›-9,000 ืฉื ื”, ื”ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœืฉืชื•ืœ ื–ืจืขื™ื ืืœื”,
01:01
prompting nomadic hunters to settle into farming communities.
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ืžื” ืฉื’ืจื ืœืฆื™ื™ื“ื™ื ื ื•ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื—ืงืœืื™ื•ืช .
01:04
With each harvest, growers selected and replanted seeds
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ืขื ื›ืœ ืงืฆื™ืจ, ื”ืžื’ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ื—ืจื• ื•ืฉืชืœื• ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื–ืจืขื™ื
01:07
from the rice plants that pleased them mostโ€”
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ืžืฆืžื—ื™ ื”ืื•ืจื– ืฉื’ืจืžื• ืœื”ื ื”ื›ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื”ื ืื”-
01:10
like those with bigger and more plentiful grains or aromatic flavors.
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ื›ืžื• ืืœื” ืขื ื“ื’ื ื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื•ืฉื•ืคืขื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื• ื˜ืขืžื™ื ืืจื•ืžื˜ื™ื™ื.
01:14
Over millennia, thousands of varieties of Asian rice emerged.
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื ืฆืฆื• ืืœืคื™ ื–ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื•ืจื– ืืกื™ื™ืชื™.
01:18
A relative of the same weedy grass was also domesticated in Africa
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ืงืจื•ื‘ ืžืฉืคื—ื” ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื• ืฆืžื— ืขืฉื‘ื™ ื‘ื•ื™ืช ื’ื ื‘ืืคืจื™ืงื”
01:22
around 3,000 years ago.
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ืœืคื ื™ ื› -3,000 ืฉื ื”.
01:24
Today, its growth is mostly limited to West Africa.
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ื›ื™ื•ื, ืฆืžื™ื—ืชื• ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœืช ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืœืžืขืจื‘ ืืคืจื™ืงื”.
01:28
South American growers also domesticated rice around 4,000 years ago,
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ืžื’ื“ืœื™ื ื“ืจื•ื ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื ื’ื ื‘ื™ื™ืชื• ืื•ืจื– ืœืคื ื™ ื› -4,000 ืฉื ื”,
01:32
though the crop was lost after the arrival of Europeans.
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ืื ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื‘ื•ืœ ืื‘ื“ ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื’ืขืชื ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคืื™ื.
01:36
Asian rice, however, spread widely,
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ืื•ืจื– ืืกื™ื™ืชื™, ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช, ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื ืจื—ื‘,
01:38
and is now a cornerstone of diet and culture in Asia and beyond.
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ื•ื›ื™ื•ื ื”ื•ื ืื‘ืŸ ื™ืกื•ื“ ืฉืœ ืชื–ื•ื ื” ื•ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืืกื™ื” ื•ืžื—ื•ืฆื” ืœื”.
01:42
In India and Nepal, many Hindus mark an infant's transition to solid foods
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ื‘ื”ื•ื“ื• ื•ื‘ื ืคืืœ, ื”ื™ื ื“ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืžืกืžื ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืขื‘ืจ ืฉืœ ืชื™ื ื•ืง ืœืžื–ื•ืŸ ืžื•ืฆืง
01:47
with a ceremony known as Annaprashan,
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ื‘ื˜ืงืก ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” "ืื ืืคืจืืฉืืŸ",
01:49
where the baby tastes rice for the first time.
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ื‘ื• ื”ืชื™ื ื•ืง ื˜ื•ืขื ืื•ืจื– ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื”.
01:52
in Japan, rice is so central to diets that the word "gohan"
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ื‘ื™ืคืŸ ื”ืื•ืจื– ื”ื•ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื‘ื“ื™ืื˜ื•ืช ืขื“ ืฉื”ืžื™ืœื” "ื’ื•ื”ืŸ"
01:55
means both "cooked rice" and "meal."
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ืคื™ืจื•ืฉื” ื’ื "ืื•ืจื– ืžื‘ื•ืฉืœ" ื•ื’ื "ืืจื•ื—ื”".
01:58
The global expansion of rice cultivation was only possible
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ื”ื”ืชืจื—ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ืฉืœ ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื”ืื•ืจื– ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืืคืฉืจื™ืช
02:01
because the plant can grow in many climatesโ€”
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ืจืง ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืฆืžื— ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืืงืœื™ืžื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื -
02:04
from tropical to temperate.
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ืžื˜ืจื•ืคื™ ื•ืขื“ ืžืžื•ื–ื’.
02:06
As a semi-aquatic plant, rice happily grows in submerged soils.
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ื›ืฆืžื— ื—ืฆื™ ืžื™ืžื™, ื”ืื•ืจื– ื’ื“ืœ ื‘ืฉืžื—ื” ื‘ืงืจืงืขื•ืช ืžื•ืฆืคื•ืช.
02:10
Many other crops can't survive in standing water
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ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืื™ื ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉืจื•ื“ ื‘ืžื™ื ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื
02:13
because their root cells rely on air within soil to access oxygen.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืชืื™ ื”ืฉื•ืจืฉ ืฉืœื”ื ืžืกืชืžื›ื™ื ืขืœ ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืื“ืžื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื’ืฉืช ืœื—ืžืฆืŸ.
02:17
But rice plants have air channels in their roots that allow oxygen to travel
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืฆืžื—ื™ ืื•ืจื– ื™ืฉ ืชืขืœื•ืช ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ื‘ืฉื•ืจืฉื™ื”ื ื”ืžืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœื—ืžืฆืŸ
02:21
from the leaves and stems to the submerged tissues.
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ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื”ืขืœื™ื ื•ื”ื’ื‘ืขื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืงืžื•ืช ื”ืฉืงื•ืขื•ืช.
02:25
Traditionally, growers plant rice in paddy fieldsโ€”
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืกื•ืจืชื™, ืžื’ื“ืœื™ื ืฉื•ืชืœื™ื ืื•ืจื– ื‘ืฉื“ื•ืช ืื•ืจื– -
02:27
flat land submerged under as much as 10 centimeters of water
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ืื“ืžื” ืฉื˜ื•ื—ื” ืฉืงื•ืขื” ืžืชื—ืช ืœ-10 ืกื ื˜ื™ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื™ื
02:31
throughout the growing season.
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ืœืื•ืจืš ื›ืœ ืขื•ื ืช ื”ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ.
02:33
This practice returns high yields since many competing weeds
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ืชืจื’ื•ืœ ื–ื” ืžื ื™ื‘ ื™ื‘ื•ืœื™ื ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืขืฉื‘ื™ื ืžืชื—ืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื
02:36
can't hack it in the aquatic environment.
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ืื™ื ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืคืจื•ืฅ ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื”ืžื™ืžื™ืช.
02:39
But the technique is also water intensive.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื” ื”ื™ื ื’ื ืขืชื™ืจืช ืžื™ื.
02:41
Rice covers 11% of global cropland,
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ืื•ืจื– ืžื›ืกื” 11% ืžืื“ืžื•ืช ื”ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ื•ืช,
02:44
but uses over a third of the world's irrigation water.
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ืืš ืžืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืฉืœื™ืฉ ืžืžื™ ื”ื”ืฉืงื™ื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื.
02:47
This form of rice production also pumps out
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ืฆื•ืจื” ื–ื• ืฉืœ ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืื•ืจื– ืฉื•ืื‘ืช ื’ื
02:50
a surprising amount of greenhouse gas emissions.
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ื›ืžื•ืช ืžืคืชื™ืขื” ืฉืœ ืคืœื™ื˜ืช ื’ื–ื™ ื—ืžืžื”.
02:52
Flooded fields are the perfect breeding grounds for microorganisms
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ืฉื“ื•ืช ืžื•ืฆืคื™ื ื”ื ืฉื˜ื—ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื™ื™ื” ื”ืžื•ืฉืœืžื™ื ืœืžื™ืงืจื•ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื
02:56
known as methanogens.
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ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ื ืžืชื ื•ื’ื ื™ื.
02:58
These microscopic lifeforms thrive in environments lacking oxygen,
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ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื•ืช ืืœื” ืžืฉื’ืฉื’ื•ืช ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช ื—ืกืจื•ืช ื—ืžืฆืŸ,
03:02
because they evolved when the Earth contained little of this gas.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืŸ ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ื›ืืฉืจ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ื›ื™ืœ ืžืขื˜ ืžื”ื’ื– ื”ื–ื”.
03:05
Methanogens are the only organisms known to produce methaneโ€”
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ืžืชื ื•ื’ื ื™ื ื”ื ื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™ื ื”ื™ื“ื•ืขื™ื ื›ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื ื’ื–-ืžืชืืŸ
03:08
a greenhouse gas 25 times more potent than carbon dioxide
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ื’ื– ื—ืžืžื” ื—ื–ืง ืคื™ 25 ืžืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™
03:13
at trapping heat in the atmosphere.
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ื‘ืœื›ื™ื“ืช ื—ื•ื ื‘ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”.
03:15
Cows, for example, are infamous for burping out methane
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ืคืจื•ืช, ืœืžืฉืœ, ื™ื“ื•ืขื•ืช ืœืฉืžืฆื” ื‘ืฉืœ ื’ื™ื”ื•ืง ืžืชืืŸ
03:18
due to methanogens in their stomachs.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืžืชื ื•ื’ื ื™ื ื‘ื‘ื˜ืŸ.
03:20
In a flooded paddy field, methanogens set to work eating away at organic material
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ื‘ืฉื“ื” ืื•ืจื– ืžื•ืฆืฃ, ืžืชื ื•ื’ื ื™ื ืื•ื›ืœื™ื ื—ื•ืžืจ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™
03:25
in the submerged soil and multiplying rapidly,
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ื‘ืื“ืžื” ื”ืฉืงื•ืขื” ื•ืžืชืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช,
03:28
all the while releasing copious amounts of methane.
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ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืžืฉื—ืจืจื™ื ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืชืืŸ.
03:31
The result: rice cultivation contributes around 12%
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ื”ืชื•ืฆืื”: ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ืื•ืจื– ืชื•ืจื ื› -12%
03:34
of human-caused methane emissions each year.
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ืžืคืœื™ื˜ืช ื”ืžืชืืŸ ื”ื ื’ืจืžืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื“ื ืžื“ื™ ืฉื ื”.
03:37
But there's good news.
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช.
03:39
Rice doesn't actually need to grow in continuously flooded paddies.
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ืื•ืจื– ืœื ื‘ืืžืช ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืฉื“ื•ืช ืžื•ืฆืคื™ื ื‘ืจืฆื™ืคื•ืช.
03:42
Researchers and growers are exploring water management strategies
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ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื•ืžื’ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ื•ื—ื ื™ื ืืกื˜ืจื˜ื’ื™ื•ืช ืœื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ืžื™ื
03:46
that can cut the methane while keeping the yield.
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื—ืชื•ืš ืืช ื”ืžืชืืŸ ืชื•ืš ืฉืžื™ืจื” ืขืœ ื”ื™ื‘ื•ืœ.
03:49
One promising technique is known as alternate wetting and drying.
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ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื” ืžื‘ื˜ื™ื—ื” ืื—ืช ื™ื“ื•ืขื” ื›ื”ืจื˜ื‘ื” ื•ื™ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ื—ืœื•ืคื™ื™ื.
03:52
Growers periodically let the water level drop,
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ืžื’ื“ืœื™ื ื ื•ืชื ื™ื ืžืขืช ืœืขืช ืœืžืคืœืก ื”ืžื™ื ืœืจื“ืช,
03:54
which keeps methanogen growth in check.
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ืžื” ืฉืฉื•ืžืจ ืขืœ ืฆืžื™ื—ืช ื”ืžืชื ื•ื’ืŸ.
03:57
Alternate wetting and drying can cut water use by 30%
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ื”ืจื˜ื‘ื” ื•ื™ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ื—ืœื•ืคื™ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืคื—ื™ืช ืืช ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืžื™ื ื‘ -30%
04:00
and methane emissions by 30 to 70% without impacting yield.
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ื•ืืช ืคืœื™ื˜ืช ื”ืžืชืืŸ ื‘ -30 ืขื“ 70% ืžื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ื”ื™ื‘ื•ืœ.
04:05
Greenhouse gases come from manyโ€” sometimes unexpectedโ€” places.
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ื’ื–ื™ ื—ืžืžื” ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืžืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืจื‘ื™ื - ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืœื ืฆืคื•ื™ื™ื.
04:09
Making rice growing more sustainable is just one of the many challenges
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ื”ืคื™ื›ืช ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื”ืื•ืจื– ืœื‘ืจ ืงื™ื™ืžื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื•ื ืจืง ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืืชื’ืจื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื™ื
04:12
we'll need to face to avoid catastrophic warming.
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ืฉื ืฆื˜ืจืš ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืื™ืชื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžื ื•ืข ื”ืชื—ืžืžื•ืช ืงื˜ืกื˜ืจื•ืคืœื™ืช.
04:16
Today, many rice growers still flood fields all season long.
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ื›ื™ื•ื, ืžื’ื“ืœื™ ืื•ืจื– ืจื‘ื™ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืฆื™ืคื™ื ืฉื“ื•ืช ืœืื•ืจืš ื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ื ื”.
04:20
Changing millennia-old practices requires a major mindset shift.
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ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ืช ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื™ื ื“ื•ืจืฉ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ.
04:24
But going against the grain could be just what we need
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืœื›ืช ื ื’ื“ ื”ื“ื’ืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื
04:27
to keep our planet healthy and our bowls full.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ืจื™ื ื•ื”ืงืขืจื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ืžืœืื•ืช.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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