Craig Venter: A voyage of DNA, genes and the sea

55,118 views ใƒป 2007-05-02

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: Shlomo Adam ืžื‘ืงืจ: Yair Galler
00:25
At the break, I was asked by several people
0
25000
2000
ื‘ื”ืคืกืงื” ื ืฉืืœืชื™ ืข"ื™ ืžืกืคืจ ืื ืฉื™ื
00:27
about my comments about the aging debate.
1
27000
3000
ืžื”ื™ ืชื’ื•ื‘ืชื™ ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื”ื”ื–ื“ืงื ื•ืช,
00:30
And this will be my only comment on it.
2
30000
2000
ื•ื–ื• ืชื”ื™ื” ืชื’ื•ื‘ืชื™ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืœื ื•ืฉื:
00:32
And that is, I understand
3
32000
2000
ืœื”ื‘ื ืชื™,
ืื•ืคื˜ื™ืžื™ืกื˜ื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืคืกื™ืžื™ืกื˜ื™ื.
00:34
that optimists greatly outlive pessimists.
4
34000
2000
00:36
(Laughter)
5
36000
4000
[ืฆื—ื•ืง]
00:41
What I'm going to tell you about in my 18 minutes is
6
41000
3000
ืžื” ืฉืืกืคืจ ืœื›ื ื‘-18 ื”ื“ืงื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ืงืฆื‘ื• ืœื™
00:44
how we're about to switch from reading the genetic code
7
44000
4000
ื”ื•ื ืื™ืš ืื ื• ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžืงืจื™ืืช ื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™
00:48
to the first stages of beginning
8
48000
2000
ืœืฉืœื‘ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืชื—ืœืช ื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ื”ืงื•ื“ ื‘ืขืฆืžื ื•.
00:50
to write the code ourselves.
9
50000
2000
ื”ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืžืœืื• ืจืง 10 ืฉื ื™ื
00:53
It's only 10 years ago this month
10
53000
2000
00:55
when we published the first sequence
11
55000
2000
ืœืคืจืกื•ื ื”ืจืฆืฃ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ
00:57
of a free-living organism,
12
57000
2000
ืฉืœ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ืฉื—ื™ ื‘ื˜ื‘ืข,
ื•ื”ื•ื ื˜ืคื™ืœ ื”ืฉืคืขืช.
00:59
that of haemophilus influenzae.
13
59000
2000
01:01
That took a genome project
14
61000
2000
ื–ื” ืงื™ืฆืจ ืืช ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ื”ื’ื ื•ื
01:03
from 13 years down to four months.
15
63000
3000
ืž-13 ืฉื ื” ืœ-4 ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื.
01:07
We can now do that same genome project
16
67000
2000
ื›ืขืช ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืชื ื• ืœื‘ืฆืข ืืช ืื•ืชื• ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ื’ื ื•ื
01:09
in the order of
17
69000
2000
ื‘ืกื“ืจ ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ 2 ืขื“ 8 ืฉืขื•ืช.
01:11
two to eight hours.
18
71000
2000
01:13
So in the last decade, a large number of genomes have been added:
19
73000
3000
ื›ืš ืฉื‘ืขืฉื•ืจ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ื ื•ืกืคื• ื’ื ื•ืžื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื:
01:16
most human pathogens,
20
76000
3000
ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืžื—ื•ืœืœื™ ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืื ื•ืฉื™ื•ืช,
01:19
a couple of plants,
21
79000
2000
ืฉื ื™ ืฆืžื—ื™ื,
01:21
several insects and several mammals,
22
81000
3000
ื›ืžื” ื—ืจืงื™ื ื•ื›ืžื” ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื,
01:24
including the human genome.
23
84000
3000
ื›ื•ืœืœ ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™.
01:27
Genomics at this stage of the thinking
24
87000
3000
ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ ืฉืœื•, ื—ืงืจ ื”ื’ื ื™ื,
01:30
from a little over 10 years ago
25
90000
2000
ืœืขื•ืžืช ื”ืžืฆื‘ ืœืคื ื™ ืžืขื˜ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-10 ืฉื ื™ื,
ื™ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืฉื ื” ื–ื• ื‘ืžืฆื‘
01:32
was, by the end of this year, we might have
26
92000
2000
ืฉื‘ื• ืื•ืœื™ ื™ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ื‘ื™ืŸ 3 ืœ-5 ื’ื ื™ื ืžืจื•ืฆืคื™ื.
01:34
between three and five genomes sequenced;
27
94000
3000
01:37
it's on the order of several hundred.
28
97000
3000
ื›ืขืช ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ืกื“ืจ-ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ื›ืžื” ืžืื•ืช.
01:40
We just got a grant from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation
29
100000
3000
ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื–ื›ื™ื ื• ื‘ืžื™ืœื’ื” ืž"ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื’ื•ืจื“ื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ื˜ื™ ืžื•ืจ"
01:43
to sequence 130 genomes this year,
30
103000
3000
ืœืจื™ืฆื•ืฃ 130 ื’ื ื•ืžื™ื, ื”ืฉื ื”,
01:46
as a side project from environmental organisms.
31
106000
4000
ื›ืคืจื•ื™ื™ืงื˜ ืฆื“ื“ื™, ืฉืœ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื™ื™ื.
01:50
So the rate of reading the genetic code has changed.
32
110000
3000
ื›ืš ืฉืงืฆื‘ ืงืจื™ืืช ื”ืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ ื”ืฉืชื ื”.
01:54
But as we look, what's out there,
33
114000
2000
ืืš ื›ืฉืื ื• ืžืชื‘ื•ื ื ื™ื ืกื‘ื™ื‘,
01:56
we've barely scratched the surface
34
116000
2000
ื”ืจื™ ืฉื‘ืงื•ืฉื™ ื’ืจื“ื ื• ืืช ืคื ื™-ื”ืฉื˜ื—
01:58
on what is available on this planet.
35
118000
4000
ืฉืœ ืžื” ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ื”ืœื›ืช ื”ื–ื”.
02:02
Most people don't realize it, because they're invisible,
36
122000
3000
ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื–ืืช, ื›ื™ ื”ื ื‘ืœืชื™-ื ืจืื™ื,
02:05
but microbes make up about a half of the Earth's biomass,
37
125000
4000
ืืš ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื ืžื”ื•ื•ื™ื ื›ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ื”ื‘ื™ื•-ืžืกื” ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช
02:09
whereas all animals only make up about
38
129000
3000
ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉื›ืœ ื‘ืขืœื™-ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืžื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืจืง
02:12
one one-thousandth of all the biomass.
39
132000
2000
ื›ืืœืคื™ืช ืžื›ืœืœ ื”ื‘ื™ื•-ืžืกื”.
02:14
And maybe it's something that people in Oxford don't do very often,
40
134000
3000
ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื–ื” ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืื ืฉื™ ืื•ืงืกืคื•ืจื“ ืœื ืžืจื‘ื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช
02:17
but if you ever make it to the sea,
41
137000
2000
ืืš ืื ืื™-ืคืขื ืชื’ื™ืขื• ืœื™ื
02:19
and you swallow a mouthful of seawater,
42
139000
3000
ื•ืชืœื’ืžื• ืžืœื•ื ื”ืคื” ืžื™-ื™ื,
02:22
keep in mind that each milliliter
43
142000
2000
ื–ื™ื›ืจื• ืฉื‘ื›ืœ ืืœืคื™ืช ื”ืœื™ื˜ืจ
02:24
has about a million bacteria
44
144000
2000
ื™ืฉ ื›ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื
02:26
and on the order of 10 million viruses.
45
146000
3000
ื•ื›ืขืฉืจื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื ื’ื™ืคื™ื.
02:29
Less than 5,000 microbial species
46
149000
3000
ืคื—ื•ืช ืž-5,000 ื–ื ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื
02:32
have been characterized as of two years ago,
47
152000
2000
ืื•ืคื™ื™ื ื• ืขื“ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื,
02:34
and so we decided to do something about it.
48
154000
2000
ืื– ื”ื—ืœื˜ื ื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžืฉื”ื• ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื›ืš,
02:36
And we started the Sorcerer II Expedition,
49
156000
3000
ื•ืฉื™ื’ืจื ื• ืืช ืžืฉืœื—ืช "ื”ืžื›ืฉืฃ 2",
02:39
where we were, as with great oceanographic expeditions,
50
159000
3000
ืฉื‘ื” ื ื™ืกื™ื ื•, ื›ื›ืœ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ื•ืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื ื•ื’ืจืคื™ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช,
02:42
trying to sample the ocean every 200 miles.
51
162000
3000
ืœื“ื’ื•ื ืืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื ื•ืก ืžื™ื“ื™ 300 ืง"ืž.
ื‘ืžื™ื–ื ื”ื‘ื“ื™ืงื” ืฉืœื ื• ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ื‘ื‘ืจืžื•ื“ื”,
02:47
We started in Bermuda for our test project,
52
167000
2000
02:49
then moved up to Halifax,
53
169000
2000
ืขื‘ืจื ื• ืœื”ืืœื™ืคืงืก,
02:51
working down the U.S. East Coast,
54
171000
2000
ื•ื™ืจื“ื ื• ืœืื•ืจืš ื”ื—ื•ืฃ ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ ืฉืœ ืืจื”"ื‘,
02:53
the Caribbean Sea, the Panama Canal,
55
173000
3000
ื”ื™ื ื”ืงืืจื™ื‘ื™, ืชืขืœืช ืคื ืžื”,
ืœืื™ื™ ื’ืืœืืคืื’ื•ืก ื•ืœืจื•ื—ื‘ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืฉืงื˜,
02:58
through to the Galapagos, then across the Pacific,
56
178000
2000
03:00
and we're in the process now of working our way
57
180000
2000
ื•ื›ืขืช ืื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืืช ื“ืจื›ื ื•
03:02
across the Indian Ocean.
58
182000
2000
ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ื”ื•ื“ื™.
03:04
It's very tough duty; we're doing this on a sailing vessel,
59
184000
3000
ื–ื• ืžืฉื™ืžื” ืงืฉื” ืžืื“; ืื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื–ืืช ื‘ืกืคื™ื ืช ืžืคืจืฉ,
03:07
in part to help excite young people
60
187000
2000
ื—ืœืงื™ืช, ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืœื”ื™ื‘ ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื
03:09
about going into science.
61
189000
3000
ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก ืœืขื•ืœื ื”ืžื“ืข.
03:12
The experiments are incredibly simple.
62
192000
2000
ื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื”ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ื™ื ืœื”ืคืœื™ื.
03:14
We just take seawater and we filter it,
63
194000
3000
ืื ื• ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืžื™-ื™ื ื•ืžืกื ื ื™ื ืื•ืชื
03:17
and we collect different size organisms on different filters,
64
197000
4000
ืื•ืกืคื™ื ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื‘ื’ื“ืœื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื•ื‘ืžืกื ื ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
03:21
and then take their DNA back to our lab in Rockville,
65
201000
3000
ื•ืื—ืจ ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ื“ื "ื ืฉืœื”ื ืœืžืขื‘ื“ืชื ื• ื‘ืจื•ืงื•ื•ื™ืœ,
03:24
where we can sequence a hundred million letters
66
204000
3000
ืฉื ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ื• ืœืจืฆืฃ ืžืื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช
ืฉืœ ืงื•ื“ ื’ื ื˜ื™ ืžื™ื“ื™ 24 ืฉืขื•ืช.
03:27
of the genetic code every 24 hours.
67
207000
2000
03:29
And with doing this,
68
209000
2000
ื•ืข"ื™ ื›ืš ื”ื’ืขื ื• ืœื›ืžื” ืชื’ืœื™ื•ืช ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื•ืช.
03:31
we've made some amazing discoveries.
69
211000
2000
03:33
For example, it was thought that the visual pigments
70
213000
2000
ืœืžืฉืœ, ื”ืคื™ื’ืžื ื˜ื™ื ื”ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ื™ื ืฉื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื ื•. ื‘ืขื‘ืจ ื—ืฉื‘ื•
03:35
that are in our eyes -- there was only one or two organisms
71
215000
2000
ืฉืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ืจืง 1 ืื• 2 ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ืื•ืชื ืคื™ื’ืžื ื˜ื™ื.
03:38
in the environment that had these same pigments.
72
218000
4000
03:42
It turns out, almost every species
73
222000
2000
ื”ืกืชื‘ืจ ืฉื›ืžืขื˜ ืœื›ืœ ืžื™ืŸ
03:44
in the upper parts of the ocean
74
224000
2000
ื‘ื—ืœืงื™ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื™ื ืฉื‘ืื–ื•ืจื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื—ืžื™ื,
03:46
in warm parts of the world
75
226000
2000
ื™ืฉ ืื•ืชื ืงื•ืœื˜ื ื™-ืื•ืจ,
03:48
have these same photoreceptors,
76
228000
2000
03:50
and use sunlight as the source of their energy
77
230000
3000
ื•ื”ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืื•ืจ-ืฉืžืฉ ื›ืžืงื•ืจ ืื ืจื’ื™ื”
03:53
and communication.
78
233000
2000
ื•ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช.
03:55
From one site, from one barrel of seawater,
79
235000
3000
ื‘ืžื™ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืฉืœ ืžื™-ื™ื ืžืื—ื“ ื”ืืชืจื™ื,
03:58
we discovered 1.3 million new genes
80
238000
3000
ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• 1.3 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื’ื ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื
04:01
and as many as 50,000 new species.
81
241000
4000
ื•-50,000 ืžื™ื ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื.
04:05
We've extended this to the air
82
245000
2000
ื›ืขืช ื”ืจื—ื‘ื ื• ื–ืืช ื’ื ืœืื•ื•ื™ืจ
04:07
now with a grant from the Sloan Foundation.
83
247000
3000
ื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ืœืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืžื›ื•ืŸ "ืกืœื•ืŸ".
04:10
We're measuring how many viruses and bacteria
84
250000
2000
ืื ื• ืžื•ื“ื“ื™ื ื›ืžื” ื ื’ื™ืคื™ื ื•ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื
04:12
all of us are breathing in and out every day,
85
252000
3000
ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืฉื•ืืคื™ื ื•ืคื•ืœื˜ื™ื ืžื™ื“ื™ ื™ื•ื,
04:15
particularly on airplanes
86
255000
2000
ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืžื˜ื•ืกื™ื
04:17
or closed auditoriums.
87
257000
2000
ืื• ื‘ืื•ืœืžื™-ื”ืจืฆืื•ืช ืกื’ื•ืจื™ื.
04:19
(Laughter)
88
259000
3000
[ืฆื—ื•ืง]
04:22
We filter through some simple apparatuses;
89
262000
2000
ืืช ื”ืกื™ื ื•ืŸ ืื ื• ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ื ื‘ืžื ื’ื ื•ื ื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ื™ื,
04:24
we collect on the order of a billion microbes from just a day
90
264000
3000
ืื•ืกืคื™ื ืกื“ืจ-ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื ืžื™ื•ื ืกื™ื ื•ืŸ ืื—ื“
04:27
filtering on top of a building in New York City.
91
267000
4000
ืžืขืœ ืจืืฉ ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืขื™ืจ ื ื™ื•-ื™ื•ืจืง.
04:31
And we're in the process of sequencing all that
92
271000
2000
ื•ืื ื• ื›ืจื’ืขื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืฉืœ ืจื™ืฆื•ืฃ ื›ืœ ื–ื”
04:33
at the present time.
93
273000
2000
04:35
Just on the data collection side,
94
275000
2000
ืจืง ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ืื™ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžื™ื“ืข,
04:37
just where we are through the Galapagos,
95
277000
3000
ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ืื ื• ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ืื™ื™ ื’ืืœืืคืื’ื•ืก,
ืื ื• ืžื’ืœื™ื ืฉืžื™ื“ื™ 300 ืง"ืž ื›ืžืขื˜
04:40
we're finding that almost every 200 miles,
96
280000
2000
04:42
we see tremendous diversity
97
282000
2000
ื™ืฉ ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ืขืฆื•ืžื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื“ื’ื™ืžื•ืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก.
04:44
in the samples in the ocean.
98
284000
2000
04:47
Some of these make logical sense,
99
287000
2000
ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืŸ ื”ื’ื™ื•ื ื™ื•ืช, ืœืื•ืจ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื”,
04:49
in terms of different temperature gradients.
100
289000
3000
04:52
So this is a satellite photograph
101
292000
2000
ื–ื• ืชืžื•ื ืช ืœื•ื•ื™ืŸ
04:54
based on temperatures -- red being warm,
102
294000
2000
ื”ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืขืœ ื“ืจื’ื•ืช ื—ื•ื, ื›ืฉืื“ื•ื ื”ื•ื ื—ื,
04:56
blue being cold --
103
296000
3000
ื•ื›ื—ื•ืœ ื”ื•ื ืงืจ --
04:59
and we found there's a tremendous difference between
104
299000
3000
ื•ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ืฉื™ืฉ ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ืขืฆื•ืžื™ื
ื‘ื™ืŸ ื“ื’ื™ืžื•ืช ื”ืžื™ื ื”ื—ืžื™ื ืœื“ื’ื™ืžื•ืช ื”ืžื™ื ื”ืงืจื™ื,
05:02
the warm water samples and the cold water samples,
105
302000
2000
05:04
in terms of abundant species.
106
304000
3000
ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ืฉืคืข ื”ืžื™ื ื™ื.
05:07
The other thing that surprised us quite a bit
107
307000
2000
ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉื”ืคืชื™ืข ืื•ืชื ื• ืœื-ืžืขื˜
05:09
is these photoreceptors detect different wavelengths of light,
108
309000
4000
ื”ื•ื ืฉืงื•ืœื˜ื ื™ ืื•ืจ ืืœื” ืžื–ื”ื™ื ืื•ืจื›ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื’ืœื™-ืื•ืจ,
05:13
and we can predict that based on their amino acid sequence.
109
313000
4000
ื•ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ื• ืœื—ื–ื•ืช ื–ืืช ืขืœ ืกืžืš ืจืฆืคื™ ื—ื•ืžืฆื•ืช ื”ืืžื™ื ื• ืฉืœื”ื.
05:17
And these vary tremendously from region to region.
110
317000
3000
ื•ืืœื” ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืžืื“ ืžืื™ื–ื•ืจ ืœืื™ื–ื•ืจ.
05:20
Maybe not surprisingly,
111
320000
2000
ืื•ืœื™ ื–ื” ืœื ืžืคืชื™ืข,
05:22
in the deep ocean, where it's mostly blue,
112
322000
2000
ืฉื‘ืžืขืžืงื™ ื”ื™ื, ืฉืฉื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื›ื—ื•ืœ,
05:24
the photoreceptors tend to see blue light.
113
324000
4000
ืงื•ืœื˜ื ื™ ื”ืื•ืจ ื ื•ื˜ื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืื•ืจ ื›ื—ื•ืœ.
05:28
When there's a lot of chlorophyll around,
114
328000
2000
ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืฉื™ืฉ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื›ืœื•ืจื•ืคื™ืœ,
05:30
they see a lot of green light.
115
330000
2000
ื”ื ืจื•ืื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืื•ืจ ื™ืจื•ืง.
05:32
But they vary even more,
116
332000
2000
ืืš ื”ื’ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ,
05:34
possibly moving towards infrared and ultraviolet
117
334000
3000
ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืชืช-ืื“ื•ื ื•ื”ืขืœ-ืกื’ื•ืœ, ื‘ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื.
05:37
in the extremes.
118
337000
2000
ืจืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื‘ืœ ื”ืขืจื›ื”
05:40
Just to try and get an assessment
119
340000
2000
ืฉืœ ืจืคืจื˜ื•ืืจ ื”ื’ื ื™ื ืฉืœื ื•,
05:42
of what our gene repertoire was,
120
342000
2000
ื—ื™ื‘ืจื ื• ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื ืชื•ื ื™ื --
05:44
we assembled all the data --
121
344000
2000
ื›ื•ืœืœ ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ืฉื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ืขื“ ื›ื” ืžื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช,
05:46
including all of ours thus far from the expedition,
122
346000
3000
ืฉืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื—ืฆื™ ืžื›ืœ ื ืชื•ื ื™ ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ื”ืœื›ืช --
05:49
which represents more than half of all the gene data on the planet --
123
349000
3000
05:52
and it totaled around 29 million genes.
124
352000
4000
ื•ื–ื” ื”ืกืชื›ื ื‘ื›-29 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื’ื ื™ื.
05:56
And we tried to put these into gene families
125
356000
2000
ืื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื—ืœืง ื–ืืช ืœืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ื’ื ื™ื,
05:58
to see what these discoveries are:
126
358000
2000
ื›ื“ื™ ืœืจืื•ืช ืžื” ื”ืชื’ืœื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื”:
06:00
Are we just discovering new members of known families,
127
360000
3000
ื”ืื ืจืง ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื‘ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ืžื•ื›ืจื•ืช,
ืื• ืฉืžื ืื ื• ืžื’ืœื™ื ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช?
06:03
or are we discovering new families?
128
363000
2000
06:05
And it turns out we have about 50,000
129
365000
2000
ื•ืžืกืชื‘ืจ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื›-50,000 ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ื’ื ื™ื ืขื™ืงืจื™ื•ืช.
06:07
major gene families,
130
367000
3000
ืืš ื›ืœ ื“ื’ื™ืžื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืฉืื ื• ื ื•ื˜ืœื™ื ืžื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”
06:10
but every new sample we take in the environment
131
370000
3000
ืžื•ืกื™ืคื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืงื•ื•ื™ืช ืœืžืกืคืจ ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื”ืืœื”.
06:13
adds in a linear fashion to these new families.
132
373000
3000
06:16
So we're at the earliest stages of discovery
133
376000
2000
ื›ืš ืฉืื ื• ื‘ืฉืœื‘ื™ ื”ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืžื™ื
06:18
about basic genes,
134
378000
3000
ื‘ืงืฉืจ ืœืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘-ื”ืœื›ืช ื”ื–ื”.
06:21
components and life on this planet.
135
381000
3000
06:25
When we look at the so-called evolutionary tree,
136
385000
3000
ื›ืฉืื ื• ืžืชื‘ื•ื ื ื™ื ื‘ืžื” ืฉืžื›ื•ื ื” "ื”ืขืฅ ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™",
06:28
we're up on the upper right-hand corner with the animals.
137
388000
4000
ืื ื• ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ืคื™ื ื” ื”ื™ืžื ื™ืช ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื” ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื‘ืขืœื™-ื”ื—ื™ื™ื.
06:32
Of those roughly 29 million genes,
138
392000
4000
ืžืชื•ืš ื›-29 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
06:36
we only have around 24,000
139
396000
2000
ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืจืง ื›-24,000 ื‘ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœื ื•.
06:38
in our genome.
140
398000
2000
06:40
And if you take all animals together,
141
400000
2000
ืื ืžื—ืฉื™ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื›ืœ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ื—ื“,
06:42
we probably share less than 30,000
142
402000
3000
ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื‘ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ื•ื“ืื™ ืคื—ื•ืช ืž-30,000,
06:45
and probably maybe a dozen
143
405000
3000
ื•ืื•ืœื™ 12,000 ืื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ื’ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
06:48
or more thousand different gene families.
144
408000
3000
06:52
I view that these genes are now
145
412000
2000
ื‘ืขื™ื ื™, ื’ื ื™ื ืืœื” ื”ื
06:54
not only the design components of evolution.
146
414000
3000
ืœื ืจืง ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื”,
06:57
And we think in a gene-centric view --
147
417000
2000
ื•ืื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืžื ืงื•ื“ืช ืžื‘ื˜ ืฉืœ ืื ื•ื›ื™ื•ืช ื”ื’ืŸ --
06:59
maybe going back to Richard Dawkins' ideas --
148
419000
3000
ืื•ืœื™ ืœืคื™ ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ืจื™ืฆ'ืจื“ ื“ื•ืงื™ื ืก --
07:02
than in a genome-centric view,
149
422000
2000
ืฉืžื ืงื•ื“ืช ืžื‘ื˜ ื’ื ื•ื-ืฆื ื˜ืจื™ืช,
07:04
which are different constructs of these gene components.
150
424000
4000
ื”ื ื ื• ืžื‘ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ ื’ื ื™ื ืืœื”.
07:09
Synthetic DNA, the ability to synthesize DNA,
151
429000
3000
ื“ื "ื ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™, ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœืกื ืชื– ื“ื "ื,
07:12
has changed at sort of the same pace
152
432000
2000
ื”ืฉืชื ืชื” ื‘ืขืจืš ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืงืฆื‘
07:14
that DNA sequencing has
153
434000
2000
ื‘ื• ื”ืฉืชื ื” ืจื™ืฆื•ืฃ ื”ื“ื "ื ื‘ืขืฉื•ืจ ืื• ืฉื ื™ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื,
07:16
over the last decade or two,
154
436000
2000
07:18
and is getting very rapid and very cheap.
155
438000
3000
ื•ื ืขืฉื™ืช ืžื”ื™ืจื” ื•ื–ื•ืœื” ืžืื“.
07:21
Our first thought about synthetic genomics came
156
441000
2000
ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืœื ื• ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื’ื ื•ืžื™ืงื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ืขืœืชื”
07:23
when we sequenced the second genome back in 1995,
157
443000
4000
ื›ืฉืจื™ืฆืคื ื• ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืฉื ื™ ื‘-1995,
07:27
and that from mycoplasma genitalium.
158
447000
2000
ืฉืœ ืžื™ืงื•ืคืœื–ืžื” ื’ื ื™ื˜ืœื™ื•ื,
07:29
And we have really nice T-shirts that say,
159
449000
3000
ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื—ื•ืœืฆื•ืช ื˜ื™ ื ื—ืžื“ื•ืช ืขื ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ืช:
07:32
you know, "I heart my genitalium."
160
452000
2000
"ื›ื•ืื‘ ืœื™ ื‘ื’ื ื™ื˜ืœื™ื•ื".
07:34
This is actually just a microorganism.
161
454000
3000
ื–ื”ื• ืจืง ืžื™ืงืจื•ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื.
07:38
But it has roughly 500 genes.
162
458000
4000
ืืš ื™ืฉ ืœื• ื›-500 ื’ื ื™ื
07:42
Haemophilus had 1,800 genes.
163
462000
2000
ืœื”ืžื•ืคื™ืœื•ืก ื™ืฉ 1,800.
07:44
And we simply asked the question,
164
464000
2000
ื•ืื ื• ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืฉื•ืืœื™ื,
ืื ื–ืŸ ืื—ื“ ื–ืงื•ืง ืœ-800 ื•ืื—ืจ ืœ-500,
07:46
if one species needs 800, another 500,
165
466000
2000
07:48
is there a smaller set of genes
166
468000
2000
ืžื”ื™ ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืงื˜ื ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
07:50
that might comprise a minimal operating system?
167
470000
4000
ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื•ื•ืช ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืคืขืœื” ืžื–ืขืจื™ืช?
07:54
So we started doing transposon mutagenesis.
168
474000
3000
ืื– ื”ืชื—ืœื ื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžื•ื˜ืฆื™ื•ืช ื˜ืจื ืกืคื•ื–ื•ื ื™ื•ืช.
07:57
Transposons are just small pieces of DNA
169
477000
3000
ื˜ืจื ืกืคื•ื–ื•ื ื™ื ื”ืŸ ืจืง ืคื™ืกื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื“ื "ื
08:00
that randomly insert in the genetic code.
170
480000
2000
ืฉืžื•ื—ื“ืจื•ืช ืืงืจืื™ืช ืœืงื•ื“ ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™.
08:02
And if they insert in the middle of the gene, they disrupt its function.
171
482000
3000
ื•ืื ื”ืŸ ืžื•ื—ื“ืจื•ืช ื‘ืืžืฆืข ื”ื’ืŸ, ื”ืŸ ืžืฉื‘ืฉื•ืช ืืช ืชื™ืคืงื•ื“ื•.
08:06
So we made a map of all the genes
172
486000
2000
ืื– ื™ืฆืจื ื• ืžืคื” ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ื”ื’ื ื™ื
08:08
that could take transposon insertions
173
488000
2000
ืฉืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœืงืœื•ื˜ ื”ื—ื“ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื˜ืจื ืกืคื•ื–ื•ื ื™ื.
08:10
and we called those "non-essential genes."
174
490000
2000
ืื ื• ืžื›ื ื™ื ืื•ืชื "ื’ื ื™ื ืœื-ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื".
08:13
But it turns out the environment is very critical for this,
175
493000
3000
ืืš ืžืชื‘ืจืจ ืฉืœืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืชืคืงื™ื“ ืžื›ืจื™ืข ืžืื“ ื‘ื›ืš,
08:16
and you can only
176
496000
2000
ื•ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื’ื“ื™ืจ ื’ืŸ ื›ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ ืื• ื›ืœื-ื—ื™ื•ื ื™
08:18
define an essential or non-essential gene
177
498000
3000
ืจืง ืขืœ ืกืžืš ืžื” ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
08:21
based on exactly what's in the environment.
178
501000
3000
ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ื’ื ื’ื™ืฉื” ืื™ื ื˜ืœืงื˜ื•ืืœื™ืช ื™ืฉื™ืจื” ื™ื•ืชืจ
08:25
We also tried to take a more directly intellectual approach
179
505000
2000
08:27
with the genomes of 13 related organisms,
180
507000
5000
ืขื ื”ื’ื ื•ืžื™ื ืฉืœ 13 ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ืงืฉื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื.
ื•ื ื™ืกื™ื ื• ืœื”ืฉื•ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืจืื•ืช ืžื” ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ืœื”ื,
08:32
and we tried to compare all of those, to see what they had in common.
181
512000
3000
ื•ืงื™ื‘ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ืžืขื’ืœื™ื ื”ื—ื•ืคืคื™ื ื”ืืœื”. ืžืฆืื ื• ืฉืจืง 173 ื’ื ื™ื
08:36
And we got these overlapping circles. And we found only 173 genes
182
516000
4000
ืžืฉื•ืชืคื™ื ืœื›ืœ 13 ื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื.
08:40
common to all 13 organisms.
183
520000
3000
08:43
The pool expanded a little bit if we ignored
184
523000
2000
ื”ืžืื’ืจ ื’ื“ืœ ืžืขื˜, ืื ื ืชืขืœื ืžื˜ืคื™ืœ ืชื•ืš-ืชืื™ ืื—ื“,
08:45
one intracellular parasite;
185
525000
2000
08:47
it expanded even more
186
527000
2000
ื•ืžืชืจื—ื‘ ืืฃ ื™ื•ืชืจ,
ืื ื‘ื•ื—ื ื™ื ืžืขืจื›ื™-ืœื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœ ื’ื ื™ื
08:49
when we looked at core sets of genes
187
529000
2000
ืฉืœ 310 ื‘ืขืจืš.
08:51
of around 310 or so.
188
531000
2000
08:53
So we think that we can expand
189
533000
2000
ื›ืš ืฉืื ื• ืกื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ื• ืœื”ืจื—ื™ื‘
08:55
or contract genomes, depending on your point of view here,
190
535000
3000
ืื• ืœื›ื•ื•ืฅ ื’ื ื•ืžื™ื, ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืžื‘ื˜,
08:58
to maybe 300 to 400 genes
191
538000
3000
ืœื›-300 ืขื“ 400 ื’ื ื™ื
09:01
from the minimal of 500.
192
541000
2000
ืžืชื•ืš 500 ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืžืœื™ื™ื.
09:03
The only way to prove these ideas
193
543000
3000
ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืœื”ื•ื›ื™ื— ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืืœื”
09:06
was to construct an artificial chromosome with those genes in them,
194
546000
3000
ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ ืขื ื’ื ื™ื ืืœื” ื‘ืชื•ื›ื•,
09:09
and we had to do this in a cassette-based fashion.
195
549000
3000
ื•ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช ื‘ืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”"ืงืกื˜ื•ืช" [ืจืฆืฃ ื’ื ื˜ื™ ืžื•ื“ื•ืœืจื™].
09:12
We found that synthesizing accurate DNA
196
552000
2000
ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ืฉืกื™ื ืชื•ื– ืžื“ื•ื™ืง ืฉืœ ื“ื "ื
09:14
in large pieces was extremely difficult.
197
554000
3000
ื‘ืคื™ืกื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ื•ื ืงืฉื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
09:17
Ham Smith and Clyde Hutchison, my colleagues on this,
198
557000
3000
ืขืžื™ืชื™, ื”ืื ืกืžื™ืช ื•ืงืœื™ื™ื“ ื”ืืฆ'ื™ื ืกื•ืŸ,
ืคื™ืชื—ื• ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ื•ืžืœื”ื™ื‘ื”
09:20
developed an exciting new method
199
560000
2000
ื”ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœื ื• ืœืกืชื ื– ื ื’ื™ืฃ ื”ืžื‘ื•ืกืก ืขืœ 5,000 ืฆืžื“ื™ื
09:22
that allowed us to synthesize a 5,000-base pair virus
200
562000
3000
09:25
in only a two-week period
201
565000
2000
ื‘ืชื•ืš ืฉื‘ื•ืขื™ื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“,
09:27
that was 100 percent accurate,
202
567000
3000
ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžื“ื•ื™ืง ื‘-100%
ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ื”ืจืฆืฃ ื•ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉืœื•.
09:30
in terms of its sequence and its biology.
203
570000
2000
ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ืžืจื’ืฉ ืœืžื“ื™ -- ื›ืฉืœืงื—ื ื• ืืช ืคื™ืกืช ื”ื“ื "ื ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช
09:33
It was a quite exciting experiment -- when we just took the synthetic piece of DNA,
204
573000
4000
09:37
injected it in the bacteria and all of a sudden,
205
577000
2000
ื”ื–ืจืงื ื• ืื•ืชื” ืœื—ื™ื™ื“ืง, ื•ืœืคืชืข ืคืชืื•ื
09:39
that DNA started driving the production of the virus particles
206
579000
5000
ื”ื“ื "ื ื”ื—ืœ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื—ืœืงื™ ื”ื ื’ื™ืฃ
09:44
that turned around and then killed the bacteria.
207
584000
3000
ืฉืงื ืขืœ ื™ื•ืฆืจื• ื•ื”ืจื’ ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืง.
09:47
This was not the first synthetic virus --
208
587000
2000
ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื”ื ื’ื™ืฃ ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ,
09:49
a polio virus had been made a year before --
209
589000
3000
ืฉื ื” ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืŸ ื™ื•ืฆืจ ื ื’ื™ืฃ ืคื•ืœื™ื• --
09:53
but it was only one ten-thousandth as active
210
593000
2000
ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ืืคืงื˜ ืขืฉืจ-ืืœืคื™ื•ื ื™ ื‘ืœื‘ื“
09:55
and it took three years to do.
211
595000
3000
ื•ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจื• ืืจืš 3 ืฉื ื™ื.
09:58
This is a cartoon of the structure of phi X 174.
212
598000
4000
ื–ื”ื• ืื™ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืžื‘ื ื” ื”"ืคืื™ืงืก 174".
10:02
This is a case where the software now builds its own hardware,
213
602000
4000
ื–ื”ื• ืžืงืจื” ื‘ื• ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื” ื‘ื•ื ื” ืืช ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื” ืฉืœื”,
10:06
and that's the notions that we have with biology.
214
606000
4000
ื•ืืœื• ื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”.
10:10
People immediately jump to concerns about biological warfare,
215
610000
4000
ืื ืฉื™ื ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืžื™ื“ ืœื—ืฉื•ืฉ ืžืคื ื™ ืœื•ื—ืžื” ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช.
10:14
and I had recent testimony before a Senate committee,
216
614000
4000
ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื”ืขื“ืชื™ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื•ืขื“ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืกื ื˜,
10:18
and a special committee the U.S. government has set up
217
618000
2000
ื•ืœืคื ื™ ื•ืขื“ื” ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ืช ืฉื”ืงื™ืžื” ืžืžืฉืœืช ืืจื”"ื‘,
10:20
to review this area.
218
620000
2000
ื›ื“ื™ ืœืกืงื•ืจ ืชื—ื•ื ื–ื”.
10:22
And I think it's important to keep reality in mind,
219
622000
3000
ื•ืœื“ืขืชื™ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืฆื™ืื•ืชื™ื™ื,
10:25
versus what happens with people's imaginations.
220
625000
4000
ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืžื” ืฉืื ืฉื™ื ืžื“ืžื™ื™ื ื™ื.
ื‘ื™ืกื•ื“ื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ื›ืœ ื ื’ื™ืฃ ืฉืจื•ืฆืฃ ืขื“ ื›ื” --
10:29
Basically, any virus that's been sequenced today --
221
629000
3000
ืื•ืชื• ื’ื ื•ื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ.
10:32
that genome can be made.
222
632000
2000
10:34
And people immediately freak out about things about Ebola or smallpox,
223
634000
4000
ื•ืื ืฉื™ื ื ื‘ื”ืœื™ื ืžื™ื“ ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืื‘ื•ืœื” ื•ืื‘ืขื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืฉื—ื•ืจื•ืช,
10:38
but the DNA from this organism is not infective.
224
638000
4000
ืื‘ืœ ื”ื“ื "ื ืžืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื–ื” ืื™ื ื ื• ืžื™ื“ื‘ืง.
10:42
So even if somebody made the smallpox genome,
225
642000
3000
ื›ืš ืฉืืคื™ืœื• ืื ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืžื™ื™ืฆืจ ืืช ื’ื ื•ื ื”ืื‘ืขื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื•ืช,
10:45
that DNA itself would not cause infections.
226
645000
3000
ื”ื“ื "ื ืขืฆืžื• ืื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื”ื“ื‘ืงื”.
10:49
The real concern that security departments have
227
649000
3000
ื“ืื’ืชืŸ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ืกื•ื›ื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื ื ื’ื™ืคื™ื ืžืชื•ื›ื ืชื™ื,
10:52
is designer viruses.
228
652000
2000
10:54
And there's only two countries, the U.S. and the former Soviet Union,
229
654000
4000
ื•ืจืง ืฉืชื™ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช, ืืจื”"ื‘ ื•ื‘ืจื™ื”"ืž ืœืฉืขื‘ืจ,
10:58
that had major efforts
230
658000
2000
ืขืฉื• ืžืืžืฆื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื
ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ื’ื•ืจืžื™ ืžืœื—ืžื” ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื.
11:00
on trying to create biological warfare agents.
231
660000
3000
ืื ืžื—ืงืจ ื–ื” ืื›ืŸ ื”ื•ืคืกืง
11:03
If that research is truly discontinued,
232
663000
3000
ืืžื•ืจื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืชื™ื“ ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืžืฆื•ืžืฆืžืช ืžืื“
11:06
there should be very little activity
233
666000
2000
11:08
on the know-how to make designer viruses in the future.
234
668000
4000
ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืงืฉื•ืจ ืœื™ื“ืข ืฉืœ ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื ื’ื™ืคื™ื ืžืชื•ื›ื ืชื™ื.
ืœื“ืขืชื™, ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื—ื“-ืชืื™ื™ื ืืคืฉืจื™ื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื.
11:12
I think single-cell organisms are possible within two years.
235
672000
4000
11:16
And possibly eukaryotic cells,
236
676000
3000
ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื’ื ืชืื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ,
11:19
those that we have,
237
679000
2000
ืืœื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื•,
11:21
are possible within a decade.
238
681000
2000
ื™ื™ืชื›ื ื• ื‘ืชื•ืš ืขืฉื•ืจ ืฉื ื™ื.
ื›ืจื’ืข ืื ื• ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ื›ืžื” ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืžื‘ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
11:24
So we're now making several dozen different constructs,
239
684000
4000
11:28
because we can vary the cassettes and the genes
240
688000
3000
ื›ื™ ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ื• ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืงืกื˜ื•ืช ื•ืืช ื”ื’ื ื™ื
11:31
that go into this artificial chromosome.
241
691000
2000
ืฉื™ื™ื›ื ืกื• ืœืชื•ืš ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™.
11:33
The key is, how do you put all of the others?
242
693000
2000
ืฉืืœืช ื”ืžืคืชื— ื”ื™ื, ืื™ืš ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื™ืชืจ?
11:35
We start with these fragments,
243
695000
2000
ืื ื• ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืขื ืžืงื˜ืขื™ื ืืœื”,
11:37
and then we have a homologous recombination system
244
697000
3000
ืื—ืจ ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื•ืžื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืœืฆื™ืจื•ืฃ-ืžื—ื“ืฉ
11:40
that reassembles those into a chromosome.
245
700000
4000
ืฉืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื” ืื•ืชื ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืœืชื•ืš ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื.
11:44
This is derived from an organism, deinococcus radiodurans,
246
704000
3000
ื–ื” ื ืœืงื— ืžืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื, ื“ืื™ื ื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก ืจื“ื™ื•ื“ื•ืจื ืก,
11:47
that can take three million rads of radiation and not be killed.
247
707000
5000
ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืกืคื•ื’ 3 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืจืื“ ืงืจื™ื ื” ืžื‘ืœื™ ืœืžื•ืช.
ื”ื•ื ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื ืฉืœื• ืื—ืจื™ ืคืจืฅ ืงืจื™ื ื” ื–ื”
11:53
It reassembles its genome after this radiation burst
248
713000
4000
ืชื•ืš 12-24 ืฉืขื•ืช,
11:57
in about 12 to 24 hours,
249
717000
2000
11:59
after its chromosomes are literally blown apart.
250
719000
3000
ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื ืฉืœื• ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื”ืชืคื•ืฆืฆื•.
12:02
This organism is ubiquitous on the planet,
251
722000
2000
ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื–ื” ื ืžืฆื ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื ืขืœื™-ืื“ืžื•ืช,
12:04
and exists perhaps now
252
724000
2000
ื•ื›ืขืช ืื•ืœื™ ื’ื ื‘ื—ืœืœ ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ืŸ, ืขืงื‘ ืžืกืขื•ืชื™ื ื• ืœืฉื.
12:06
in outer space due to all our travel there.
253
726000
3000
12:10
This is a glass beaker after
254
730000
2000
ื–ื”ื• ืžื™ื›ืœ ื–ื›ื•ื›ื™ืช ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืงืจื ื” ื‘ื—ืฆื™ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืจืื“.
12:12
about half a million rads of radiation.
255
732000
2000
12:14
The glass started to burn and crack,
256
734000
2000
ื”ื–ื›ื•ื›ื™ืช ื”ื—ืœื” ืœื”ื™ืฉืจืฃ ื•ืœื”ื™ืกื“ืง,
12:16
while the microbes sitting in the bottom
257
736000
2000
ื•ืฉื”ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื ืฉื™ืฉื‘ื• ื‘ืงืจืงืขื™ืช
12:18
just got happier and happier.
258
738000
2000
ืจืง ื ื”ื ื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ.
12:20
Here's an actual picture of what happens:
259
740000
2000
ื”ื ื” ืชืžื•ื ื” ืืžื™ืชื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžื” ืฉืงืจื”.
12:22
the top of this shows the genome
260
742000
2000
ืœืžืขืœื” ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ื”ื’ื ื•ื
ืื—ืจื™ 1.7 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืจืื“ ืงืจื™ื ื”.
12:24
after 1.7 million rads of radiation.
261
744000
3000
ื”ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ื ืžืžืฉ ื”ืชืคืจืง ืœื—ืชื™ื›ื•ืช.
12:27
The chromosome is literally blown apart.
262
747000
2000
12:29
And here's that same DNA automatically reassembled
263
749000
4000
ื•ื”ื ื” ืื•ืชื• ื“ื "ื ืฉื”ื•ืจื›ื‘ ืžืขืฆืžื•
12:33
24 hours later.
264
753000
2000
24 ืฉืขื•ืช ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ.
12:35
It's truly stunning that these organisms can do that,
265
755000
3000
ืžืžืฉ ืžื“ื”ื™ื ืฉืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืืœื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช,
12:38
and we probably have thousands,
266
758000
2000
ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืืœืคื™ื,
ืื ืœื ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืืœืคื™ ืžื™ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื
12:40
if not tens of thousands, of different species
267
760000
2000
12:42
on this planet that are capable of doing that.
268
762000
3000
ื‘ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื”ืœื›ืช ื”ื–ื”, ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช.
12:45
After these genomes are synthesized,
269
765000
2000
ืœืื—ืจ ืกื™ื ืชื•ื– ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
12:47
the first step is just transplanting them
270
767000
2000
ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืจืง ืœืฉืชื•ืœ ืื•ืชื
12:49
into a cell without a genome.
271
769000
4000
ื‘ืชื ื ื˜ื•ืœ ื’ื ื•ื.
12:53
So we think synthetic cells are going to have tremendous potential,
272
773000
4000
ืื– ื ืจืื” ืœื ื• ืฉืœืชืื™ื ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ื™ื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœ ืขืฆื•ื,
12:57
not only for understanding the basis of biology
273
777000
3000
ืœื ืจืง ืœื”ื‘ื ืช ื™ืกื•ื“ ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”,
13:00
but for hopefully environmental and society issues.
274
780000
3000
ืืœื ื ืงื•ื•ื” ืฉื’ื ื‘ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื™ื™ื ื•ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื.
13:03
For example, from the third organism we sequenced,
275
783000
3000
ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ืžื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ืฉืจื™ืฆืคื ื•,
13:06
Methanococcus jannaschii -- it lives in boiling water temperatures;
276
786000
4000
ืžื˜ื ื•ืงื•ืงื•ืก ื’'ื ืกืงื™, ืฉื—ื™ ื‘ืžื™ื ืจื•ืชื—ื™ื,
13:10
its energy source is hydrogen
277
790000
2000
ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืฉืœื• ื”ื•ื ืžื™ืžืŸ,
13:12
and all its carbon comes from CO2 it captures back from the environment.
278
792000
5000
ื•ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ืฉืœื• ื‘ื ืžืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ืœื•ื›ื“ ืžื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
13:17
So we know lots of different pathways,
279
797000
2000
ืื– ืื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืขืœ ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
13:19
thousands of different organisms now
280
799000
3000
ืืœืคื™ ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื
13:22
that live off of CO2,
281
802000
2000
ื”ื ื™ื–ื•ื ื™ื ืžืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื•-ื—ืžืฆื ื™,
13:24
and can capture that back.
282
804000
2000
ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืœืœื›ื•ื“ ืื•ืชื•.
13:26
So instead of using carbon from oil
283
806000
3000
ื›ืš ืฉื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืคื—ื ืžื ืคื˜ ืœืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ื™ื,
13:29
for synthetic processes,
284
809000
2000
13:31
we have the chance of using carbon
285
811000
3000
ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืคื—ื,
13:34
and capturing it back from the atmosphere,
286
814000
3000
ืœืœื›ื•ื“ ืื•ืชื• ื‘ื—ื–ืจื” ืžื”ืื˜ืžื•ืกืคืจื”,
13:37
converting that into biopolymers
287
817000
2000
ื•ืœื”ืžื™ืจื• ืœื‘ื™ื•-ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ืื• ืœืžื•ืฆืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื.
13:39
or other products.
288
819000
2000
13:41
We have one organism that lives off of carbon monoxide,
289
821000
3000
ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ืื—ื“ ืฉื—ื™ ืขืœ ืคื—ืžืŸ ื—ื“-ื—ืžืฆื ื™
13:44
and we use as a reducing power
290
824000
2000
ื•ืื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื• ื›ื›ื•ื— ืžื—ืœื™ืฉ
13:46
to split water to produce hydrogen and oxygen.
291
826000
4000
ืœืคื™ืฆื•ืœ ืžื™ื ืœืฆื•ืจืš ื”ืคืงืช ืžื™ืžืŸ ื•ื—ืžืฆืŸ.
13:50
Also, there's numerous pathways
292
830000
2000
ื™ืฉ ื’ื ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืœื”ื ื“ืกื” ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช,
13:52
that can be engineered metabolizing methane.
293
832000
4000
ืข"ื™ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื—ื™ืœื•ืฃ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืžืชืืŸ.
13:56
And DuPont has a major program with Statoil in Norway
294
836000
4000
ื•ืœ"ื“ื•-ืคื•ื ื˜" ื™ืฉ ืชื›ื ื™ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘"ืกื˜ืื˜-ืื•ื™ืœ" ื‘ื ื•ืจื‘ื’ื™ื”
14:00
to capture and convert the methane
295
840000
2000
ืœืœื›ื•ื“ ื•ืœื”ืžื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืžืชืืŸ
14:02
from the gas fields there into useful products.
296
842000
4000
ืžืฉื“ื•ืช ื”ื’ื– ืฉื, ื•ืœื”ืคื›ื• ืœืžื•ืฆืจื™ื ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉื™ื™ื.
14:06
Within a short while, I think there's going to be a new field
297
846000
2000
ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื“ืขืชื™ ืชื—ื•ื ื—ื“ืฉ
14:08
called "Combinatorial Genomics,"
298
848000
2000
ื”ืงืจื•ื™ ื’ื ื•ืžื™ืงื” ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ื™ืช,
14:10
because with these new synthesis capabilities,
299
850000
3000
ื›ื™ ืขื ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืกื™ื ืชื•ื– ื”ืœืœื•,
14:13
these vast gene array repertoires
300
853000
3000
ืจืคืจื˜ื•ืืจ ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืขืฆื•ื ื•ื”ืจื—ื‘ ื”ื–ื”
14:16
and the homologous recombination,
301
856000
2000
ื•ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื”ื•ืžื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืœืฆื™ืจื•ืฃ-ืžื—ื“ืฉ,
14:18
we think we can design a robot to make
302
858000
2000
ืื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ืจื•ื‘ื•ื˜ ืฉื™ื™ืฆืจ
14:20
maybe a million different chromosomes a day.
303
860000
3000
ืื•ืœื™ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื›ืจื•ืžื•ื–ื•ืžื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืžื™ื“ื™ ื™ื•ื.
14:24
And therefore, as with all biology,
304
864000
2000
ื•ืœื›ืŸ, ื›ืžื• ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”,
14:26
you get selection through screening,
305
866000
3000
ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ื‘ืจื™ืจื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื ื™ืคื•ื™,
14:29
whether you're screening for hydrogen production,
306
869000
2000
ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ืžื ืคื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืžื•ืฆืจื™ ื—ืžืฆืŸ
14:31
or chemical production, or just viability.
307
871000
3000
ืžื•ืฆืจื™ื ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื, ืื• ืกืชื ืžื•ืฆืจื™ื ื‘ืจื™-ืงื™ื™ืžื,
14:34
To understand the role of these genes
308
874000
2000
ื”ื‘ื ืช ืชืคืงื™ื“ ื”ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื”
14:36
is going to be well within reach.
309
876000
2000
ืขืชื™ื“ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜ ื‘ื”ื™ืฉื’-ื™ื“.
14:38
We're trying to modify photosynthesis
310
878000
3000
ืื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ื˜ื–ื”
14:41
to produce hydrogen directly from sunlight.
311
881000
3000
ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคื™ืง ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื™ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืžืื•ืจ ื”ืฉืžืฉ.
14:44
Photosynthesis is modulated by oxygen,
312
884000
3000
ื”ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ื˜ื–ื” ืžื•ื•ืกืชืช ืข"ื™ ื—ืžืฆืŸ,
14:47
and we have an oxygen-insensitive hydrogenase
313
887000
3000
ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื”ื™ื“ืจื•ื’ื ื–ื” ืจื’ื™ืฉื” ืœื—ืžืฆืŸ
14:50
that we think will totally change this process.
314
890000
5000
ืฉืœื“ืขืชื ื• ืชืฉื ื” ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื”.
14:55
We're also combining cellulases,
315
895000
2000
ืื ื• ื’ื ืžืฉืœื‘ื™ื ืฆืœื•ืœื•ื–ื•ืช,
14:57
the enzymes that break down complex sugars into simple sugars
316
897000
3000
ื”ืื ื–ื™ืžื™ื ืฉืžืคืจืงื™ื ืกื•ื›ืจื™ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ืœืกื•ื›ืจื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ื™ื,
15:00
and fermentation in the same cell
317
900000
3000
ื•ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืชืกื™ืกื” ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืชื
15:03
for producing ethanol.
318
903000
2000
ืœื”ืคืงืช ืืชื ื•ืœ.
15:06
Pharmaceutical production is already under way
319
906000
2000
ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื›ื‘ืจ ื™ืฆื ืœื“ืจืš
15:08
in major laboratories
320
908000
2000
ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ื•ืช ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื•ืช
15:10
using microbes.
321
910000
2000
ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื—ื™ื™ื“ืงื™ื.
15:12
The chemistry from compounds in the environment
322
912000
3000
ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ื” ืžืชืจื›ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื™ื•ืช
15:15
is orders of magnitude more complex
323
915000
2000
ื”ื™ื ื‘ืกื“ืจื™-ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ
15:17
than our best chemists can produce.
324
917000
2000
ืžื›ืคื™ ืฉืžื™ื˜ื‘ ื”ื›ื™ืžืื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืคื™ืง.
15:20
I think future engineered species
325
920000
2000
ืœื“ืขืชื™ ื–ื ื™ ื”ืขืชื™ื“ ื”ืžื”ื•ื ื“ืกื™ื
15:22
could be the source of food,
326
922000
2000
ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ืžื–ื•ืŸ,
15:24
hopefully a source of energy,
327
924000
2000
ื•ื ืงื•ื•ื” ืฉื’ื ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื”,
15:26
environmental remediation
328
926000
3000
ืชื™ืงื•ืŸ ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”,
15:29
and perhaps
329
929000
2000
ื•ืื•ืœื™
15:31
replacing the petrochemical industry.
330
931000
2000
ื™ื—ืœื™ืคื• ืืช ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื”ืคื˜ืจื•-ื›ื™ืžื™ืช.
15:33
Let me just close with ethical and policy studies.
331
933000
3000
ื”ื‘ื” ืืกื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืืชื™ื™ื ื•ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื™ื.
15:37
We delayed the start of our experiments in 1999
332
937000
4000
ื“ื—ื™ื ื• ืืช ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื• ื‘-1999
15:41
until we completed a year-and-a-half bioethical review
333
941000
3000
ืขื“ ืฉื”ืฉืœืžื ื• ืกืงืจ ื‘ื™ื•-ืืชื™ ื‘ืŸ ืฉื ื” ื•ื—ืฆื™
15:44
as to whether we should try and make an artificial species.
334
944000
4000
ื‘ืฉืืœื” ื”ืื ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื–ื ื™ื ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ื™ื.
15:48
Every major religion participated in this.
335
948000
3000
ื›ืœ ื”ื“ืชื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืฉืชืชืคื• ื‘ื•.
15:51
It was actually a very strange study,
336
951000
2000
ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืขืฆื ืžื—ืงืจ ืžื•ื–ืจ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ,
15:53
because the various religious leaders were using their scriptures as law books,
337
953000
5000
ื›ื™ ืจืืฉื™ ื”ื“ืชื•ืช ื ื•ืขืฆื• ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™-ื”ืงื•ื“ืฉ ื›ื‘ืกืคืจื™-ื—ื•ืงื™ื,
15:58
and they couldn't find anything in them prohibiting making life,
338
958000
3000
ื•ืœื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœืžืฆื•ื ื‘ื”ื ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉืื•ืกืจ ืขืœ ื‘ืจื™ืืช ื—ื™ื™ื.
16:01
so it must be OK. The only ultimate concerns
339
961000
3000
ืื– ื–ื” ื›ื ืจืื” ื‘ืกื“ืจ. ื”ื“ืื’ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื™ืชื” ืจืง
16:04
were biological warfare aspects of this,
340
964000
3000
ื”ื™ื‘ื˜ื™ ื”ืœื•ื—ืžื” ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื–ื”.
16:08
but gave us the go ahead to start these experiments
341
968000
3000
ืืš ื”ื ื ืชื ื• ืœื ื• ืืช ื‘ืจื›ืช ื”ื“ืจืš ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ืืœื”,
16:11
for the reasons we were doing them.
342
971000
2000
ืžื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉืื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืื•ืชื.
16:13
Right now the Sloan Foundation has just funded
343
973000
2000
ื›ืจื’ืข, ืžื›ื•ืŸ "ืกืœื•ืŸ",
16:15
a multi-institutional study on this,
344
975000
3000
ืžื™ืžืŸ ืžื—ืงืจ ืจื‘-ืžื•ืกื“ื™ ืขืœ ื›ืš,
16:18
to work out what the risk and benefits to society are,
345
978000
3000
ืœืงื‘ื™ืขืช ื”ืกื›ื ื•ืช ื•ื”ืชื•ืขืœืช ืœื—ื‘ืจื”,
16:21
and the rules that scientific teams such as my own
346
981000
3000
ื•ื”ื—ื•ืงื™ื ืฉื”ืฆื•ื•ืชื™ื ื”ืžื“ืขื™ื™ื ื›ืžื• ื–ื” ืฉืœื™,
16:24
should be using in this area,
347
984000
2000
ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื ื”ื•ื’ ืœืคื™ื”ื ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื–ื”,
16:26
and we're trying to set good examples as we go forward.
348
986000
3000
ื•ืื ื• ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื”ืฆื™ื‘ ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื›ื›ืœ ืฉืื ื• ืžืชืงื“ืžื™ื.
16:30
These are complex issues.
349
990000
2000
ืืœื• ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ืกื‘ื•ื›ื™ื.
16:32
Except for the threat of bio-terrorism,
350
992000
2000
ื ื•ืกืฃ ืขืœ ืื™ืžืช ื”ื˜ืจื•ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™,
16:34
they're very simple issues in terms of,
351
994000
2000
ื™ืฉ ืกื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืคืฉื•ื˜ื•ืช ืžืื“ ื›ื’ื•ืŸ,
16:36
can we design things to produce clean energy,
352
996000
4000
ื”ืื ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ื• ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื™ืคื™ืงื• ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื ืงื™ื”,
16:40
perhaps revolutionizing
353
1000000
2000
ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžื”ืคื›ื”
16:42
what developing countries can do
354
1002000
3000
ื‘ื›ืœื›ืœืช ื”ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ืžืชืคืชื—ื•ืช
16:45
and provide through various simple processes.
355
1005000
3000
ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื›ืžื” ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ื™ื.
16:48
Thank you very much.
356
1008000
2000
ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืœื›ื.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

https://forms.gle/WvT1wiN1qDtmnspy7