Michael Dickinson: How a fly flies

Translator: Joseph Geni Reviewer: Morton Bast

Prevodilac: Aniko Kovac Lektor: Mile Živković

I grew up watching Star Trek. I love Star Trek.

Odrastao sam gledajući Zvezdane staze. Obožavam Zvezdane staze.

Star Trek made me want to see alien creatures,

Zbog Zvezdanih staza sam poželeo da vidim vanzemaljska stvorenja,

creatures from a far-distant world.

stvorenja iz jednog dalekog sveta.

But basically, I figured out that I could find

Ali sam, u suštini, otkrio da ta vanzemaljska bića

those alien creatures right on Earth.

mogu da nađem i ovde na Zemlji.

And what I do is I study insects.

I ono što radim jeste da proučavam insekte.

I'm obsessed with insects, particularly insect flight.

Opsednut sam insektima, posebno letom insekata.

I think the evolution of insect flight is perhaps

Mislim da je evolucija letenja insekata možda

one of the most important events in the history of life.

jedan od najvažnijih događaja u istoriji života.

Without insects, there'd be no flowering plants.

Bez insekata, biljke ne bi cvetale.

Without flowering plants, there would be no

Bez cvetova, ne bi bilo

clever, fruit-eating primates giving TED Talks.

inteligentnih primata koji jedu voće i drže TED govore.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

Now,

Sada,

David and Hidehiko and Ketaki

Dejvid i Hidehiko i Ketaki

gave a very compelling story about

su ispričali jednu veoma ubedljivu priču

the similarities between fruit flies and humans,

o sličnostima između vinskih mušica i ljudi,

and there are many similarities,

a postoji mnogo sličnosti,

and so you might think that if humans are similar to fruit flies,

pa biste vi mogli da pomislite da je, ako su ljudi slični vinskim mušicama,

the favorite behavior of a fruit fly might be this, for example --

primer omiljene aktivnosti vinske mušice, na primer, ovo -

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

but in my talk, I don't want to emphasize on the similarities

ali tokom mog govora ne želim da naglašavam sličnosti

between humans and fruit flies, but rather the differences,

među ljudima i vinskim mušicama, već razlike

and focus on the behaviors that I think fruit flies excel at doing.

i želim da se fokusiram na ponašanja u kojima su vinske mušice nenadmašive, koliko mislim.

And so I want to show you a high-speed video sequence

Želim da vam pokažem ubrzani snimak

of a fly shot at 7,000 frames per second in infrared lighting,

mušice, snimljen sa 7.000 kadrova u sekundi, u infracrvenom osvetljenju.

and to the right, off-screen, is an electronic looming predator

Sa desne strane, van ekrana, je skriveni elekronski grabljivac

that is going to go at the fly.

koji planira da napadne mušicu.

The fly is going to sense this predator.

Mušica će da oseti ovog grabljivca.

It is going to extend its legs out.

Ispružiće noge.

It's going to sashay away

Odleteće na drugu stranu

to live to fly another day.

kako bi preživela da leti još jedan dan.

Now I have carefully cropped this sequence

Ja sam pažljivo isekao ovu sekvencu

to be exactly the duration of a human eye blink,

da bude tačno dužine trajanja treptaja ljudskog oka,

so in the time that it would take you to blink your eye,

tako da će za vreme koje bi vam bilo potrebno da trepnete,

the fly has seen this looming predator,

mušica primetiti preteću grabljivicu,

estimated its position, initiated a motor pattern to fly it away,

proceniti njenu poziciju, pokrenuti motorički obrazac kako bi odletela,

beating its wings at 220 times a second as it does so.

mašući krilima 220 puta u sekundi.

I think this is a fascinating behavior

Mislim da je ovo fascinantno ponašanje

that shows how fast the fly's brain can process information.

koje pokazuje brzinu kojom je mozak mušice sposoban da obradi informacije.

Now, flight -- what does it take to fly?

Sada, let - šta je potrebno da bismo leteli?

Well, in order to fly, just as in a human aircraft,

Za let, baš kao i na ljudskim letelicama,

you need wings that can generate sufficient aerodynamic forces,

potrebna su krila koja stvaraju dovoljno aerodinamičke sile,

you need an engine sufficient to generate the power required for flight,

potreban je motor dovoljne jačine da stvori snagu potrebnu za let

and you need a controller,

i potreban je upravljač,

and in the first human aircraft, the controller was basically

koji je u prvoj ljudskoj letelici u suštini bio

the brain of Orville and Wilbur sitting in the cockpit.

mozak Orvila i Vilbura koji su sedeli u kokpitu.

Now, how does this compare to a fly?

Kako ovo možemo porediti sa mušicom?

Well, I spent a lot of my early career trying to figure out

Na početku svoje karijere, proveo sam dosta vremena pokušavajući da oktrijem

how insect wings generate enough force to keep the flies in the air.

kako krila insekta stvaraju dovoljno sile da održe mušice u vazduhu.

And you might have heard how engineers proved

Možda ste čuli kako su inženjeri dokazali

that bumblebees couldn't fly.

da bumbari ne mogu da lete.

Well, the problem was in thinking that the insect wings

Problem je bio u tome što su mislili da krila insekta

function in the way that aircraft wings work. But they don't.

fukcionišu kao i krila aviona. Ali to nije tako.

And we tackle this problem by building giant,

Prišli smo problemu tako što smo izgradili džinovski,

dynamically scaled model robot insects

srazmerni model robota insekta

that would flap in giant pools of mineral oil

koji bi mahao krilima u velikim rezervoarima punim mineralnog ulja

where we could study the aerodynamic forces.

gde smo mogli da proučavamo aerodinamičke sile.

And it turns out that the insects flap their wings

Ispostavilo se da insekti mašu krilima

in a very clever way, at a very high angle of attack

na veoma domišljat način, pod velikim uglom

that creates a structure at the leading edge of the wing,

koji stvara jednu strukturu na vodećoj ivici krila,

a little tornado-like structure called a leading edge vortex,

malu strukturu nalik tornadu, koja se zove vir vodeće ivice,

and it's that vortex that actually enables the wings

i upravo taj vir omogućava krilima

to make enough force for the animal to stay in the air.

da stvore dovoljno sile kako bi životinja ostala u vazduhu.

But the thing that's actually most -- so, what's fascinating

Ali stvar koja je najfascinantija

is not so much that the wing has some interesting morphology.

nije to što krila imaju neku zanimljivu strukturu.

What's clever is the way the fly flaps it,

Ono što je domišljato jeste način na koji mušica njima maše,

which of course ultimately is controlled by the nervous system,

što je, naravno, pod kontrolom njihovog nervnog sistema

and this is what enables flies to perform

i to je ono što omogućava mušicama da izvedu

these remarkable aerial maneuvers.

ove neverovatne vazdušne manevre.

Now, what about the engine?

A šta je sa motorom?

The engine of the fly is absolutely fascinating.

Motor mušice je apsolutno fascinantan.

They have two types of flight muscle:

One imaju dve vrste mišića za letenje:

so-called power muscle, which is stretch-activated,

takozvane mišiće snage, koji se aktiviraju zatezanjem,

which means that it activates itself and does not need to be controlled

što znači da se oni sami aktiviraju i nervni sistem ih ne mora kontrolisati

on a contraction-by-contraction basis by the nervous system.

od kontrakcije do kontrakcije.

It's specialized to generate the enormous power required for flight,

Ovaj mišić se usavršio za stvaranje ogromne snage potrebne za letenje

and it fills the middle portion of the fly,

i on se proteže središnjim delom mušice,

so when a fly hits your windshield,

tako da je u trenutku kada vam ona udari u vetrobran,

it's basically the power muscle that you're looking at.

ono što vidite u stvari snaga tog mišića.

But attached to the base of the wing

Ali pri korenu krila

is a set of little, tiny control muscles

postoji skup malih, sitnih mišića za kontrolu

that are not very powerful at all, but they're very fast,

koji uopšte nisu snažni, ali su veoma brzi

and they're able to reconfigure the hinge of the wing

i oni su sposobni da izmene položaj krila

on a stroke-by-stroke basis,

prilikom svakog zamaha

and this is what enables the fly to change its wing

i to omogućava mušici da pomera krila

and generate the changes in aerodynamic forces

i stvara promene u aerodinamičkim silama

which change its flight trajectory.

koje menjaju putanju leta.

And of course, the role of the nervous system is to control all this.

I naravno, uloga nervnog sistema je kontrola svega ovoga.

So let's look at the controller.

Hajde da pogledamo kontroler.

Now flies excel in the sorts of sensors

Mušice imaju razne vrste izvanrednih senzora

that they carry to this problem.

kojima rešavaju ovaj problem.

They have antennae that sense odors and detect wind detection.

Imaju antene kojima osećaju mirise i kretanje vetra.

They have a sophisticated eye which is

Imaju istančano oko koje je

the fastest visual system on the planet.

najbrži vizuelni sistem na planeti.

They have another set of eyes on the top of their head.

Imaju još jedan par očiju na vrhu glave.

We have no idea what they do.

Nemamo pojma za šta ona služe.

They have sensors on their wing.

Imaju senzore na krilima.

Their wing is covered with sensors, including sensors

Krila su im pokrivena senzorima, uključujući i senzore

that sense deformation of the wing.

za promene na krilima.

They can even taste with their wings.

Oni čak mogu i da osete ukuse sa krilima.

One of the most sophisticated sensors a fly has

Jedan od najistančanijih senzora na mušici

is a structure called the halteres.

je struktura po imenu "mutilice".

The halteres are actually gyroscopes.

Ove mutilice su u stvari žiroskopi.

These devices beat back and forth about 200 hertz during flight,

Ovi mehanizmi se kreću napred i nazad brzinom oko 200 herca tokom leta

and the animal can use them to sense its body rotation

i životinja može da ih upotrebi da oseti rotaciju tela

and initiate very, very fast corrective maneuvers.

i započne veoma, veoma brze manevre za korekciju.

But all of this sensory information has to be processed

Ali sve ove čulne informacije mora da obradi

by a brain, and yes, indeed, flies have a brain,

mozak, i da, zaista, mušice imaju mozak,

a brain of about 100,000 neurons.

mozak od oko 100.000 neurona.

Now several people at this conference

Nekoliko ljudi na ovoj konferenciji

have already suggested that fruit flies could serve neuroscience

je već izjavilo kako vinske mušice mogu da doprinesu neurologiji

because they're a simple model of brain function.

zbog jednostavnosti funkcija njihovog mozga.

And the basic punchline of my talk is,

I glavna tačka mog govora jeste,

I'd like to turn that over on its head.

da želim da opovrgnem ovu tvrdnju.

I don't think they're a simple model of anything.

Ja ne smatram da su one jednostavan model bilo čega.

And I think that flies are a great model.

Mislim da su one izvanredan model.

They're a great model for flies.

One su izvandredan model za mušice.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

And let's explore this notion of simplicity.

Hajde da ispitamo ovaj pojam jednostavnosti.

So I think, unfortunately, a lot of neuroscientists,

Mislim da su mnogi neurolozi, nažalost,

we're all somewhat narcissistic.

pomalo narcisoidni.

When we think of brain, we of course imagine our own brain.

Kada razmišljamo o mozgu, mi, naravno, zamišljamo sopstveni mozak.

But remember that this kind of brain,

Ali setite se da je ovo samo jedna vrsta mozga

which is much, much smaller

koji je mnogo, mnogo manji

— instead of 100 billion neurons, it has 100,000 neurons —

- umesto 100 milijardi neurona, on ima 100.000 neurona -

but this is the most common form of brain on the planet

ali je ovo najuobičajeniji oblik mozga na planeti

and has been for 400 million years.

i bio je najuobičajeniji 400 miliona godina.

And is it fair to say that it's simple?

Da li je fer onda reći da je jednostavan?

Well, it's simple in the sense that it has fewer neurons,

Pa, jednostavan je u smislu da ima manje neurona,

but is that a fair metric?

ali da li je to objektivna mera?

And I would propose it's not a fair metric.

Ja bih rekao da nije objektivna.

So let's sort of think about this. I think we have to compare --

Hajde da porazmislimo o sledećem. Mislim da treba da uporedimo -

(Laughter) —

(Smeh) -

we have to compare the size of the brain

da uporedimo veličinu mozga

with what the brain can do.

s onim šta mozak može da uradi.

So I propose we have a Trump number,

Pretpostavimo da postoji određeni broj za Donalda Trampa

and the Trump number is the ratio of this man's

i da on označava srazmeru obrazaca ponašanja

behavioral repertoire to the number of neurons in his brain.

ovog čoveka i broja neurona u njegovom mozgu.

We'll calculate the Trump number for the fruit fly.

Hajde da izračunamo tu brojku i za vinsku mušicu.

Now, how many people here think the Trump number

Koliko vas misli da je ovaj broj

is higher for the fruit fly?

veći kod vinske mušice?

(Applause)

(Aplauz)

It's a very smart, smart audience.

Vi ste veoma pametna publika.

Yes, the inequality goes in this direction, or I would posit it.

Da, znak nejednakosti stoji ovako ili bih ja pretpostavio da tako stoji.

Now I realize that it is a little bit absurd

Shvatam da je pomalo apsurdno

to compare the behavioral repertoire of a human to a fly.

upoređivati obrasce ponašanja čoveka i mušice.

But let's take another animal just as an example. Here's a mouse.

Ali hajde da uzmemo jednu drugu životinju za primer. Recimo miša.

A mouse has about 1,000 times as many neurons as a fly.

Miš ima 1000 puta više neurona nego vinska mušica.

I used to study mice. When I studied mice,

Ja sam ranije proučavao miševe. I kada sam ih proučavao,

I used to talk really slowly.

imao sam običaj da pričam zaista sporo.

And then something happened when I started to work on flies.

I onda se nešto promenilo kada sam počeo da se bavim mušicama.

(Laughter)

(Smeh)

And I think if you compare the natural history of flies and mice,

Smatram da ako uporedimo prirodnu istoriju mušica i miševa,

it's really comparable. They have to forage for food.

postoji sličnost. Oboje moraju da tragaju za hranom.

They have to engage in courtship.

Imaju rituale parenja.

They have sex. They hide from predators.

Pare se. Skrivaju se od grabljivica.

They do a lot of the similar things.

Rade puno sličnih stvari.

But I would argue that flies do more.

Ali bih ja rekao da mušice rade više.

So for example, I'm going to show you a sequence,

Pokazaću vam jednu sekvencu za primer,

and I have to say, some of my funding comes from the military,

i moram vam napomenuti da deo finansija dobijam od vojske,

so I'm showing this classified sequence

stoga vam pokazujem ovu poverljivu sekvencu

and you cannot discuss it outside of this room. Okay?

o kojoj ne smete raspravljati van ove prostorije. U redu?

So I want you to look at the payload

Želim da pogledate kolika je nosivost

at the tail of the fruit fly.

repa vinske mušice.

Watch it very closely,

Obratite pažnju

and you'll see why my six-year-old son

i videćete zašto moj šestogodišnji sin

now wants to be a neuroscientist.

odjednom želi da postane neurolog.

Wait for it.

Čekajte.

Pshhew.

Fijuu.

So at least you'll admit that if fruit flies are not as clever as mice,

Priznaćete da iako vinske mušice nisu pametnije od miševa,

they're at least as clever as pigeons. (Laughter)

barem su onoliko pametne koliko i golubovi. (Smeh)

Now, I want to get across that it's not just a matter of numbers

Hteo sam da vam pokažem da nisu u pitanju samo brojevi,

but also the challenge for a fly to compute

nego i izazov za mušicu koja treba da proračuna

everything its brain has to compute with such tiny neurons.

sve to sa mozgom koji ima tako mali broj neurona.

So this is a beautiful image of a visual interneuron from a mouse

Ovo je jedna lepa slika vizuelnog međuneurona miša

that came from Jeff Lichtman's lab,

koja je potekla iz laboratorije Džefa Lihtmana

and you can see the wonderful images of brains

i na kojoj možete da vidite predivne slike mozga

that he showed in his talk.

koje je on pokazivao tokom svog govora.

But up in the corner, in the right corner, you'll see,

Ali gore u uglu, s desne strane, videćete

at the same scale, a visual interneuron from a fly.

u jednakoj razmeri, međuneuron mušice.

And I'll expand this up.

Uvećaću vam ovo.

And it's a beautifully complex neuron.

To je jedan lep, složen neuron.

It's just very, very tiny, and there's lots of biophysical challenges

Samo što je veoma, veoma sitan pa postoji mnogo biofizičkih izazova

with trying to compute information with tiny, tiny neurons.

kada treba sa tako malim, malim neuronima proračunavati informacije.

How small can neurons get? Well, look at this interesting insect.

Koliko sitni neuroni mogu da budu? Pogledajte ovog interesantnog insekta.

It looks sort of like a fly. It has wings, it has eyes,

Pomalo liči na mušicu. Ima krila, oči,

it has antennae, its legs, complicated life history,

antene, noge, komplikovanu životnu istoriju,

it's a parasite, it has to fly around and find caterpillars

parazit je, mora da leti naokolo i pronalazi gusenice

to parasatize,

na kojima se hrani,

but not only is its brain the size of a salt grain,

i ne samo da je njegov mozak veličine mrvice soli,

which is comparable for a fruit fly,

što je uporedivo sa vinskom mušicom,

it is the size of a salt grain.

nego je i sam veličine mrvice soli.

So here's some other organisms at the similar scale.

Evo još nekih organizama iste veličine.

This animal is the size of a paramecium and an amoeba,

Ova životinja je veličine paramecijuma i amebe

and it has a brain of 7,000 neurons that's so small --

i ima mozak sastavljen od 7000 neurona koji je toliko sitan -

you know these things called cell bodies you've been hearing about,

znate one stvari o kojima ste več čuli, a koje se zovu tela ćelije

where the nucleus of the neuron is?

i u kojima se nalazi nukleus neurona?

This animal gets rid of them because they take up too much space.

Ova životinja ih nema, jer zauzimaju previše mesta.

So this is a session on frontiers in neuroscience.

Dakle, ovo je sesija o granicama neurologije.

I would posit that one frontier in neuroscience is to figure out how the brain of that thing works.

Jedna od njih je, po mom mišljenju, otkrivanje toga kako mozak ove životinje radi.

But let's think about this. How can you make a small number of neurons do a lot?

Ali porazmslimo o ovome. Kako možemo mali broj neurona naterati da rade mnogo toga?

And I think, from an engineering perspective,

Sa stanovišta inženjera, smatram

you think of multiplexing.

da ćete pomisliti na kompleksne procese.

You can take a hardware and have that hardware

Uzmete jedan hardver i naterate ga

do different things at different times,

da radi različite stvari u različito vreme

or have different parts of the hardware doing different things.

ili njegove delove da rade različite stvari.

And these are the two concepts I'd like to explore.

Ovo su dva koncepta koja bih želeo da istražim.

And they're not concepts that I've come up with,

Ovo nisu koncepti koje sam ja smislio,

but concepts that have been proposed by others in the past.

nego koncepti koje su drugi predložili u prošlosti.

And one idea comes from lessons from chewing crabs.

Jedna od ideja potiče od žvakanja kraba.

And I don't mean chewing the crabs.

I ne mislim na to da ja žvaćem krabe.

I grew up in Baltimore, and I chew crabs very, very well.

Odrastao sam u Baltimoru i veoma, veoma dobro znam da žvaćem krabe.

But I'm talking about the crabs actually doing the chewing.

Govorim o krabama koje žvaću.

Crab chewing is actually really fascinating.

Žvakanje kraba je u stvari veoma fascinantno.

Crabs have this complicated structure under their carapace

Krabe imaju jednu komplikovanu strukturu ispod svog oklopa

called the gastric mill

koja se zove želudačni mlin

that grinds their food in a variety of different ways.

koji melje hranu na različite načine.

And here's an endoscopic movie of this structure.

Evo endoskopskog snimka ove strukture.

The amazing thing about this is that it's controlled

Neverovatna stvar u vezi sa ovim jeste što je ovo pod kontrolom

by a really tiny set of neurons, about two dozen neurons

veoma malog skupa neurona, oko dvadesetak njih,

that can produce a vast variety of different motor patterns,

koji proizvode veliki broj različitih motornih obrazaca,

and the reason it can do this is that this little tiny ganglion

a razlog zašto je ovo moguće jeste to, što je ovaj mali ganglion u krabi

in the crab is actually inundated by many, many neuromodulators.

u stvari ispunjen mnogim, mnogim neuromodulatorima.

You heard about neuromodulators earlier.

Čuli ste već o neuromodulatorima.

There are more neuromodulators

Postoji više neuromodulatora

that alter, that innervate this structure than actually neurons in the structure,

koji menjaju, oživljavaju ovu strukturu, nego što ima neurona u strukturi

and they're able to generate a complicated set of patterns.

i oni su sposobni da stvore složene skupove šablona.

And this is the work by Eve Marder and her many colleagues

Ovo je rad Iv Marder i njenih kolega

who've been studying this fascinating system

koji su proučavali ovaj fascinantan sistem

that show how a smaller cluster of neurons

i koji je pokazao kako su mali skupovi neurona

can do many, many, many things

sposobni za mnogo, mnogo stvari

because of neuromodulation that can take place on a moment-by-moment basis.

zbog neuromodulacija koje se mogu desiti svake sekunde.

So this is basically multiplexing in time.

Ovo su u suštini kompleksni procesi u vremenu.

Imagine a network of neurons with one neuromodulator.

Zamislite mrežu neurona s jednim neuromodulatorom.

You select one set of cells to perform one sort of behavior,

Odaberete jedan skup ćelija zaduženih za jednu vrstu ponašanja,

another neuromodulator, another set of cells,

jedan drugi modulator, jedan drugi skup ćelija,

a different pattern, and you can imagine

različiti šablon i kao što možete da pretpostavite,

you could extrapolate to a very, very complicated system.

ovako možete stvoriti jedan veoma, veoma složen sistem.

Is there any evidence that flies do this?

Da li postoji neki dokaz da su mušice sposobne da urade ovo?

Well, for many years in my laboratory and other laboratories around the world,

Dugi niz godina smo u mojoj i drugim laboratorijama širom sveta

we've been studying fly behaviors in little flight simulators.

proučavali ponašanja mušica u malim simulatorima leta.

You can tether a fly to a little stick.

Mušicu je moguće privezati na jedan štapić.

You can measure the aerodynamic forces it's creating.

I moguće je meriti aerodinamičke sile koje ona stvara.

You can let the fly play a little video game

Možete joj dozvoliti da igra video igrice

by letting it fly around in a visual display.

dopuštajući joj da leti naokolo na jednom vizuelnom displeju.

So let me show you a little tiny sequence of this.

Dozvolite mi da vam pokažem jedan deo snimka.

Here's a fly

Evo mušice

and a large infrared view of the fly in the flight simulator,

i uvećani, infracrveni snimak leta mušice u simulatoru

and this is a game the flies love to play.

i ovo je igra koju mušica voli da igra.

You allow them to steer towards the little stripe,

Dozvolili smo im da prate jednu malu prugu

and they'll just steer towards that stripe forever.

i one se kreću ka njoj zauvek.

It's part of their visual guidance system.

To je deo njihovog sistema za vizuelno upravljanje.

But very, very recently, it's been possible

Ali od nedavno, moguće je

to modify these sorts of behavioral arenas for physiologies.

modifikovati ovakve prostore za ispitivanje fiziologije ponašanja.

So this is the preparation that one of my former post-docs,

Ovo je projekat jednog od mojih bivših doktoranata,

Gaby Maimon, who's now at Rockefeller, developed,

Gebija Mejmona, koji sada radi u Rokfeleru,

and it's basically a flight simulator

i to je u suštini simulator leta,

but under conditions where you actually can stick an electrode

ali on omogućava postavljanje jedne elektrode

in the brain of the fly and record

u mozak mušice i snimanje

from a genetically identified neuron in the fly's brain.

iz perspektive neurona u mušicinom mozgu.

And this is what one of these experiments looks like.

Ovako izgleda jedan od ovih eksperimenata.

It was a sequence taken from another post-doc in the lab,

Ovo je snimak jedne druge bivše doktorantkinje u laboratoriji,

Bettina Schnell.

Betine Šnel.

The green trace at the bottom is the membrane potential

Zelena linija na dnu je membranski potencijal

of a neuron in the fly's brain,

neurona u mozgu mušice

and you'll see the fly start to fly, and the fly is actually

i videćete, kada mušica krene da leti

controlling the rotation of that visual pattern itself

i kontroliše promenu vizuelnog šablona

by its own wing motion,

pomeranjem sopstvenih krila,

and you can see this visual interneuron

možete da vidite reakciju ovog vizuelnog međuneurona

respond to the pattern of wing motion as the fly flies.

na šablon pomeranja krila dok mušica leti.

So for the first time we've actually been able to record

Ovo je bio prvi put kada smo u stvari uspeli da snimamo

from neurons in the fly's brain while the fly

iz unutrašnjosti u mušicinom mozgu dok je mušica

is performing sophisticated behaviors such as flight.

izvršavala sofisticirane kretnje kao što je let.

And one of the lessons we've been learning

I jedna od lekcija koju smo naučili

is that the physiology of cells that we've been studying

jeste da je fiziologija ćelija koje smo proučavali

for many years in quiescent flies

dugi niz godina kod mušica u stanju mirovanja,

is not the same as the physiology of those cells

nije ista kao fiziologija tih ćelija

when the flies actually engage in active behaviors

kada mušica u stvari vrši određenu akciju

like flying and walking and so forth.

kao što je letenje, šetnja i slično.

And why is the physiology different?

Zašto se fiziologija razlikuje?

Well it turns out it's these neuromodulators,

Ispostavilo se da su u pitanju neuromodulatori,

just like the neuromodulators in that little tiny ganglion in the crabs.

baš kao i neuromodulatori u onom malom ganglionu kod kraba.

So here's a picture of the octopamine system.

Evo slike oktopaminskog sistema.

Octopamine is a neuromodulator

Oktopamin je neuromodulator

that seems to play an important role in flight and other behaviors.

koji igra važnu ulogu pri letu i drugim aktivnostima.

But this is just one of many neuromodulators

Ali ovo je samo jedan od mnogih neuromodulatora

that's in the fly's brain.

koji se nalaze u mozgu mušice.

So I really think that, as we learn more,

Zaista verujem, da će se, kako budemo napredovali sa saznanjima,

it's going to turn out that the whole fly brain

ispostaviti da je ceo mozak mušice

is just like a large version of this stomatogastric ganglion,

u stvari jedna veća verzija ovog stomačno-želudačnog gangliona

and that's one of the reasons why it can do so much with so few neurons.

i da je to uzrok tome što sa samo nekoliko neurona možemo da uradimo toliko toga.

Now, another idea, another way of multiplexing

Jedna druga ideja, jedan drugi način vršenja kompleksnih procesa,

is multiplexing in space,

jeste njihova prostorna raspodela,

having different parts of a neuron

zaduživanje različitih vrsta neurona

do different things at the same time.

za različite stvari, istovremeno.

So here's two sort of canonical neurons

Evo dve vrste kanonskih neurona

from a vertebrate and an invertebrate,

kod kičmenjaka i beskičmenjaka.

a human pyramidal neuron from Ramon y Cajal,

Ljudski piramidalni neuron Ramona i Kahala,

and another cell to the right, a non-spiking interneuron,

i još jedna ćelija sa desne strane međuneurona bez akcionog potencijala.

and this is the work of Alan Watson and Malcolm Burrows many years ago,

uzetog iz jednog starijeg rada Alena Votsona i Malkolma Burouza.

and Malcolm Burrows came up with a pretty interesting idea

Malkolm Burouz imao je jednu veoma interesantnu ideju

based on the fact that this neuron from a locust

zasnovanu na činjenici da ovaj neuron koji potiče iz skakavca

does not fire action potentials.

ne ispaljuje akcioni potencijal.

It's a non-spiking cell.

To je ćelija bez akcionog potencijala.

So a typical cell, like the neurons in our brain,

Dakle, obična ćelija, kao što su neuroni u našem mozgu

has a region called the dendrites that receives input,

ima oblast nazvanu dendriti, koja prima nadražaje

and that input sums together

i ti nadražaji se sabiraju

and will produce action potentials

i stvaraju akcioni potencijal

that run down the axon and then activate

koji prolazi kroz akson i aktivira

all the output regions of the neuron.

izlazne regije neurona.

But non-spiking neurons are actually quite complicated

Ali neuroni bez akcionog potencijala su u stvari poprilično složeni,

because they can have input synapses and output synapses

jer su u njima ulazni i izlazni nadražaji povezani

all interdigitated, and there's no single action potential

i ne postoji jedan jedinstveni akcioni potencijal

that drives all the outputs at the same time.

koji pokreće sve izlazne informacije istovremeno.

So there's a possibility that you have computational compartments

Zato je moguće da postoje različiti odeljci za obradu informacija,

that allow the different parts of the neuron

koji dopuštaju različitim delovima neurona

to do different things at the same time.

da rade različite stvari istovremeno.

So these basic concepts of multitasking in time

Dakle, ovi osnovni principi vršenja kompleksnih radnji

and multitasking in space,

u vremenu i prostoru se,

I think these are things that are true in our brains as well,

mislim, odnose i na naš mozak,

but I think the insects are the true masters of this.

ali smatram da su insekti pravi gospodari ove veštine.

So I hope you think of insects a little bit differently next time,

Nadam se da ćete od sada misliti malo drugačije o insektima

and as I say up here, please think before you swat.

i kao što iza mene piše, molim vas, razmislite pre nego što ih spljeskate.

(Applause)

(Aplauz)